Polity Duration List

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    "count": 519,
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    "results": [
        {
            "id": 153,
            "polity": {
                "id": 474,
                "name": "iq_uruk",
                "long_name": "Uruk",
                "start_year": -4000,
                "end_year": -2900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -4000,
            "polity_year_to": -3000,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " 4000-3000 BCE§REF§Pers. comm Mark Altaweel, Dec. 2021§REF§. Note that the period 3100-2900 BCE is contested, and unclear if Uruk were still in control of S Mesopotamian territory at this time. \"There is the issue of the Jemdet Nasr period, which may not be completely real or present in all regions of southern Mesopotamia, but that period seems to fit between 3100-2900, with the Early Dynastic from 2900-2350.\" We do not code the Jemdet Nasr directly here§REF§Pers. comm Mark Altaweel, Dec. 2021§REF§. Algaze proposed a little bit different periodization: Early Uruk: 3900-3600 BCE, Middle Uruk: 3600-3300 BCE, Late Uruk: 3300-3100 BCE.§REF§Algaze 2005, 5-6§REF§§REF§Pollock 1992, 299§REF§; Early Uruk Period: 4100/4000-3800 BCE; Early Middle Uruk (Late Chalcolithic 3): 3800-3600 BCE; Late Middle Uruk (Late Chalcolithic 4): 3600-3300 BCE; Late Uruk: 3300-3000BCE.§REF§Ur 2010, tab. 1, 392§REF§ The most problematic is Jemdet Nasr Period (3100-2900 BCE), which some researchers treated as separated polity, others as a continuation and later stage of the Uruk polity§REF§Matthews 1992, 196-203§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 154,
            "polity": {
                "id": 107,
                "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp",
                "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire",
                "start_year": -550,
                "end_year": -331
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -550,
            "polity_year_to": -331,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "§REF§(Nylander 1971, 50-54)§REF§<br>Cyrus II was \"heir to both the Median and Persian thrones. In 550 BCE, Cyrus rose up against his despotic grandfather and overthrew him. From a contemporary document known as the Nabunaid Chronicle and the testimony of Herodotus we learn that, dissatisfied with Astyages, the Media aristocracy, led by a military commander named Harpagus, joined Cyrus and accepted him as the legitimate heir to the throne. This established the Achaemenid - of the first Persian - Empire, in which the Medes shared the status of ruling people with the Persians, so much so indeed that the Greeks frequently called the Persians 'Medes' and coined the term 'Medizing' to denote 'pro-Persian policy' or 'Persian partisan'.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 122-123) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 155,
            "polity": {
                "id": 508,
                "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu",
                "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu",
                "start_year": 1339,
                "end_year": 1501
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1339,
            "polity_year_to": 1501,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start 1339 CE.<br>First Ak Koyunlu leader mentioned in \"mutually independent sources\" Tur-Ali b. Pahlavan. §REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlū. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>End 1501 CE<br>The Ak Koyunlu \"ruled in eastern Anatolia and western Iran until the Safavid conquest in 1501.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 156,
            "polity": {
                "id": 487,
                "name": "ir_susiana_archaic",
                "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar",
                "start_year": -7000,
                "end_year": -6000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -7000,
            "polity_year_to": -6000,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "7000-6300 BCE Muhammad Jaffar.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 46) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 157,
            "polity": {
                "id": 495,
                "name": "ir_elam_1",
                "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I",
                "start_year": -2675,
                "end_year": -2100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -2675,
            "polity_year_to": -2100,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Susa returned to the Mesopotamian orbit sometime around 2800-2750 B.C.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Unfortunately, the centre of the Elamite confederation, the Awan region, from which the Elamite royal family took its name, has not yet been located.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 142) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 158,
            "polity": {
                "id": 362,
                "name": "ir_buyid_confederation",
                "long_name": "Buyid Confederation",
                "start_year": 932,
                "end_year": 1062
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 932,
            "polity_year_to": 1062,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " 932 CE is the probable date of 'Ali b. Būya's capture of the town of Karaj. It was the first of the areas of land that he conquered. From this town he was able to expand to regional control, by taking Fars; then to much greater control of large areas of Iraq and Iran. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran Under the Būyids. In Fyre, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253-4§REF§<br>The Buyid State was plagued throughout it's existence by succession battles. After the death of 'Adud al-Duala, a fight for the succession took place. Abu Kalijar managed to bring unification back again briefly, but his unexpected death led to further disintegration of the Daylam state, at which point foreign powers began to conquer areas of Daylam land. The empire diminished until in 1062 the Daylam heartland of Shīrāz was taken by the Saljuqs. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.303-304§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 159,
            "polity": {
                "id": 502,
                "name": "ir_elam_8",
                "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period",
                "start_year": -1100,
                "end_year": -900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1100,
            "polity_year_to": -900,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Steve (1992) divided Neo-Elamite I period into two phases 1000-900 BCE and by implication 900-744 BCE.§REF§(Potts 2016, 250) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 160,
            "polity": {
                "id": 507,
                "name": "ir_elymais_2",
                "long_name": "Elymais II",
                "start_year": 25,
                "end_year": 215
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 25,
            "polity_year_to": 215,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Elymean settlement pattern 25-125 CE.§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Elymais coined its own money, conducted its own public works programs, and in other was was apparently independent until about A.D. 215, when, documentary evidence suggests, the Parthian imperial government was once again in control at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Trajan's advance sparked revolts in numerous cities in Mesopotamia, and it may be that shock waves from these events reached Susa also, because, as noted, there seems to have been a rapid decline in commercial activity and a cessation of the mint at Susa at about this time. Yet when Trajan died in Mesopotamia in A.D. 117 and his successors declined to pursue Roman interests there, Susa and the rest of Elymais seem - at least on the basis of numismatic evidence - to have been unable or unwilling to resume their independent roles.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 310) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<i></i><br><i>another reference to early third century. \"Generally, opinion seems to be that small bronze coinages in these early historic empires served to facilitate the exchange of small amounts of goods and services. If this was the nature of Elymean trade, we might wonder that bronze coins appear to have been used extensively only in the period from about A.D. 75 to A.D. 210; why are Sasanian and Islamic occupations not marked with a similar frequency of coins at these rural settlements?\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 314) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§ in addition to better economic fortunes \"coins may also represent a greater degree of local autonomy and economic exchange in the period of their circulation.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 314) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§</i><br>21 CE Susa was under Parthian control because the Parthian monarch \"validated a contested election at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"the Parthian state was highly unstable, and Artabanus' death at about A.D. 40, in combination with financial and military reverses over the preceding decades, apparently weakened the Parthian state to the extent that it no longer issued an imperial coinage and successful revolts were staged at Seleucia-on-the-Tigris and other cities. At about this same time, it appears that Susa and its environs were incorporated into the 'satrapy' of Elymais (Fig. 6).\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 161,
            "polity": {
                "id": 486,
                "name": "ir_susiana_formative",
                "long_name": "Formative Period",
                "start_year": -7200,
                "end_year": -7000
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -7200,
            "polity_year_to": -7000,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 162,
            "polity": {
                "id": 172,
                "name": "ir_il_khanate",
                "long_name": "Ilkhanate",
                "start_year": 1256,
                "end_year": 1339
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1256,
            "polity_year_to": 1339,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Beginning 1256 CE. \"By 1256, Hülegü [the Mongol commander] had all but eliminated the Ismāʿilis as an independent force in Persia (although individual forts remained independent for some time, even years), and had moved with the bulk of his army to Azerbaijan, which was to become the center of the Il-khanid state.\"§REF§REUVEN AMITAI, 'IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a>§REF§<br>End 1335 CE. The Ilkhanate came to an end with the death of Abu Sa'id in 1335 CE.§REF§Melville, Charles. “Anatolia under the Mongols.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, 51-101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009, p.93.§REF§ Dynastic failure: the Ilkhanate \"fell without in any real sense having previously declined. Why was this? ... The crucial reason is a simple one: Abu Said left no heir. ... the direct line of Hulegu had failed.\"§REF§(Morgan 2015, 78) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>Actually the 1335 dates seems to be an over simplification. The actual end seems to be 1339 CE when Iran was divided into the four kingdoms: \"who then set up another puppet, Sulayman Khan, a descendant of Hulagu, and gave him Sati Beg in marriage, while Hasan 'the Greater' set up as a rival a descendant of Abaqa named Shah Jahan Timur. A battle took place ... 1340 ... Hasan 'the Greater' was defeated ... deposed his puppet ... proclaiming himself king founded the dynasty ... of the Jala'irs, who reigned until 1411 over Western Persia and Mesopotamia with Baghdad as their capital. As for Hasan 'the Less,' ... he was murdered in 1343, while marching to attack his rival, by his wife ... The Mongol ascendancy in Persia was now at an end, and, until Timur's hordes swept over the country (1384-1393), it was divided into at least four kingdoms, those of the Jala'irs, the Muzaffaris, the Kurts, and the Sar-ba-dars...\"§REF§(Browne 1920, 59-60) Edward Granville Browne. A History of Persian Literature in Modern Times (A.D. 1500-1924). University Press. Cambridge.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 163,
            "polity": {
                "id": 488,
                "name": "ir_susiana_a",
                "long_name": "Susiana A",
                "start_year": -6000,
                "end_year": -5700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -6000,
            "polity_year_to": -5700,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Table 3.2 Chronology of the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East.\" Khuzistan: Muhammad Jaffar 7000-6300 BCE; Susiana A 6300-5800 BCE; Tepe Sabz 5800-5400 BCE; Kazineh / Susiana B (not sure if two terms for same period or earlier/later) 5400-5000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 46) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 164,
            "polity": {
                "id": 489,
                "name": "ir_susiana_b",
                "long_name": "Susiana B",
                "start_year": -5700,
                "end_year": -5100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -5700,
            "polity_year_to": -5100,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Table 3.2 Chronology of the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East.\" Khuzistan: Muhammad Jaffar 7000-6300 BCE; Susiana A 6300-5800 BCE; Tepe Sabz 5800-5400 BCE; Kazineh / Susiana B (not sure if two terms for same period or earlier/later) 5400-5000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 46) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Ubaid culture lasted a long period of time, from 5100 to 4500 BC in its early phase, and 4500 to 4000 BC in its late phase. Initially, it remained confined to the same area as Eridu and Hajji Muhammad, displaying a marked continuity in terms of settlement and pottery types. This led to the alternative periodisation of the Eridu, Hajji Muhammad, Early Ubaid, and Late Ubaid phases as Ubaid 1, 2, 3, and 4.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 52) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Crawford (2006)<br>Hajji Muhammad pottery \"is not confined to a single chronological phase and has no independent chronological existence.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 163) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East.  The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>\"the admittedly flawed evidence from the three stratified sites discussed above illustrates convincingly the overlap between Hajji Muhammad and Eridu/Ubaid 1 wares on the one hand, and between Hajji Muhammad and Ubaid 3 pottery on the other.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 165) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East.  The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>Joan Oates showed pottery of Southern Mesopotamia known as Eridu, Hajji Muhammad, Ubaid 1 and Ubaid 2 related in linear evolution and re-named Ubaid 1-4. Late, an earlier phase Ubaid 0 was proposed for Tell el-'Oueili and a Terminal Ubaid or Ubaid 5 between the end of Ubaid 4 and the beginning of Uruk. Additionally, Ubaid 3 is often subdivided into phases a and b. \"The whole sequence is now thought to cover the mid-sixth to mid-fifth millennia.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 163) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East.  The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>\"The stratigraphic evidence we have quoted from South Mesopotamia, the Hamrin, southwest<br>Iran, and the Gulf is far from satisfactory, but there is now enough of it to be able to raise serious doubts about the status of Hajji Muhammad ware as the marker of a separate chronological period. Instead, we should probably now see it as defining the later part of the Ubaid 1 period and the early stages of the Ubaid 3 period. There is, as yet, no instance in which it is the only pottery style found in a stratigraphic context.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 166) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East.  The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>\"if our pottery has no independent chronological existence, it must mean that Ubaid 1 on the one hand, and Ubaid 3 on the other, had a longer life than previously thought and that the rate of change was therefore slower than is currently accepted.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 167) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East.  The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 165,
            "polity": {
                "id": 491,
                "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2",
                "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid",
                "start_year": -4700,
                "end_year": -4300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -4700,
            "polity_year_to": -4300,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Table 3.3 Chronology of the Chalcolithic period in the Ancient Near East.\" Khuzistan: Susiana C / Mehmeh (not sure if two terms for same period or earlier/later) 4500-4000 BCE; Bayat / Susa A (probably two different terms for same period) 4000-3500 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 52) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 166,
            "polity": {
                "id": 490,
                "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1",
                "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid",
                "start_year": -5100,
                "end_year": -4700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -5100,
            "polity_year_to": -4700,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Table 3.2 Chronology of the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East.\" Khuzistan: Muhammad Jaffar 7000-6300 BCE; Susiana A 6300-5800 BCE; Tepe Sabz 5800-5400 BCE; Kazineh / Susiana B (not sure if two terms for same period or earlier/later) 5400-5000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 46) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"Ubaid culture lasted a long period of time, from 5100 to 4500 BC in its early phase, and 4500 to 4000 BC in its late phase.\" §REF§(Leverani 2014, 52) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Jaffarabad is Susiana B. §REF§(Hole 1987, 39)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 167,
            "polity": {
                "id": 499,
                "name": "ir_elam_5",
                "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period",
                "start_year": -1500,
                "end_year": -1400
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1500,
            "polity_year_to": -1400,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Middle Elamite I (1500-1400 BCE)<br>\"The period of the sukkalmahs was followed by the Middle Elamite period. While details of the transition between these two eras are lacking, the onset of the Middle Elamite period is usually put at c. 1500 BC, its end at c. 1100 BC.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 176) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Between 1550 (the end of the sequence of sukkal-mah and of legal texts from Susa) and 1350 BC, Elam experienced its own dark age. However, this phase was different from the one attested in the rest of the Near East. In reality, this presumed 'dark age' appears to be so more in terms of textual evidence, rather than historical developments.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>1420 BCE - Knowledge of the beginning of the Middle Elamite Kingdom is limited. Names of probable kings are known from the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries but there is no defined point between the intermediate period and the start of the Middle Elamite Kingdom. 1420 CE is chosen as a representative starting point, rather than the date of a particular event. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.32§REF§<br>1100 BCE - The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa. Nebuchadrnessar reported in a letter that Huteleutush-Inshushinak disappeared, but bricks bearing his name found at Tal-i Malyan give some credence to the suggestion that he retreated to Anshan after defeat. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 168,
            "polity": {
                "id": 500,
                "name": "ir_elam_6",
                "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period",
                "start_year": -1399,
                "end_year": -1200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1399,
            "polity_year_to": -1200,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Middle Elamite II (1400-1200 BCE)<br>Ike-Halke - founder of the new Elamite dynasty.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 377) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>1420 BCE - Knowledge of the beginning of the Middle Elamite Kingdom is limited. Names of probable kings are known from the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries but there is no defined point between the intermediate period and the start of the Middle Elamite Kingdom. 1420 CE is chosen as a representative starting point, rather than the date of a particular event. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.32§REF§<br>1100 BCE - The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa. Nebuchadrnessar reported in a letter that Huteleutush-Inshushinak disappeared, but bricks bearing his name found at Tal-i Malyan give some credence to the suggestion that he retreated to Anshan after defeat. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253§REF§<br>\"In the mid-fourteenth century BC, Kurigalzu II defeated the Elamite king Hurba-tilla. However, the latter does not appear in the Elamite dynastic sequences. Therefore, it is possible to assume that he was a king of Susiana with a Hurrian name, and that this defeat and Kurigalzu's expedition to Susa did not threaten the stability of the Elamite confederation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 169,
            "polity": {
                "id": 501,
                "name": "ir_elam_7",
                "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period",
                "start_year": -1199,
                "end_year": -1100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1199,
            "polity_year_to": -1100,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Middle Elamite III (1200-1100 BCE)<br>\"The period of the sukkalmahs was followed by the Middle Elamite period. While details of the transition between these two eras are lacking, the onset of the Middle Elamite period is usually put at c. 1500 BC, its end at c. 1100 BC.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 176) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Middle Elamite kingdom of the thirteenth and twelfth century BC\". §REF§(Leverani 2014, 526) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"In Elam, a new dynasty made Susa the centre of its kingdom, and chose the god of Susa, Inshushinak, as its main deity. Shutruk-Nahhunte managed to considerably strengthen his entire kingdom, which now extended from the coast of the Persian Gulf (Liyan) and Anshan to the Mesopotamian border. Shutruk-Nahhunte brought to Susa the monuments of the previous Elamite kings, and constantly emphasised the dynastic (and inter-dynastic) continuity and unity of Elam.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 458) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>1420 BCE - Knowledge of the beginning of the Middle Elamite Kingdom is limited. Names of probable kings are known from the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries but there is no defined point between the intermediate period and the start of the Middle Elamite Kingdom. 1420 CE is chosen as a representative starting point, rather than the date of a particular event. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.32§REF§<br>1100 BCE - The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa. Nebuchadrnessar reported in a letter that Huteleutush-Inshushinak disappeared, but bricks bearing his name found at Tal-i Malyan give some credence to the suggestion that he retreated to Anshan after defeat. §REF§Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253§REF§<br>\"At the end of the twelfth century B.C. both Susa and Anzan were destroyed by Babylonian armies, and the Elamite civilization sank into an almost total obscurity that lasted until the eighth century.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 11-12) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 170,
            "polity": {
                "id": 503,
                "name": "ir_neo_elam_1",
                "long_name": "Elam I",
                "start_year": -900,
                "end_year": -744
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -900,
            "polity_year_to": -744,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Neo-Elamite I c.1000-744 BCE.§REF§(Potts 2016, 249) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Steve (1992) divided Neo-Elamite I period into two phases 1000-900 BCE and by implication 900-744 BCE.§REF§(Potts 2016, 250) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 171,
            "polity": {
                "id": 504,
                "name": "ir_neo_elam_2",
                "long_name": "Elam II",
                "start_year": -743,
                "end_year": -647
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -743,
            "polity_year_to": -647,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Neo-Elamite II 743-646 BCE. Neo-Elamite II ends 646 BCE.§REF§(Potts 2016, 249) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Neo-Elamite II (743-647 BCE). The Elamite historical record is very limited, but Neo-Babylonian and Assyrian documents record the presence of Elamite armies in the battles against Assyria dating from around 820 BCE. §REF§Carter, E. and Stopler, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Press. p.44-45§REF§<br>640 BCE is generally considered the end of the Neo-Elamite kingdom. Traditional academic belief is that in this year Susa was sacked by the Assyrian army. Ashurbanipal's texts describe fierce looting of the city. Susa was destroyed and the Neo- Elamite Kingdom ended. §REF§Carter, E. and Stopler, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Press. p.52§REF§ However, more evidence is appearing to suggest that the Elamite Kingdom may have continued after the attacks of 640 BCE. For example, a few names of what are thought to be post 640 BCE Elamite kings are known.§REF§Henkelman, W. 2003. Persians, Medes and Elamites: Acculturation in the Neo-Elamite Period. In Lanfranchi, E. B. et al (eds) Continuity of Empire: Assyria, Media and Persia. Padua: SARGON p.74-75§REF§ Also, archaeological evidence of material culture does not show any discontinuity over this period . §REF§Carter, E. and Stopler, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Press. p.182§REF§ <i> 3. what is the archaeological evidence? be specific if specifics are available so what the code is based on is obvious. however - specifics aren't always available so if they're not available write what you can. </i><br>Evidence of continuity: the Assyrian sack of Susa 'has dominated the traditional interpretative model for the end of Elamite civilization. However, the material, textual, and artistic assemblages at Susa, together with the reliefs from Izeh/Malamir (KF [Kul-e Farah] I, c.650-550 BC), Naqsh-e Rustam (c.674-626 BC), and the elite material from Arjan (c.600-570 BC) and Ram Hormuz (c.585-539 BC) provide evidence of the survival of Elamite political power, culture, and traditions after the Assyrian raids on western Elam.'§REF§(Álvarez-Mon 2013, 472) Javier Álvarez-Mon. 2013. 'Elam in the Iron Age', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran</i>, edited by Daniel T. Potts, 457-77. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 172,
            "polity": {
                "id": 505,
                "name": "ir_neo_elam_3",
                "long_name": "Elam III",
                "start_year": -612,
                "end_year": -539
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -612,
            "polity_year_to": -539,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "{646 BCE; 612 BCE}-539 BCE. Neo-Elamite phase c.1000 to conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE. Neo-Elamite II ends 646 BCE.§REF§(Potts 2016, 249) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The uncertainty in the dates here is due to disagreement about the status of Elam between the Assyrian sack of Susa in 647/6 and before the destruction of the Assyrian city of Nineveh in 612. The traditional interpretation has been that Elam 'became an Assyrian province until the fall of the Assyrian empire and the destruction of Nineveh in 612 BC'.§REF§(Potts 1999, 288) Daniel T. Potts. 1999. <i>The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ However, Pierre Amiet, Pierre de Miroschedji, M.-J. Steve and Francois Vallat 'suggest that a Neo-Elamite renaissance - a state of independence rather than subjection to any rival, whether Babylonia or Media - occurred in the wake of Assurbanipal's destruction of Susa'.§REF§(Potts 1999, 295) Daniel T. Potts. 1999. <i>The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Potts commented in 2012 that 'Evidence that Elam became an Assyrian province soon after Assurbanipal's destruction of Susa is equivocal at best. Nor is it clear what role Elam played vis-a-vis the growing power of Babylonia or that of Media'.§REF§(Potts 2012, 46) Daniel T. Potts. 2012. 'The Elamites', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History</i>, edited by Touraj Daryaee, 37-56.§REF§ It seems that despite the 'ferocity' of Assyrian attempts to eradicate 'Elam as a political and cultural entity',§REF§(Carter and Stolper 1984, 53) Elizabeth Carter and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. <i>Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.§REF§ the polity continued to exist in diminished and fragmented form after 646 BCE. Carter and Stolper also note that 'contrary to earlier assumptions, the destruction of Susa in 646 B.C. had little effect on the evolution of ceramic or other artifact styles'.§REF§(Carter and Stolper 1984, 182) Elizabeth Carter and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. <i>Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 173,
            "polity": {
                "id": 125,
                "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Parthian Empire I",
                "start_year": -247,
                "end_year": 40
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -247,
            "polity_year_to": 40,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the absence of surviving written documents, chronology of Parthian rulers is based on coinage.§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>Start: 247 BCE<br>\"Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, was elected leader of the Parni tribes in 247 BCE. This date marks the beginning of the Arsacid era.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris &amp; Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>\"Less than ten years after the rebellion of Andragoras against the Seleucids, in 238 BCE, Arsaces and his brother Tiridates invaded the satrapy of Parthia, killed Andragoras and established control over this province.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris &amp; Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>It is believed to be the start of the Parthian's revolt against the Seleucids, as well as the coronation of the second Parthina king, Tiridates I. As such it can been seen as the end of Selucid authority in the province.§REF§A.D.H. Bivar, ‘The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids’, in Ehsan Yar-Shater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Part 1, Vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p.28.§REF§<br>End 226 CE<br>Parthians fought three battles against the Sassanians and lost each one. Reign of the last Parthian king Artabanus IV ends; Sasanian rule begins. §REF§A.D.H. Bivar, ‘The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids’, in Ehsan Yar-Shater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Part 1, Vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p.96.§REF§<br>Although Ardashir took the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, and probably with it the title 'King of Kings', in 226 CE the Parthian king Vologases VI minted coins in his hame at least to 228 CE.§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 178) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Periodization c240-172 BCE; 171 BCE - 40 CE; 40 - 226 CE.<br>240-172 BCE (pre-Imperial, Seleucid Empire period)<br>\"The first Parthian ruler, Arsaces, established the dynasty approximately 240 b.c.e. ...\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>171 BCE - 40 CE (Empire period)<br>\"... The real founder of the Parthian empire was Mithridates I, who ascended the throne in 171. He conquered western Iran, reaching Media in 155 and Seleucia in 141. ... the Parthians definitely established their hold on Babylonia by the time of Mithridates II, ca. 120 b.c.e. and held it until ca. 226 c.e., with brief intervals of Roman occupation.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>\"Mithradates I ... one of the first powerful Parthian monarchs, attacked Demetrius, the Seleucid ruler ... Mithradates conquered Susa and its hinterlands shortly before 140 B.C. and installed a Parthian administration that probably survived for most of the next century. We know that by A.D. 21 Susa was under Parthian control, for in a letter of this date, written in Greek, Artabanus III, the Parthian sovereign, validated a contested election at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1st century BCE: \"from then the first open conflicts occurred between Parthian rulers and aristocrats.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 182) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ <i>53 BCE was the Parthian victory at the Battle of Carrhae - this would have increased Roman interest in supporting rivals to Parthian throne, and in fact the battle of Carrhae may have been initiated by the Romans to take advantage of Parthian disorder in Babylonia.</i><br>c92 BCE Mithradates II was challenged by a usurper \"who had probably gained control over the empire's eastern satrapies, supported by local rich and influential aristocratic families, and over a large part of Mesopotamia. However, civil war was prevented by the king's natural death.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 171) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Babylonia \"was not touched by the Romans in their invasion of 54-3, or by Antony in 39-31 during his unsuccessful Armenian adventure.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 22) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>Between c-100 BCE to 100 CE the Babylonians at Babylon ceased to exist while the Greeks at Seleucia ceased to have the importance they once did.<br>40 - 226 CE (less centralized, fuedal period)<br>\"the Parthian state was highly unstable, and Artabanus' death at about A.D. 40, in combination with financial and military reverses over the preceding decades, apparently weakened the Parthian state to the extent that it no longer issued an imperial coinage and successful revolts were staged at Seleucia-on-the-Tigris and other cities. At about this same time, it appears that Susa and its environs were incorporated into the 'satrapy' of Elymais (Fig. 6).\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Written documents (mainly in Greek, Latin, or Hebrew) from the first two centuries A.D. in Southwest Asia suggest that the Parthian 'Empire' was at most times an unstable coalition of vassal states brought periodically under imperial Parthian control.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Elymais coined its own money, conducted its own public works programs, and in other was was apparently independent until about A.D. 215, when, documentary evidence suggests, the Parthian imperial government was once again in control at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§ <i>Elymais/Susiana region experienced an upturn in economy, agriculture, population</i><br>\"The last hundred years in the life of Parthia was a period appropriately described as the 'downfall of the Parthian Empire'. The period began with the reign of Vologases II, who ruled until A.D. 146/7.\" §REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 464) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>\"By the beginning of the third century A.D., the states of southern Mesopotamia and the provinces of eastern Iran - Margiana, Segistan (Sistan) and Kerman - were virtually independent states, governed by local dynasties which only formally recognized their dependence on the Arsacids.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 470) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ <i>nominal centralization</i><br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 174,
            "polity": {
                "id": 483,
                "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Parthian Empire II",
                "start_year": 41,
                "end_year": 226
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 41,
            "polity_year_to": 226,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the absence of surviving written documents, chronology of Parthian rulers is based on coinage.§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxvi) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>Start: 247 BCE<br>\"Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, was elected leader of the Parni tribes in 247 BCE. This date marks the beginning of the Arsacid era.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris &amp; Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>\"Less than ten years after the rebellion of Andragoras against the Seleucids, in 238 BCE, Arsaces and his brother Tiridates invaded the satrapy of Parthia, killed Andragoras and established control over this province.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris &amp; Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>It is believed to be the start of the Parthian's revolt against the Seleucids, as well as the coronation of the second Parthina king, Tiridates I. As such it can been seen as the end of Selucid authority in the province.§REF§A.D.H. Bivar, ‘The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids’, in Ehsan Yar-Shater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Part 1, Vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p.28.§REF§<br>End 226 CE<br>Parthians fought three battles against the Sassanians and lost each one. Reign of the last Parthian king Artabanus IV ends; Sasanian rule begins. §REF§A.D.H. Bivar, ‘The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids’, in Ehsan Yar-Shater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Part 1, Vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p.96.§REF§<br>Although Ardashir took the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, and probably with it the title 'King of Kings', in 226 CE the Parthian king Vologases VI minted coins in his hame at least to 228 CE.§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 178) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Periodization c240-172 BCE; 171 BCE - 40 CE; 40 - 226 CE.<br>240-172 BCE (pre-Imperial, Seleucid Empire period)<br>\"The first Parthian ruler, Arsaces, established the dynasty approximately 240 b.c.e. ...\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>171 BCE - 40 CE (Empire period)<br>\"... The real founder of the Parthian empire was Mithridates I, who ascended the throne in 171. He conquered western Iran, reaching Media in 155 and Seleucia in 141. ... the Parthians definitely established their hold on Babylonia by the time of Mithridates II, ca. 120 b.c.e. and held it until ca. 226 c.e., with brief intervals of Roman occupation.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>\"Mithradates I ... one of the first powerful Parthian monarchs, attacked Demetrius, the Seleucid ruler ... Mithradates conquered Susa and its hinterlands shortly before 140 B.C. and installed a Parthian administration that probably survived for most of the next century. We know that by A.D. 21 Susa was under Parthian control, for in a letter of this date, written in Greek, Artabanus III, the Parthian sovereign, validated a contested election at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1st century BCE: \"from then the first open conflicts occurred between Parthian rulers and aristocrats.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 182) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ <i>53 BCE was the Parthian victory at the Battle of Carrhae - this would have increased Roman interest in supporting rivals to Parthian throne, and in fact the battle of Carrhae may have been initiated by the Romans to take advantage of Parthian disorder in Babylonia.</i><br>c92 BCE Mithradates II was challenged by a usurper \"who had probably gained control over the empire's eastern satrapies, supported by local rich and influential aristocratic families, and over a large part of Mesopotamia. However, civil war was prevented by the king's natural death.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 171) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Babylonia \"was not touched by the Romans in their invasion of 54-3, or by Antony in 39-31 during his unsuccessful Armenian adventure.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 22) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>Between c-100 BCE to 100 CE the Babylonians at Babylon ceased to exist while the Greeks at Seleucia ceased to have the importance they once did.<br>40 - 226 CE (less centralized, fuedal period)<br>\"the Parthian state was highly unstable, and Artabanus' death at about A.D. 40, in combination with financial and military reverses over the preceding decades, apparently weakened the Parthian state to the extent that it no longer issued an imperial coinage and successful revolts were staged at Seleucia-on-the-Tigris and other cities. At about this same time, it appears that Susa and its environs were incorporated into the 'satrapy' of Elymais (Fig. 6).\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Written documents (mainly in Greek, Latin, or Hebrew) from the first two centuries A.D. in Southwest Asia suggest that the Parthian 'Empire' was at most times an unstable coalition of vassal states brought periodically under imperial Parthian control.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"Elymais coined its own money, conducted its own public works programs, and in other was was apparently independent until about A.D. 215, when, documentary evidence suggests, the Parthian imperial government was once again in control at Susa.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§ <i>Elymais/Susiana region experienced an upturn in economy, agriculture, population</i><br>\"The last hundred years in the life of Parthia was a period appropriately described as the 'downfall of the Parthian Empire'. The period began with the reign of Vologases II, who ruled until A.D. 146/7.\" §REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 464) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>\"By the beginning of the third century A.D., the states of southern Mesopotamia and the provinces of eastern Iran - Margiana, Segistan (Sistan) and Kerman - were virtually independent states, governed by local dynasties which only formally recognized their dependence on the Arsacids.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 470) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§ <i>nominal centralization</i><br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 175,
            "polity": {
                "id": 485,
                "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic",
                "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period",
                "start_year": -7800,
                "end_year": -7200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -7800,
            "polity_year_to": -7200,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " \"Radiocarbon dates reported from the sites just discussed and similar sites in the highland put all the early Neolithic aceramic sites in western Iran within the 8000-7000 B.C. range. However, considering the problems with radiocarbon dates, these dates alone are not sufficient to be used as definite criteria to establish chronological priority of any of these early sites, even though some (Tappeh Asiab and Ganj Darreh) yielded morphologically wild species of the plants and animals that at Tappeh Ali Kosh and Chogha Bonut are considered morphologically domesticated and presumably later.\" §REF§(Alizadeh 2003, 8)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 176,
            "polity": {
                "id": 509,
                "name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
                "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1794,
                "end_year": 1925
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1794,
            "polity_year_to": 1925,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from the end of the eighteenth century to the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"When Nader Shah Afshar died in 1747 with no living heirs, the Qajar tribal leaders were among the contenders for the throne. From the ensuing 50 year struggle one Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) emerged the undisputed rule in 1794. He was crowned in 1796 and founded the dynasty.\"§REF§(Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 177,
            "polity": {
                "id": 374,
                "name": "ir_safavid_emp",
                "long_name": "Safavid Empire",
                "start_year": 1501,
                "end_year": 1722
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1501,
            "polity_year_to": 1722,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Note: Secondary literature dates the start of the polity a year earlier than we do. 1501 is the year Ismāil defeated the Āq Qoyunlu and proclaimed himself Shah. §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>; 'Safavid Dynasty' in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam ed. John L. Esposito (2003).§REF§ The end date is the same 1722 when the Afghans forced Solṭān-Ḥosayn to surrender to them. He gave the title of shah to the Afghan leader Maḥmud Ḡilzay. §REF§Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a>.§REF§<br>1527-1531 CE Takkalu regency. 1531-1532 CE Shamlu-Ustajlu alliance.§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 178,
            "polity": {
                "id": 128,
                "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I",
                "start_year": 205,
                "end_year": 487
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 205,
            "polity_year_to": 487,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "_Sasanid Period 1_ 205-487 CE<br>Conquest from 205 CE<br>\"The Sasanian campaign to control the province of Persis/Fars had begun in 205-6, when the father of Ardashir I, Pabag, had dethroned the local ruler of the city of Istakhr, the capital of Fars, by the name of Gozihr.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Later sources claimed Pabag was a priest at a fire-temple in Istakhr.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"King Papak, who usurped the crown of the Pars rulers, played a major role in unifying the land. He apparently had to wage a difficult struggle against the central Parthian government.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 466-467) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>Empire from 226 CE (with God-king and Achaemenid ideology)<br>King Papak's adopted son Ardashir inherited the crown. He was from the family of Sasan.§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 466-467) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>The first Sasanian 'King of Kings' was Ardashir I who was crowned in 226 CE at Ctesiphon.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Early Sasanids in their imperial ideology \"considered themselves from the lineage of the gods\" and used the Achaemenid title \"King of Kings.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 200) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Size of court and bureaucracy increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). Military success under Shapur I (240-270 CE) and Shapur II (309-379 CE). §REF§(Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE<br>Under Bahram II (274-293 CE) \"the Sasanian kings lost much of their religious power as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to Kerdir, who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 191) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Zoroastrian priest Kerdir \"began the persecution of the religious minorities in the empire, such as the Jews, Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, and Buddhists. ... Mani ... was imprisoned and put to death in 276 with the blessing (and to the relief) of Kerdir.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 191) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Status quo from 294-325 CE (Zoroastrian control)<br><i>presumably the situation is the same under kings Narseh (293-303 CE) and Hormizd II (303-309 CE) and during the infancy of Shapur II when \"the court and the Zoroastrian priests ran an empire that was secure and stable enough structurally and administratively to survive without a strong monarchy\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 193) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§</i><br>Long reign of Shapur II and rise of court/bureaucracy<br>Under Shapur II, power of the nobility and priests increased substantially.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>Does this imply at some point following the church of Kerdir and his persecutions the influence of priests diminished - perhaps due to the rise of the bureaucracy/court which may have accellerated during the infancy of Shapur II?</i><br>Time of Shapur II has been referred to as a golden age.<br>Violence begins from 379 CE<br>An inscription relates that Ardashar II (379-383 CE) purged \"the great men and holders of authority to reduce their power.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ The sophisticated, centralised bureaucracy was now \"under the control of the priests\" and its chief priest, with Kingship relegated to the status of a secular institution.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>Ardashar may have purged a court/bureaucracy which had become over-mighty during the long (70-year) reign of Shapur II. This would have favoured the Zoroastrian priests.</i><br>The kings that followed Ardashar II (379-383 CE) \"all met a violent end.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>that appears to mean up to 420 CE: Shapur III, Wahram IV, Yazdgird I, Shapur IV, Khosrau the Usurper (?).</i> <i>this elite conflict reflects a power-struggle between the court/bureaucracy and the Zoroastrian church.</i><br>recognition of Nestorian Christianity 410 CE; ends with usurper 420 CE<br>Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE) called \"the sinful one\"§REF§(Daryaee and Rezakhani 2016, 35) Daryaee, Touraj. Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran. H&amp;M Media.§REF§ by Zoroastrian literature because he went against the wishes of the Zoroastrian priests.<br>the 'secular' kings become powerful enough to challenge the priests. Under Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE) Christianity was officially recognized.§REF§Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410\" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Persecution of Christians and Jews from c.420 CE<br>Bahram V (420-438 CE) and Yazdgird II (438-457 CE) persecuted Christians\"Bahram V continued and intensified the persecution of Yazdagird's last days.\" Forced conversions. Property confiscated. Churches destroyed. §REF§(Neusner 1970, 43) A History of the Jews in Babylonia V. Later Sasanian times. Brill Archive.§REF§<br>Yazdgird II (438-457 CE) is noted for his persecution of Christians and Jews.<br>Infighting from 457 CE, famine and Hephthalites<br>Hormizd III (457-459 CE) defeated in battle by Peroz (459-484 CE) who was aided by Hephthalites (?)<br>Seven-year famine (464-471)<br>War with Kidarites and Hephthalites<br>Peroz captured by Hephthalites<br>Balash (484-488 CE) was deposed by nobility and priests.<br>The first reign of Kavad I (488-496 CE) was ended by \"dissatisfied nobility and priests\" who had him imprisoned.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 197) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>_Sasanid Period 3_ 488-642 CE<br>Reforms during the long reigns of Kavad I and Khusrau I<br>Kavad I (499-531 CE) 21. Khusrau I (531-579 CE)<br>Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility and reduced the power of aristocrats and their estates. Deghans became tax collectors. \"For the first time, the power of the landed nobility was restricted and all the taxes were in the hands of the king.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 47) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as \"Plato's philosopher king.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ In 570s CE Sasanian Empire was \"at the apex of its glory and power, headed by a philosopher king\" (Khosrau I).<br>Instablity from 579 CE<br>Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I, had many enemies at court, killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests.<br>Hormizd IV deposed 589-590 CE by general and nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 199) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Khusrau II forced to flee to Byzantium for the years 590-591 CE by Bahram but recruited an Armenenian army to regain the throne.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 199) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Kushrau II was deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 200) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Khosrau II (590-628 CE) was forced to seek shelter in Byzantine Hierapolis against a challenger king, Wahram Chubin, who minted coins 590-591 CE. Khosrau II regained the throne (purges?) and then the empire reached its greatest territorial extent. Khosrau II was deposed by priests and nobility in 628 CE.<br>Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 31) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>By 630s CE the empire was in confusion, had disintegrated into regional power-bases and internal conflict when Khuzistan fell to Caliph Umar. Arabs conquered the Sasanid stronghold (Persis) in 650 CE.<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 179,
            "polity": {
                "id": 130,
                "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II",
                "start_year": 488,
                "end_year": 642
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 488,
            "polity_year_to": 642,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "_Sasanid Period 1_ 205-48 CE<br>Conquest from 205 CE<br>\"The Sasanian campaign to control the province of Persis/Fars had begun in 205-6, when the father of Ardashir I, Pabag, had dethroned the local ruler of the city of Istakhr, the capital of Fars, by the name of Gozihr.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Later sources claimed Pabag was a priest at a fire-temple in Istakhr.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"King Papak, who usurped the crown of the Pars rulers, played a major role in unifying the land. He apparently had to wage a difficult struggle against the central Parthian government.\"§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 466-467) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>Empire from 226 CE (with God-king and Achaemenid ideology)<br>King Papak's adopted son Ardashir inherited the crown. He was from the family of Sasan.§REF§(Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 466-467) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>The first Sasanian 'King of Kings' was Ardashir I who was crowned in 226 CE at Ctesiphon.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 187) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Early Sasanids in their imperial ideology \"considered themselves from the lineage of the gods\" and used the Achaemenid title \"King of Kings.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 200) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Size of court and bureaucracy increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). Military success under Shapur I (240-270 CE) and Shapur II (309-379 CE). §REF§(Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE<br>Under Bahram II (274-293 CE) \"the Sasanian kings lost much of their religious power as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to Kerdir, who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 191) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Zoroastrian priest Kerdir \"began the persecution of the religious minorities in the empire, such as the Jews, Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, and Buddhists. ... Mani ... was imprisoned and put to death in 276 with the blessing (and to the relief) of Kerdir.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 191) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Status quo from 294-325 CE (Zoroastrian control)<br><i>presumably the situation is the same under kings Narseh (293-303 CE) and Hormizd II (303-309 CE) and during the infancy of Shapur II when \"the court and the Zoroastrian priests ran an empire that was secure and stable enough structurally and administratively to survive without a strong monarchy\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 193) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§</i><br>Long reign of Shapur II and rise of court/bureaucracy<br>Under Shapur II, power of the nobility and priests increased substantially.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>Does this imply at some point following the church of Kerdir and his persecutions the influence of priests diminished - perhaps due to the rise of the bureaucracy/court which may have accellerated during the infancy of Shapur II?</i><br>Time of Shapur II has been referred to as a golden age.<br>Violence begins from 379 CE<br>An inscription relates that Ardashar II (379-383 CE) purged \"the great men and holders of authority to reduce their power.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ The sophisticated, centralised bureaucracy was now \"under the control of the priests\" and its chief priest, with Kingship relegated to the status of a secular institution.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>Ardashar may have purged a court/bureaucracy which had become over-mighty during the long (70-year) reign of Shapur II. This would have favoured the Zoroastrian priests.</i><br>The kings that followed Ardashar II (379-383 CE) \"all met a violent end.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 20-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ <i>that appears to mean up to 420 CE: Shapur III, Wahram IV, Yazdgird I, Shapur IV, Khosrau the Usurper (?).</i> <i>this elite conflict reflects a power-struggle between the court/bureaucracy and the Zoroastrian church.</i><br>recognition of Nestorian Christianity 410 CE; ends with usurper 420 CE<br>Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE) called \"the sinful one\"§REF§(Daryaee and Rezakhani 2016, 35) Daryaee, Touraj. Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran. H&amp;M Media.§REF§ by Zoroastrian literature because he went against the wishes of the Zoroastrian priests.<br>the 'secular' kings become powerful enough to challenge the priests. Under Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE) Christianity was officially recognized.§REF§Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"first synod of the Nestorian Church was convened in 410\" during reign of Yazdgerd I (399-420 CE).§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"Persian Christianity became officially recognized and the Nestorian Patriach resided at the royal city of Ctesiphon; he and the Jewish exilarch became responsible for their coreligionists.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 194) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Persecution of Christians and Jews from c.420 CE<br>Bahram V (420-438 CE) and Yazdgird II (438-457 CE) persecuted Christians\"Bahram V continued and intensified the persecution of Yazdagird's last days.\" Forced conversions. Property confiscated. Churches destroyed. §REF§(Neusner 1970, 43) A History of the Jews in Babylonia V. Later Sasanian times. Brill Archive.§REF§<br>Yazdgird II (438-457 CE) is noted for his persecution of Christians and Jews.<br>Infighting from 457 CE, famine and Hephthalites<br>Hormizd III (457-459 CE) defeated in battle by Peroz (459-484 CE) who was aided by Hephthalites (?)<br>Seven-year famine (464-471)<br>War with Kidarites and Hephthalites<br>Peroz captured by Hephthalites<br>Balash (484-488 CE) was deposed by nobility and priests.<br>The first reign of Kavad I (488-496 CE) was ended by \"dissatisfied nobility and priests\" who had him imprisoned.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 197) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>_Sasanid Period 2_ 488-642 CE<br>Reforms during the long reigns of Kavad I and Khusrau I<br>Kavad I (499-531 CE) 21. Khusrau I (531-579 CE)<br>Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility and reduced the power of aristocrats and their estates. Deghans became tax collectors. \"For the first time, the power of the landed nobility was restricted and all the taxes were in the hands of the king.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 47) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as \"Plato's philosopher king.\"§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ In 570s CE Sasanian Empire was \"at the apex of its glory and power, headed by a philosopher king\" (Khosrau I).<br>Instablity from 579 CE<br>Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I, had many enemies at court, killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests.<br>Hormizd IV deposed 589-590 CE by general and nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 199) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Khusrau II forced to flee to Byzantium for the years 590-591 CE by Bahram but recruited an Armenenian army to regain the throne.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 199) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Kushrau II was deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE.§REF§(Daryaee 2012, 200) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Khosrau II (590-628 CE) was forced to seek shelter in Byzantine Hierapolis against a challenger king, Wahram Chubin, who minted coins 590-591 CE. Khosrau II regained the throne (purges?) and then the empire reached its greatest territorial extent. Khosrau II was deposed by priests and nobility in 628 CE.<br>Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 31) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>By 630s CE the empire was in confusion, had disintegrated into regional power-bases and internal conflict when Khuzistan fell to Caliph Umar. Arabs conquered the Sasanid stronghold (Persis) in 650 CE.<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 180,
            "polity": {
                "id": 108,
                "name": "ir_seleucid_emp",
                "long_name": "Seleucid Empire",
                "start_year": -312,
                "end_year": -63
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -312,
            "polity_year_to": -63,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The rule of the first king of the Seleucid Empire, Seleucus I, began when he was apportioned the satrapy of Babylonia in 319 BCE after the death of Alexander the Great §REF§Sherwin-White, S. Kurht, A. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis: A new approach to the Seleucid Empire. London: Duckworth. pp.9-10.§REF§. However, in 315 BCE Seleucus was overthrown by Antigonus, but regained power in 312 BCE and began to extend the kingdom. The beginning of the empire is therefore generally agreed to start from Seleucus' return to power in 312 BCE §REF§Sherwin-White, S. Kurht, A. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis: A new approach to the Seleucid Empire. London: Duckworth. pp.9-10.§REF§§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p19§REF§.<br>The end of the empire was characterized by a decline from the former power of the kings, to the extent that Aperghis (2004, p27, 298) argues that after 129 BCE, when King Antiochus VII committed suicide in Media, the Seleucid Empire had degraded to the Seleucid Kingdom, and would only decline further. Opposition from the indigenous population and from growing rival states (the Parthians and Romans) culminated in irreversible decline for the Seleucids.§REF§Kosmin, P. J. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. p686§REF§ The remaining polity was eventually overtaken by the growing Roman empire in 64/63 BCE §REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p27§REF§§REF§Kosmin, P. J. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p686§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 181,
            "polity": {
                "id": 364,
                "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1037,
                "end_year": 1157
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1037,
            "polity_year_to": 1157,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Start<br>The first Seljuk conquest of the settled world was their taking of the Nishapur and Khurasan region in 1040 CE§REF§(Peacock 2015) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§, from the Ghaznavids.<br>1040-1157 CE§REF§(Peacock 2015, 6) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>Conquest of Nishapur 1037 CE (coins) or 1038 CE (chronicles).§REF§(Peacock 2015, 39) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>1037 CE. There is some disagreement about when Toghrïl Beg become sultan, some sources dating it 1038 §REF§Esposito, John L, ed. “Seljuk Dynasty.” The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003§REF§ §REF§Morby, John E. “Seljuqid Dynasty.” Dynasties of the World: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.§REF§ or to 1040.§REF§al-Rahim, Ahmed H. “Seljuk Turks.” Edited by Robert E. Bjork. The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.§REF§<br>Leading their Turcoman followers into Transoxania and then Khurasan at the beginning of the eleventh century, they soon overcame the Ghaznawids (who were pushed into modern-day eastern Afghanistan and northwestern India) in the aftermath of the battle of Dandanqan in 1040.\"§REF§(Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§<br>End<br>\"The end of Seljuk rule coincided with the nearly sixty-year reign of Ahmad Sanjar (1085-1157).\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>Death of Sanjar: \"left Greater Central Asia divided among three dynasties. In Afghanistan and Khurasan the descendants of Mahmud of Ghazni hung on until 1187 but had in fact had ceded nearly all power to another dynasty based in Ghor in Afghanistan. In the East the Karakhitai nomads had settled down at the old Karakhanid capital at Balasagun after conquering most of what is now Kyrgyzstan, eastern Kazakhstan, and Xinjiang... Finally, the entire northern and central zone of the region was under the control of the most recent dynasty of Turkic shahs of Khwarazm, who ruled from their revived capital at Gurganj.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>All agree that the empire ended with the death of Toghrïl III in 1194. §REF§Esposito, John L, ed. “Seljuk Dynasty.” The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003§REF§ §REF§Morby, John E. “Seljuqid Dynasty.” Dynasties of the World: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.§REF§ §REF§al-Rahim, Ahmed H. “Seljuk Turks.” Edited by Robert E. Bjork. The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 182,
            "polity": {
                "id": 496,
                "name": "ir_elam_2",
                "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period",
                "start_year": -2028,
                "end_year": -1940
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -2028,
            "polity_year_to": -1940,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " This period starts with liberation of Susa from Ur's control and the independent reign of Shimashki's dynasty (starting from king named Kindatu, who was six king of Shimashki dynasty). The end of this polity is associated with the new political power and dynasty of sukkalmah in Elam.§REF§Potts 1999, 142, 158-59§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 183,
            "polity": {
                "id": 497,
                "name": "ir_elam_3",
                "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah",
                "start_year": -1900,
                "end_year": -1701
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1900,
            "polity_year_to": -1701,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " 1940-1500 BCE §REF§Stolper and Carter 1984, 24§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 184,
            "polity": {
                "id": 498,
                "name": "ir_elam_4",
                "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah",
                "start_year": -1700,
                "end_year": -1500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1700,
            "polity_year_to": -1500,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " : \"In the kingdom of Elam during this time (about 1700 B.C.), the people of the southeastern plateau, whose princes had controlled Susiana, fell back into a semi-nomadic state. The trans-Elamite culture that extended across the plateau similarly collapsed, and India too was overwhelmed in a general crisis about which little is known.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 8) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 185,
            "polity": {
                "id": 492,
                "name": "ir_susa_1",
                "long_name": "Susa I",
                "start_year": -4300,
                "end_year": -3800
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -4300,
            "polity_year_to": -3800,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In Khuzistan 4500-4000 BCE Susiana C and Mehmeh.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 51) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Susa A: 4200-4000 and Terminal Susa A (4000-3800 BCE) §REF§(Hole 1987, 41)§REF§<br>C14s for Susa I (which are give some credibility being similar to the spreads at Jaffarbad)§REF§(Potts 2016, 50) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4395-3955 BCE - Earliest<br>3680-3490 BCE - Latest"
        },
        {
            "id": 186,
            "polity": {
                "id": 493,
                "name": "ir_susa_2",
                "long_name": "Susa II",
                "start_year": -3800,
                "end_year": -3100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -3800,
            "polity_year_to": -3100,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "3800-3400 BCE. Kuzistan: Susa B; Zagros: Godin 7; Fars: Early Banesh. 3400-3000 BCE. Kuzistan: Uruk type; Zagros: Godin 6-5; Fars: Middle Banesh.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 83) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§ -- Actually Potts (2016) says that the link between what has been called \"Proto-Elamite\" and Elamite culture does not exist, \"Proto-Elamite\" is a misnomer. Writing system of the succeeding period was derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II/Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 76) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 187,
            "polity": {
                "id": 494,
                "name": "ir_susa_3",
                "long_name": "Susa III",
                "start_year": -3100,
                "end_year": -2675
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -3100,
            "polity_year_to": -2675,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"But toward the end of the fourth millennium, when the brilliant civilization of the Uruk period had collapsed in Mesopotamia and at Susa, the population of Fars broke with the prehistoric past and achieved in their turn a kind of historical consciousness, establishing a large center which perhaps had already acquired its name, Anshan (modern Tal-i Malyan).\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 188,
            "polity": {
                "id": 115,
                "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth",
                "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth",
                "start_year": 930,
                "end_year": 1262
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 930,
            "polity_year_to": 1262,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " 'Circa 930 CE the Alþingi (the general assembly or parliament which met every year in Summer at the Þingvellir) was established and this is traditionally seen as the starting point of the Icelandic Commonwealth. The choice for 1262 CE as the end date of the Icelandic Commonwealth is based upon a widely accepted consensus. Whereas the period 1258 CE to 1264 CE can be seen as a transition period, in 1262 CE the Alþingi agreed to recognize the King of Norway as their sovereign. This was not the result of an invasion, but a voluntary act of the Alþingi and the leaders of all 39 Goðar. Goði (pl. goðar) refers to 'chieftains'. The term goðorðsmaður (godordsman) had practically replaced the term goði in common use by the 12th century. The political unit was called gorðorð. However, by 1262 there were no longer 39 godordsmen (goðar) or indeed active goðorð in Iceland (and this number, although official according to the constitution as explained in Grágás, may never have been real). By the 13th century territorial lordships (héraðsríki) had replaced the goðorð in most places and although technically based on the goðorð they were quite different as political institutions.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ eHRAF and Durrenberger provide general descriptions: 'Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ 'Norse settlers came to Iceland in the ninth century from Norway and the British Isles. The traditionally accepted date for the first permanent settlement is 870. Settlers claimed land on the uninhabited island and established an agricultural economy based largely on grass. They raised sheep, cattle, horses, and in some places, some grain as well. According to the Icelandic literary-historical tradition, the land was all claimed by 930 when the Alþing or general assembly was founded, thus marking the end of the period of settlement. In 1000, by a compromise decision of a single arbiter selected at the Alþing, Christianity became the religion of Iceland. In 1096 a tithe law was enacted at the Alþing. Early in the thirteenth century began a period of disorder known after the name of one of its prominent families as the Sturlung age. This period came to an end in 1262 when Icelanders agreed to acept the Norwegian king as their king. The three hundred or so years between the first settlement and 1262 is known as the Icelandic Commonwealth or Free State.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth”, 239§REF§ The view that the economic practices of the early settlers was unsuitable to the Icelandic environment is probleamtic: 'This is often claimed but is actually questionable. The settlement undoubtedly had a profound impact in the environment but this always happens when a farming population first appears. It does not follow that economic practices were “unsuitable.” Perhaps the environmental impact was simply unavoidable if people wanted to make a living as farmers in Iceland.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 189,
            "polity": {
                "id": 179,
                "name": "it_latium_ba",
                "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age",
                "start_year": -1800,
                "end_year": -900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1800,
            "polity_year_to": -900,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 32§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 190,
            "polity": {
                "id": 178,
                "name": "it_latium_ca",
                "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age",
                "start_year": -3600,
                "end_year": -1800
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -3600,
            "polity_year_to": -1800,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Taken from Whitehouse §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 13§REF§, but adjusted for Latium §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 32§REF§."
        },
        {
            "id": 191,
            "polity": {
                "id": 180,
                "name": "it_latium_ia",
                "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age",
                "start_year": -1000,
                "end_year": -580
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -1000,
            "polity_year_to": -580,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " §REF§G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (2006), pp. 53-58§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 192,
            "polity": {
                "id": 186,
                "name": "it_ostrogoth_k",
                "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom",
                "start_year": 489,
                "end_year": 554
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 489,
            "polity_year_to": 554,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Theodoric's rule officially recognised by Constantinople in 487 CE. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 169)§REF§ Odovacar assassinated by Theodoric 493 CE after Church mediated peace treaty which gave \"absolute equality of power\" to both leaders.§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ Period ends with Justinian's Pragmatic Sanction after the Gothic War. \"By 554 the Ostrogothic Kingdom was gone. A few Gothic garrisons held out in the north for almost seven years. Finally in 561, the garrisons at Verona and Brixia capitulated.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 215)§REF§<br>\"Theoderic, who had emerged successfully from a power struggle between various competing groups of Goths and their leaders in the Balkans in the course of the 470s and 480s, had recently plundered Thrace and was at the time threatening Constantinope. For Zeno, dispatching Theoderic to fight Odovacer in Italy provided a way to deal with two problems at once. Theoderic entered Italy in 489 and prevailed over Odovacer after a period of intense warfare In 493, following a protacted siege of the capital Ravenna whence Odovacer had retreated, the two general agreed to share rule over Italy. Theoderic, however, murdered Odovacer shortly after entering the city (allegedly with his own hands) and had many of his followers killed. Thereafter, Theoderic's army, the exercitus Gothorum, proclaimed him king. Theoderic had been king of the Goths already since 474, and the renewed proclamation in 493 was probably meant to underline his claim to power over Italy and all of its inhabitants.\"§REF§(Heydemann 2016) Heydemann, Gerda. The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>After Byzantines under Justinian ended Ostrogothic rule he \"ostentatiously reclaimed imperial prerogatives and the traditional markers of civilitas such as coinage, taxes, care for the annona, public buildings, and most importantly, legislative authority.\"§REF§(Heydemann 2016, 39) Heydemann, Gerda. The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 193,
            "polity": {
                "id": 189,
                "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2",
                "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II",
                "start_year": 904,
                "end_year": 1198
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 904,
            "polity_year_to": 1198,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Beginning in 904, the Theophylacti (a noble family from Tusculanum) effectively monopolized political power in Rome, beginning a period in which the aristocratic families of Rome dominated the papacy.§REF§Marazzi, 64§REF§ In 1198, Lothario dei Conti dei Segni was elected pope as Innocent III. During his pontificate, the papacy began consolidating its control over Lazio and expanding its power through what would become the Papal States; simultaneously, Innocent III brought papal authority to its medieval height, initiating several crusades and presiding over the Fourth Lateran Council.§REF§Vauchez, 356§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 194,
            "polity": {
                "id": 190,
                "name": "it_papal_state_1",
                "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period",
                "start_year": 1198,
                "end_year": 1309
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1198,
            "polity_year_to": 1309,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " In this period the Papacy, from Innocent III, extended its power over the temporal realm, and over Christendom. The period ends with the Angevin exile from 1309 CE.<br>\"It would be the job of Roman canonists, legates, and Popes in the wake of Innocent's pontificate to develop just that machinery, to seize traditional local and episcopal power, and even to create business for the pope, thereby making Innocent's dreams real in practice. (Some of these activities were under way by the time of Innocent's pontificate, but they grew after his death, sometimes by orders of magnitude.) Future cannons and popes achieved these dreams primarily by developing the canon law, by convoking western councils, by hearing thousands of cases in Rome from litigants streaming in from all over Europe, by seizing oversight in the canonization of saints, and by taking over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, and by providing other papal benefits. All of this would have been impossible without the general acceptance that the pope was the vicar of Christ and the growing sense of Christians, nourished by the reforms of the eleventh century, that they were part of a supranational entity, Christendom (Christianitas), and that their primary loyalty was to that body and to the pope as head of Christendom, rather than to any local, regional, or even national entity.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 291)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 195,
            "polity": {
                "id": 192,
                "name": "it_papal_state_3",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
                "start_year": 1527,
                "end_year": 1648
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1527,
            "polity_year_to": 1648,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The sack of Rome in 1527 devastated the city and marked a nadir in the fortunes of the Papal States. The papacy gradually rebuilt its power and prestige during the 16th century, with the onset of the Counter-Reformation. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648), ending the Thirty Years' War, was a symbolic turning point marking the eclipse of papal influence in the international affairs of Europe; the economy and demography of the Papal States, along with that of the rest of Italy, was also in marked decline by this point."
        },
        {
            "id": 196,
            "polity": {
                "id": 193,
                "name": "it_papal_state_4",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
                "start_year": 1648,
                "end_year": 1809
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1648,
            "polity_year_to": 1809,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The polity period begins with the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (with the Peace of Westphalia), and the second War of Castro (1649). One end date could be 1796 CE, when the armies of the French Directorate invaded the peninsula, ending the <i>ancien regime.</i> Alternatively one could code the end-date as 1809 CE, when Napoleon annexed the Papal State outright, imprisoning Pope Pius VII in Savona.§REF§Grab in Davis, 47§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 197,
            "polity": {
                "id": 191,
                "name": "it_papal_state_2",
                "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
                "start_year": 1378,
                "end_year": 1527
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 1378,
            "polity_year_to": 1527,
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The polity period begins with the return of the papacy to Rome, and ends with the Sack of Rome. Pope Urban V (r. 1362-70) attempted to return to Rome, but was driven out by the Romans and returned to Avignon in 1370.§REF§Logan, 305§REF§ The efforts of the papacy to return to Rome and the Patrimony were frequently stymied, and Urban VI's eventual success (1377-78) in returning to Rome provoked the Great Schism.§REF§on the schism, see in general Partner, 366-95, and Logan, 294-307§REF§<br>Alternate start: 1417. \"popes in the century between ca. 1430 and 1530 concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome. It is not for nothing that these pontiffs are often called \"Renaissance popes.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 386)§REF§ 1378-1527 CE"
        },
        {
            "id": 198,
            "polity": {
                "id": 187,
                "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate",
                "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna",
                "start_year": 568,
                "end_year": 751
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": 568,
            "polity_year_to": 751,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " 568 CE start date+ the reforms of the East Roman Empire which ended the Praetorian Prefect of Italy and created the Exarchate of Ravenna.<br>However, \"The earliest document that remains to us in which we find definite mention of the exarch is the famous letter, dated October 4, 584, of Pope Pelagius II. to the deacon Gregory, his nuncio in Constantinople.\" §REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§<br>+Or 575 CE, \"The new order was created at the end of the reign of Justin II. (565-578)\",§REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§ when Baduarius commanded the imperial armies in Italy against the Lombards \"he was supreme governor of the province. And it seems certain that it was to mark the amalgamation in him of the two offices, military and civil, that the new title of exarch was created.\"§REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§<br>Ended when the Exarchate was conquered by the Lombards 751 CE who killed Eutychius, the last Exarch. However, formal recognition of nominal Byzantine authority persisted until 781 CE when the years of the Byzantine Emperor's reign were no longer used for dating Papal documents or on the minting of imperial coins in the mint of Rome. §REF§(Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259)§REF§<br>"
        },
        {
            "id": 199,
            "polity": {
                "id": 182,
                "name": "it_roman_rep_1",
                "long_name": "Early Roman Republic",
                "start_year": -509,
                "end_year": -264
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -509,
            "polity_year_to": -264,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Polybius's date for first year of the Republic. §REF§(2013 Sage)§REF§ Founded when the last king of the Roman Kingdom, Tarquinius Superbus, was expelled by a revolt."
        },
        {
            "id": 200,
            "polity": {
                "id": 184,
                "name": "it_roman_rep_3",
                "long_name": "Late Roman Republic",
                "start_year": -133,
                "end_year": -31
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -133,
            "polity_year_to": -31,
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 201,
            "polity": {
                "id": 183,
                "name": "it_roman_rep_2",
                "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic",
                "start_year": -264,
                "end_year": -133
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -264,
            "polity_year_to": -133,
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 202,
            "polity": {
                "id": 70,
                "name": "it_roman_principate",
                "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
                "start_year": -31,
                "end_year": 284
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Polity_duration",
            "polity_year_from": -31,
            "polity_year_to": 284,
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Established de facto by Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC and established by law in 27 BC when Octavian took the name Imperator Caesar Augustus and was granted extensive powers (Imperium proconsulare) over the Roman army. This began the legal history of the Principate (after \"princeps,\" or \"leading citizen\"). The Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the III century (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian.§REF§(Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.§REF§ Turchin and Nefedov also suggest a secular cycle from 30 BCE - 285 CE. §REF§(Baker 2011)§REF§§REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009)§REF§"
        }
    ]
}