Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -305, "polity_year_to": -217, "comment": null, "description": " Ptolemy declares himself \"King\" in 305 BC; Battle of Raphia 217 BCE" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -217, "polity_year_to": -30, "comment": null, "description": " Battle of Raphia 217 BC; Egypt is annexed to the Roman empire after the naval battle at Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra VII. 30bc Octavian annexes Egypt as a Roman province" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2150, "polity_year_to": -2016, "comment": null, "description": " First Intermediate Period: c.2160-2055 BCE §REF§(Seidlmayer 2003)§REF§<br>Theban king Nebhepta Mentuotep II united Egypt under Theban rule auguring the Middle Kingdom. §REF§(Seidlmayer 2003)§REF§" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -664, "polity_year_to": -525, "comment": null, "description": " Saite Dynasty: 664-525 BCE. §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 364)§REF§" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1720, "polity_year_to": -1567, "comment": null, "description": " {1720-1567 BCE; 1720-1420 BCE} or 1720-{1567-1420} BCE<br>Conquest of Avaris c1532-1528 BCE. §REF§(Bourriau 2003, 173)§REF§<br>\"The late Second Intermediate Period, the final stage of the Middle Bronze Age in Egypt, was associated with the decline of the Middle Kingdom state system and the emergence of a fragmentary political situation in which Egypt was ultimately dominated by two rival kingdoms, the Thebans (Dynasties 16-17) in Upper Egypt, and the Hyksos (Dynasty 15) in the Nile Delta.\"§REF§(Wegner 2015, 68) Wegner, Josef. 2015. A royal necropolis at South Abydos: New light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period. Near Eastern archaeology. Volume 78. Issue 2. 68-78.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1069, "polity_year_to": -747, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(John Baines, Oxford workshop January 2017)§REF§<br>Libyan Period: 21st - 24th Dynasties§REF§(Taylor 2000, 332)§REF§ <i>note that the 24th Dynasty is after 747 BCE</i><br>First Libyan ruler in Egypt was Osorkon the Elder (984-978 BCE), son of the Chief of the Meshwesh. §REF§(Taylor 2000, 328)§REF§<br>A chief of the Meshwash was the first king of the 22nd Dynasty: Sheshong I (945-925 BCE). §REF§(Taylor 2000, 329)§REF§<br>Last king in this period to rule significant territory was Sheshong III (827-773 BCE) and after him \"numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings.\"§REF§(Taylor 2000, 330)§REF§<br>period ending with Shoshenq V in ~747 BCE" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 868, "polity_year_to": 969, "comment": null, "description": "Ahmad ibn Tulun appointed prefect of Egypt 868 CE. Tulun was recruited from the military and had Turkish ancestry. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 24)§REF§ Egypt became independent when as Abbasid governor Ibn Tulun stopped sending taxes to the caliphate and established a new capital at al-Qatai.§REF§(Middleton 2015, 966) Middleton, J. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -149, "polity_year_to": 349, "comment": null, "description": "Start<br>\"the Ethiopians, following the rise of the Aksumite state between c. 150 BCE and the turn of the Common Era, came to write in Ge'ez, and Ethiosemitic language using a cursive script (fidal) based on the musnad script of South Arabia.\"§REF§(Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press.§REF§<br>Aksum was a powerful kingdom by the first century CE.§REF§(Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br>\"Aksum dominated the northern highlands of Ethiopia from at least the turn of the Common Era down to the seventh century\".§REF§(Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press.§REF§<br>History of the kingdom of Aksum begins in the first century CE.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 362) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>According to Phillipson (1985: 160) \"By the first century AD Aksum, some fifty km south west of Yeha, developed as the capital of an extensive state, in which there was a fusion of indigenous Ethiopian and South Arabian cultural elements.\"§REF§(Ricard 2004, 16) Alain Ricard. The Languages & Literatures of Africa: The Sands of Babel. James Currey Publishers. Oxford.§REF§<br>Earliest known king, Zoscales, was recorded in a Greek text of the end of the first century CE.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 362) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>c100 CE \"Rise of Aksumite control over network of urban trade centers connecting Tigray with Akele Guzai and Adulis.\"§REF§(Connell and Killon 2011, xxix) Dan Connell. Tom Killon. 2011. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Second Edition. Scarecrow Press. Lanham.§REF§<br>Aksum mentioned in Periplus Maris Erythraei which \"dates from the end of the first century\" and in the next century by the geographer Claudius Ptolemy.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 363) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>Based on archaeology, the geographer Claudius Ptolemy and the later Periplus Maris Erythraei \"the founding of the city of Aksum and the appearance of a royal Aksumite dynasty can be dated from the second century before our era\".§REF§(De Contenson 1981, 341) H De Contenson. Pre-Aksumite Culture. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>End (last pagan monarch)<br>King Ousanas c310-330 CE.§REF§(Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press.§REF§ <i>Ousanas was the last pagan king before king Ezana made Christianity the official religion of the Aksum state.</i><br>According to Phillipson (1985: 160): \"It was also in Ezana's reign that Christianity became the state religion of Aksum: on his later coins the crescent and disc of the moon god are replaced by the cross ...\"§REF§(Ricard 2004, 16) Alain Ricard. The Languages & Literatures of Africa: The Sands of Babel. James Currey Publishers. Oxford.§REF§ <i>This suggests that the end of this period - pagan Aksum - does not occur until sometime within the reign of King Ezana.</i><br>Chronologies<br>\"Archaeologists and historians distinguish between a) a Pre-Aksumite period (7th/8th centuries BCE to the 1st century CE), with the 7th to 4th centuries BCE characterized by a South Arabian phase attested by the presence of c.200 Sabaean inscriptions, and b) a Proto-Aksumite phase from the 4th century BCE to the 1st/2nd centuries CE defined only by archaeological evidence; c) an Aksumite period (1st to 7th centuries CE); and a d) Post-Aksumite period (8th to 11th centuries CE), that precedes the e) Zagwe period (12th to 13th centuries CE).\"§REF§(Bausi 2017, 99) Alessandro Bausi. History of Aksum. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§<br>\"The absolute chronology of Aksumite culture is uncertain. Excavations on the top of Beta Giyorgis hill (Aksum) suggested a sequence of five phases of urban development of the capital city: a) Proto-Aksumite phase: 360 BCE (?) - 120/40 BCE; b) Early Aksumite phase: 120/40 BCE-130/190 CE; c) Classic Aksumite phase: 130/190-360-400 CE; d) Middle Aksumite phase, 360/400-550/610 CE; e) Late Aksumite phase, 550/610-800/850 CE.\"§REF§(Fattovich 2017, 96) Rodolfo Fattovich. Aksumite culture. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1775, "polity_year_to": 1886, "comment": null, "description": " 'Chuuk was settled by the first century A.D. In the fourteenth century, a cult center was established on Moen Island. It was abandoned in the eighteenth century following a fresh immigration from neighboring atolls. Japan replaced Germany as the ruling power in World War I and was in turn replaced by the United States under United Nations Trusteeship in 1945. In 1986 Chuuk and its surrounding atolls became a state within the newly independent Federated States of Micronesia. Protestant missionaries and traders came in the 1880s and Roman Catholic missionaries after 1900. Japan sought to develop Chuuk economically and introduced elementary education in Japanese. Education was much expanded under American administration, and many Chuukese learned English. Some went to college in Guam, Hawaii, and the United States mainland. The American administration introduced representative government.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1886, "polity_year_to": 1948, "comment": null, "description": " In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes: 'Chuuk was settled by the first century A.D. In the fourteenth century, a cult center was established on Moen Island. It was abandoned in the eighteenth century following a fresh immigration from neighboring atolls. Japan replaced Germany as the ruling power in World War I and was in turn replaced by the United States under United Nations Trusteeship in 1945. In 1986 Chuuk and its surrounding atolls became a state within the newly independent Federated States of Micronesia. Protestant missionaries and traders came in the 1880s and Roman Catholic missionaries after 1900. Japan sought to develop Chuuk economically and introduced elementary education in Japanese. Education was much expanded under American administration, and many Chuukese learned English. Some went to college in Guam, Hawaii, and the United States mainland. The American administration introduced representative government.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -2200, "polity_year_to": -1000, "comment": null, "description": " 1800-1300 BCE §REF§(Peregrine 2001, 412)§REF§<br>Dates and periodizations for the Bronze Age in Atlantic Europe §REF§(Harding 2000, 15)§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3200, "polity_year_to": -2000, "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(McIntosh 2006, 55)§REF§ 2800-1800 BCE §REF§(Sherratt in Cunliffe 1994, 250)§REF§ [2900-2000 BCE] \"The Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture is found in western, central and Mediterranean Europe, 2900-2000 BC (Figure 8.4) ) (Harrison 1980).\" §REF§(Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252)§REF§<br>After 2500 BCE: expansion of the Bell-Beaker complex into Western Europe. §REF§(Sherratt in Cunliffe 1994, 250)§REF§" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1589, "polity_year_to": 1660, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 987, "polity_year_to": 1150, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1150, "polity_year_to": 1328, "comment": null, "description": " Capetian dynasty began with Hugo Capet 987 CE. Before 1200 CE polity held very little territory. Expansion began around 1150 CE. §REF§(Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 111)§REF§ Capetian dynasty ended 1328 CE.§REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 3)§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 752, "polity_year_to": 840, "comment": null, "description": "The year 752 CE was the start year of the Carolingian dynasty. During the period 687 CE to 752 CE the Carolingians were already the effectual rulers, as mayors of the palace, yet there was still a Merovingian figurehead as king." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 840, "polity_year_to": 987, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1000, "polity_year_to": -900, "comment": null, "description": "At the end of the European Bronze Age at the transition to Hallstatt culture<br>\"The European Bronze Age lasted from approximately 2500-800 BC. It was the period in which the production and use of metal tools and weapons first became widespread.\"§REF§(Allen 2007, 18)§REF§" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -900, "polity_year_to": -700, "comment": null, "description": " Early Hallstatt culture (900-600) based in Austria<br>" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -700, "polity_year_to": -600, "comment": null, "description": " Early Hallstatt culture (900-600) based in Austria<br>" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -600, "polity_year_to": -475, "comment": null, "description": " Later Hallstatt culture (600-475 BCE) based in France, in the Massalia border region. Extended as far as Vix / Mount Lassois (Châtillon-sur-Seine), the northwest edge of what archaeologists consider the Western Hallstatt zone." }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 481, "polity_year_to": 543, "comment": null, "description": "Clovis ascends the throne. 481 CE is the earliest possible date. Start of Merovingian rule in the Paris Basin from 486 CE.<br>" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 687, "polity_year_to": 751, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 543, "polity_year_to": 687, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -475, "polity_year_to": -325, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -325, "polity_year_to": -175, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -175, "polity_year_to": -27, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1328, "polity_year_to": 1450, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1450, "polity_year_to": 1589, "comment": null, "description": "\"But the accession of Louis XI and perhaps the conclusion of the War of the Public Weal in 1465 really did coincide with a reversal of the trend of demographic and political collapse which had dominated the history of France for a century.\"§REF§(Potter 1995, 2)§REF§<br>Reigns of Charles VIII (1483-1498 CE) and Louis VII (1498-1515 CE) witnessed \"a remarkable recovery and expansion.\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 2)§REF§<br>\"The crisis of 1557-62 was an ominous prelude to civil war and collapse.\" §REF§(Potter 1995, 7)§REF§<br>End 16th century according to Jean du Port: \"France was then so ruined and depopulated that it seemed more like a desert than a flourishing kingdom, for there was no one in the fields, the country folk had fled to the churches and strongholds, not daring to emerge for fear of the gendarmerie which was usually in the countryside. It had become fallow, full of thickets and woods by the continuous wars under three kings and more like the haunt of beasts than of men.\"§REF§(Potter 1995, 1)§REF§" }, { "id": 82, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1780, "polity_year_to": 1840, "comment": null, "description": " From the loss of American colonies to the instability of the 1830s - 1840s (the Chartist Movement)" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1501, "polity_year_to": 1701, "comment": null, "description": " The Portuguese established commercial relations with coastal Akan states in the late 15th century. The Ashanti empire was formed in 1701: 'A revolution in Ghanaian history was initiated by the establishment of direct sea trade with Europe following the arrival on the coast of Portuguese mariners in 1471. Initially Europe’s main interest in the country was as a source of gold, a commodity that was readily available on the coast in exchange for such European exports as cloth, hardware, beads, metals, spirits, arms, and ammunition. This gave rise to the name Gold Coast, by which the country was known until 1957. In an attempt to preserve a monopoly of the trade, the Portuguese initiated the practice of erecting stone fortresses (Elmina Castle, dating from 1482, was the first) on the coast on sites leased from the native states. In the 17th century the Portuguese monopoly, already considerably eroded, gave way completely when traders from the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia-Protestant sea powers antagonistic to Iberian imperial pretensions-discovered that the commercial relations developed with the Gold Coast states could be adapted to the export of slaves, then in rapidly increasing demand for the American plantations, as well as to gold trading. By the mid-18th century the coastal scene was dominated by the presence of about 40 forts controlled by Dutch, British, or Danish merchants. The presence of these permanent European bases on the coast had far-reaching consequences. The new centres of trade thus established were much more accessible than were the Sudanese emporia, and this, coupled with the greater capacity and efficiency of the sea-borne trade compared with the ancient overland routes, gradually brought about the reversal of the direction of the trade flow. The new wealth, tools and arms, and techniques and ideas introduced through close contact with Europeans initiated political and social as well as economic changes. The states north of the forest, hitherto the wealthiest and most powerful, declined in the face of new combinations farther south. At the end of the 17th century, the Akan state of Akwamu created an empire that, stretching from the central Gold Coast eastward to Dahomey, sought to control the trade roads to the coast of the whole eastern Gold Coast. The Akwamu empire was short-lived, but its example soon stimulated a union of the Asante (Ashanti) states of the central forest (see Asante empire), under the leadership of the founding Asantehene (king) Osei Tutu. The Asante union, after establishing its dominance over other neighbouring Akan states, expanded north of the forest to conquer Bono, Banda, Gonja, and Dagomba.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828</a>§REF§ 'The Portuguese first arrived in 1471 and later built a trading post at Elmina in 1486. Drawn by the trading activity on the coast, descendants of the defunct Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms settled along the north-south trade routes connecting the coast to the Niger bend region. The Queen mother of the Bonda founded the Akyerekyere kingdom along one trade route, which became a clearinghouse for goods from the coast. A prince of the former Kumbu royal house founded the Akumu-Akoto kingdom on another trade route. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes,' hence the name Akan. Emigrants from Akumu-Akoto founded a second city-state to the east, called Akwamu. Emigrants from Akwamu in turn founded the Asantemanso kingdom in the Kumasi region. Mande-speaking immigrants conquered the Akyerekyere kingdom and later the Asantemanso kingdom to become the dominant power in the region, the Denkyira. In 1701, the Asantemanso under the leadership of Osei Tutu (d. 1717) rebelled and defeated the Denkyira.'§REF§HRAF Cultural Summary for 'Akan' Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard§REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1701, "polity_year_to": 1895, "comment": null, "description": " This period begins in 1701 CE when 'the Asantemanso under the leadership of Osei Tutu (d. 1717) rebelled and defeated the Denkyira'§REF§HRAF Cultural Summary for 'Akan' Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard§REF§. This period ends in 1895 CE, 'the last year in which the Union was intact before defeat by the British, exile of the King, and conquest.'§REF§White 2009 'Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Complete Edition' World Cultures§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -710, "polity_year_to": -500, "comment": null, "description": " The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500)." }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -500, "polity_year_to": -323, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 824, "polity_year_to": 961, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1200, "polity_year_to": -1000, "comment": null, "description": " The Final Postpalatial period is divided in Late Minoan IIIC (1200-1100 BCE) and Subminoan (1100-1000 BCE). §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. 2008. \"Background, sources, and methods,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 4.§REF§ The begining of the period is marked by the extensive destructions that destroyed many Cretan sites (1200 BCE) and its end by the arrival of Dorians (1000 BCE)." }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1000, "polity_year_to": -710, "comment": null, "description": " The Geometric Crete (10th-8th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Sub-Minoan (1000-970 BCE), Protogeometric (970-850 BCE), Protogeometric B Knossian (840-810) and Geometric (810-710 BCE). The period starts with the arrival of Dorians and ends with the emergence of Cretan city-states." }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -323, "polity_year_to": -69, "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1450, "polity_year_to": -1300, "comment": null, "description": " The Monopalatial era is divided in Late Minoan II (1450-1400 BCE), Late Minoan IIIA1 (1400-1370 BCE) and Late Minoan IIIA2 (1370-1300 BCE) periods. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. 2008. \"Background, sources, and methods,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 4.§REF§ The beginning of this era is marked by the destruction of most Minoan sites and and its end by the destruction of the Knossian palace, seat of a political authority controlling the greatest part of the island." }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -7000, "polity_year_to": -3000, "comment": null, "description": " The Cretan Neolithic is divided in the Earlier Neolithic (7000-5300 BCE), Late Neolithic (5300-4500 BCE), and Final Neolithic (4500-3000 BCE) periods. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2007. \"Neolithic: Strata IX-VIII, VII-VIB, VIA-V, IV, IIIB, IIIA, IIA and IC groups,\" in Momigliano, N. (ed.), Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age (Minoan) (British School at Athens Studies 14), London, 9-39; \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context, Sheffiled, 21-48.§REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1700, "polity_year_to": -1450, "comment": null, "description": " The Neopalatial era is divided in Middle Minoan III (1700-1600 BCE), Late Minoan IA (1600-1500 BCE) and Late Minoan IB (1500-1450 BCE) periods. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. 2008. \"Background, sources, and methods,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 4.§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1900, "polity_year_to": -1700, "comment": null, "description": " The Old Palace era is divided in Middle Minoan IB (1900-1800 BCE) and Middle Minoan II A-B (1800-1700 BCE) periods. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. 2008. \"Background, sources, and methods,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 4.§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -1300, "polity_year_to": -1200, "comment": null, "description": " The beginning of the period is marked by the destruction of the Knossian palace and its end by wide destructions." }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -3000, "polity_year_to": -1900, "comment": null, "description": " The era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. \"Background, sources, and methods,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 4.§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1000, "polity_year_to": 1200, "comment": null, "description": " Justification for starting date: It is approximately the date of initial settlement. Based on the most up-to-date information, Kirch§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 126-7.§REF§ concludes that the islands were likely first settled between 800CE and 1000CE. Some have argued for an earlier settlement, as early as 300CE, and in earlier works, Kirch found this scenario plausible§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 291.§REF§§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1984. The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pg. 77.§REF§. New starting date following an exchange with Patrick Kirch: \"Most archaeologists would now say that initial Polynesian settlement did not occur until about AD 1000. Refer to Athens et al. 2014, American Antiquity 79:144-155 for latest Bayesian estimate of the chronology of Hawaiian colonization.\" §REF§(Kirch 2016, personal communication)§REF§Justification for ending date: 1200CE is when most of the changes characteristic of Kirch’s ‘expansion period’ began, including a rapid rise in population§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 127.§REF§." }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1200, "polity_year_to": 1580, "comment": null, "description": " Justification for starting and ending dates: This is Kirch’s Expansion Period. The starting date is approximately when the population began to increase parabolically, and the ending date is when the population had plateaued§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 127.§REF§. AD: changed from end date of 1650 CE following an email from Patrick Kirch: \"I would be inclined to put the division between Hawaii2 and Hawaii3 at around 1580 with the reign of 'Umi-a-Liloa who supposedly consolidated the entire island into one polity. Certainly, intensification of the great dryland field systems was also underway by this time. So, 1650 seems a bit late for these key transitions.\" §REF§(Kirch 2016, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1580, "polity_year_to": 1778, "comment": null, "description": " Justification for end date: Cook's first arrival in the archipelago (1778 at Kauai - he did not visit the Big Island until 1779)." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1650, "polity_year_to": 1841, "comment": null, "description": " The Iban claim to originate in the Kapuas Basin, but migration was common: 'The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.' §REF§Sutlive, Vinson H. Jr. and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ European and Chinese traders were present and interfered with the affairs of the Muslim sultanates on the island: 'Modern European knowledge of Borneo dates from travelers who passed through Southeast Asia in the 14th century. The first recorded European visitor was the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone, who visited Talamasim on his way from India to China in 1330. The Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, established trading relations on the island early in the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century the Portuguese and Spanish trade monopoly was broken by the Dutch, who, intervening in the affairs of the Muslim kingdoms, succeeded in replacing Mataram influence with their own. The coastal strip along the South China and Sulu seas was long oriented toward the Philippines to the northeast and was often raided by Sulu pirates. British interests, particularly in the north and west, diminished that of the Dutch. The Brunei sultanate was an Islamic kingdom that at one time had controlled the whole island but by the 19th century ruled only in the north and northwest. In 1841 Sarawak was split away on the southwest, becoming an independent kingdom ruled by the Brooke Raj. North Borneo (later Sabah) to the northeast was obtained by a British company to promote trade and suppress piracy, but it was not demarcated until 1912. Those losses left a much-reduced Brunei, which became a British protectorate in 1888.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§ The sultan of Brunei later ceded Sarawak to the Brooke Rajahs: 'Sarawak became the southern province of the sultanate of Brunei when the Majapahit empire of Java declined in the 15th century. James Brooke, an English adventurer and a former military officer of the East India Company, visited the territory in 1839 and aided the sultan in suppressing a revolt. As a reward for his services, Brooke was installed (1841) as raja of Sarawak over the sector from Tanjung Datu to the Batang (River) Samarahan; there he endeavoured to suppress piracy and headhunting.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Sarawak-state-Malaysia\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Sarawak-state-Malaysia</a>§REF§ 'At Singapore (founded 20 years earlier by Sir Stamford Raffles), Brooke learned that Pengiran Muda Hassim, chief minister of the sultanate of Brunei, was engaged in war with several rebel Iban (Sea Dayak) tribes in neighbouring Sarawak, nominally under Brunei control. The rebellion was crushed with Brooke’s aid, and as a reward for his services the title of raja of Sarawak was conferred upon him in 1841, confirmed in perpetuity by the sultan of Brunei in 1846. For the next 17 years Brooke and a handful of English assistants made expeditions into the interior of Sarawak, partially suppressed the prevalence of headhunting, and established a secure government.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1841, "polity_year_to": 1987, "comment": null, "description": " 'At Singapore (founded 20 years earlier by Sir Stamford Raffles), Brooke learned that Pengiran Muda Hassim, chief minister of the sultanate of Brunei, was engaged in war with several rebel Iban (Sea Dayak) tribes in neighbouring Sarawak, nominally under Brunei control. The rebellion was crushed with Brooke’s aid, and as a reward for his services the title of raja of Sarawak was conferred upon him in 1841, confirmed in perpetuity by the sultan of Brunei in 1846. For the next 17 years Brooke and a handful of English assistants made expeditions into the interior of Sarawak, partially suppressed the prevalence of headhunting, and established a secure government.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In September 1941, on the centenary of Brooke rule, the third raja proclaimed a constitution designed to establish self-government for Sarawak, but shortly afterward the state fell to the Japanese. When World War II was over, Vyner Brooke decided that Sarawak should be ceded to Great Britain, and, after a bitter family feud, he formally terminated Brooke rule on July 1, 1946.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In July 1946 both Sarawak and North Borneo were made British crown colonies. In Dutch Borneo a strong nationalist sentiment developed and led to fighting between Indonesian and Dutch forces as the latter attempted to reimpose Netherlands control. Sovereignty passed to the Indonesians in 1949, and in 1950 a new constitution proclaimed Dutch Borneo part of the Republic of Indonesia. The British government relinquished its sovereignty over Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, when these territories joined the Malaysian federation. This marked the commencement of Indonesian hostilities in the form of guerrilla raids across the border. These raids ceased by agreement in 1966. Except for the period of Japanese occupation, Brunei was under British protection from 1888 to 1983. It became fully independent on Jan. 1, 1984.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 46, "name": "id_buni", "long_name": "Java - Buni Culture", "start_year": -400, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -400, "polity_year_to": 500, "comment": null, "description": " Zahorka states the Buni pottery discoveries date between 400 B.C.E. to 100 C.E.,§REF§(Zahorka 2007, 27)§REF§ but I have taken the date here roughly up to the start of the Kalingga Kingdom which was the first Hindu-Buddhist polity in Central Java. 2500-1450 B.P .\u2028 §REF§(Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 107)§REF§<br>" } ] }