Polity Duration List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Durations.
GET /api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=10
{ "count": 519, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=11", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-durations/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 638, "polity": { "id": 693, "name": "tz_milansi_k", "long_name": "Fipa", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1600, "polity_year_to": 1890, "comment": null, "description": "Start date: \"The Fipa oral traditions place the origins of the political history of the Fipa at the coming of Ntatakwa, the founder of the Milansi chiefdom, matched in calendar time to around the late 17th century A.D.\" §REF§(Mapunda 2009: 86) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9GV5C5NF/collection. §REF§ End date: \"Two broad phases of district administration can be identified in German times. In the 1890s its aims were military security and political control and its methods were violence and alliance with accommodating African leaders. [...] These 'local compromises', as they may be called, had common characteristics. The administration's demands were small: recognition of German paramountcy, provision of labour and building materials, use of diplomacy rather than force in settling disputes. In return the Germans offered equally limited advantages: normally only political and military support for their allies. The relationship demanded little change in the societies concerned. Stateless peoples had to accept headmen. Many chiefdoms had to accept changes in leadership. But even those who allied with the Germans generally saw them as a new factor in existing conflicts, not yet as making those conflicts redundant. [...] The imposition of tax in 1898, together with Mkwawa's death, initiated a transition to a second phase of administration whose chief characteristic was the collapse of the local compromises established in the 1890s. The old collaborators did not necessarily lose power, but to survive they had to adapt themselves and often to reorganise their societies. [...] Some Haya chiefs were especially successful at this, for they controlledelaborate administrative systems which the Germans were anxious to preserve. Kahigi of Kianja survived by loyal and efficient rule andactive support for economic development, although he opposed education and mission work. His rival, Mutahangarwa of Kiziba, took adaptation further and actively welcomed education, thus giving Kiziba a lead over the rest of Buhaya, although he refused to become a Christian himself and disinherited his eldest son for doing so.\"§REF§(Iliffe 1979: 119-121) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 639, "polity": { "id": 694, "name": "rw_bugesera_k", "long_name": "Bugesera", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1700, "polity_year_to": 1799, "comment": null, "description": "Start date: \"Today no dates can be proposed at all for the kingdoms to the south and southeast of central Rwanda, to wit, Mubari, Gisaka, and Bugesera, for lack of archaeological research or even reliable dynastic lists. Their chronology before the middle of the eighteenth century derives from references in Rwandan historical narratives, references that are probably mere anachronisms.\" §REF§(Vansina 2004: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ \"1799: Conquest of Bugesera [by Nyinginya].\" §REF§(Vansina 2004: 213) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 640, "polity": { "id": 695, "name": "ug_nkore_k_2", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1750, "polity_year_to": 1901, "comment": null, "description": "NB The first quote posits the earliest possible start date for this polity, but the second quote suggests that the polity changed significanty in the 18th century, enough to warrant splitting its history into two phases. \"Individual settlements were governed by clan chiefs, but around the middle of the 1400s, one of these, Ruhinda, rose to dominance and established himself as mugabe , or paramount ruler over all the Ankole clans. [...] Ankole kings managed to maintain the independence of their people until 1901, when Great Britain claimed the region as a colonial possession and the kingdom came under British control.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM.§REF§ \"Between the establishment of the Hinda regime under Ruhinda and his son, Nkuba, and the first half of the eighteenth century, 'nothing of importance seems to have taken place', according to S. R. Karugire (1971: 150), Ankole's leading historian. [...] [C]onsidering what is recorded it seems fairly certain that following Nkuba's consolidation of personal power over the Hima clans until the eventful reign of Ntare IV (1699-1727/26), the absence of historical information stems from the fact that few people in Ankole then or since would recognize the society of the first ten generations as either an historical or political unit much less as a state. Nkuba and his successors emerge dimly from the spare record as what Ruhinda himself was — a wandering herdsman and warrior. The Mugabe (king) of later years was at this stage merely the leading member of the central clan of a cluster of pastoral clans — the giver of gifts of cattle as his title literally implies rather than the monarch or ruler (Mukama) of a sovereign state.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 136) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 641, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 590, "polity_year_to": 915, "comment": null, "description": "“The first two rulers of the early medieval line were Kadungon (560-90) and his son Maravarman Avanishulamani (590-620). The latter is credited with ending Kalabhra rule in the area and reviving Pandya power.” §REF§ (Singh 2008, 558) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ “During the reign of Varagunavarman’s grandson Maravarman Rajasinha II (r. c.a. 900-920), the Cholas invaded and defeated the combined forces of the Pandyas and their ally, the King of Ceylon, at the battle of Vellur in 915. The Chola dynasty then ruled the Pandyas for thirty years, until their defeat at the battle of Takkolam in 949 at the hands of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of the Deccan region.\" §REF§ (Middleton 2015, 717) 2015. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In World Monarchies and Dynasties: Vol 1-3. Edited by John Middleton. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 643, "polity": { "id": 698, "name": "in_cholas_1", "long_name": "Early Cholas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -300, "polity_year_to": 300, "comment": null, "description": "Some researchers date the start of the Early Cholas as early as 600 BCE: “The period between 600 BCE to 300 AD, Tamilakam was ruled by three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola, and Chera, and a few independent chieftains.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ However, in an article surveying the evidence for the early Tamil kingdoms of South India (Chola, Chera and Pandya), Abraham notes that both Tamil-language inscriptions and inscriptions referring to the Tamil lands from outside the region (e.g. the rock edicts of Mauryan emperor Ashoka) point to a start date sometime in the third century BCE.§REF§ (Abraham 2003: 211-12) Abraham, Shinu A. “Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India.” Asian Perspectives 42, no. 2 (2003): 207–23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ Here we have opted for the later start date as it is more robustly attested. On the end date: “The Kalabhras, or Kalappirar, were rulers of all or parts of the Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Cheras disintegrated.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 644, "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1675, "polity_year_to": 1799, "comment": null, "description": "“The rule or the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijayrahava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675 the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protégé on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.” §REF§ (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection §REF§ “However, the new king [Sarabhoji] lost further power for, by a new treaty imposed by the British, the entire administration of the state was transferred to the government at Madras. In 1799, Thanjavur became apart of the Madras Presidency and the Raja was given an annual allowance.” §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 21) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 645, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -300, "polity_year_to": 200, "comment": null, "description": "Some researchers date the start of the Early Pandyas as early as 600 BCE: “The period between 600 BCE to 300 AD, Tamilakam was ruled by three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola, and Chera, and a few independent chieftains.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ However, in an article surveying the evidence for the early Tamil kingdoms of South India (Chola, Chera and Pandya), Abraham notes that both Tamil-language inscriptions and inscriptions referring to the Tamil lands from outside the region (e.g. the rock edicts of Mauryan emperor Ashoka) point to a start date sometime in the third century BCE.§REF§ (Abraham 2003: 211-12) Abraham, Shinu A. “Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India.” Asian Perspectives 42, no. 2 (2003): 207–23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ Here we have opted for the later start date as it is more robustly attested. On the end date: “The Kalabhras, or Kalappirar, were rulers of all or parts of the Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Cheras disintegrated.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 646, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -600, "polity_year_to": 300, "comment": null, "description": "“The period between 600 BCE to 300 AD, Tamilakam was ruled by three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola, and Chera, and a few independent chieftains.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ “The Kalabhras, or Kalappirar, were rulers of all or parts of the Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Cheras disintergrated.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 647, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1710, "polity_year_to": 1801, "comment": null, "description": "“It seems that some measure of stability was achieved with the establishment of Mughal rule. After a few years the rulers of Gingee took the title of nawabs of the Carnatic, and in the first years of the 18th century they left Gingee to take up residence in Arcot. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ “The Navaiyat dynasty came to power when Saadutullah Khan was appointed subadhar, or chief of military and revenue officer of the newly established Mughal subah of Arcot in 1710. The Navaiyats, wanting to take advantage of the relative weakness of the links to the Mughal centre, and wanting to carve out an independent dynastic rule for themselves, quickly fell into the traditional pattern of empire-building. They extended existing citadels like Vellore and Gingee by ‘importing’ North Indian traders, artisans and soldiers; they established a number of new market centres; they founded and endowed mosques; and they invited poets, artists and scholars and Sufi holy men to the new capital of Arcot.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ “In 1755 Muhammed Ali requested the aid of the British to raise money from the poligars in the southern parts of the nawab’s dominions, mainly around the Madurai. This was the starting point of the ‘poligar wars’, which only came to an end in 1801 when the British established a firm control over the entire Carnatic area.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ “By the turn of the century the nawab was heavily in debt to the East India Company, and was in fact a ‘puppet king’ –at least in the eyes of the British who could not appreciate the authority (let alone the expenditures) of a king deprived of his troops, his revenue apparatus and his political status.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 648, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 300, "polity_year_to": 890, "comment": null, "description": "“The Pallava dynasty ruled in Southern India from approximately the early 4th century to the late 9th century C.E., although these dates are sometimes disputed because of a dearth of historical materials.” §REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 649, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 200, "polity_year_to": 600, "comment": null, "description": "“This period called ‘Kalabhra interregnum’ was presumably from 3rd to sixth centuries CE, when the Tamil country was believed to have been overrun by Northern invaders, called ‘Kalabhras’. §REF§ (Ganesh 2013, 26) Ganesh, K.N. 2013. ‘Transition in Early Tamil Society: A Hypothesis on the Formation of Tamil Region’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 74. Pp 23-47. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EJ9WSE3H/collection §REF§ Within the following quote, there are two different end dates given. “The Kasakundi plates refer to Sinhavisnu’s conquest of the Kalabhras late in the 6th century A.D. The velvikuddi plates of Nedunjadayn show the defeat of the Kalabhras at the hands of Kadungon (c. A.D. 600).” §REF§ (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 650, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1532, "polity_year_to": 1676, "comment": null, "description": "“In 1535 AD, Vijayanagara emperor Achyuta Devaraya established the Thanjavur Nayak rule.”§REF§ (Perumal 2012, 164) Peruman, P. 2012. ‘The Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tamilnadu’ In Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India. Edited by Saraju Rath. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BCDS4MF3/collection §REF§“The rule or the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur and killed the ruler Vijayraghava. Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijayrahava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne. In 1675 the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri with ease, and occupied Thanjavur. He did not, however, place his protégé on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur.” §REF§ (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection §REF§ “In the Vijaynagar times, Thanjavur was ruled on its behalf by the Nayak dynasty from 1532 to 1676 AD. The Nayaks were closely connected to the Vijaynagar kings, and Raghunatha Nayak and Vijayaraghava Nayak did much to put Thanjavur on the cultural map.” §REF§ (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 651, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1529, "polity_year_to": 1736, "comment": null, "description": "“Finally, there is a reference in John Neiuhoff, which confirms the chronology re-adjustment elaborated in this investigation. With, regard to the events of 1533, he says: ‘After all, the Nayk of Madure, having found means to get into possession of the country, left the Portuguese in the full possession of their jurisdiction over the Parvas, and of the free exercise of their religion.’ This discussion leans to the conclusion that Visvanatha Nayaka, the founder of the Nayak dynasty of Madura, was established in authority there not long before the death of the Vijayanagar emperor, Krishnadeva Raya, in 1530, i.e., about 1529.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 24) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ “The history of the Nayaks of Madura comprises the history practically of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and the first third of the eighteenth centuries, and carries history of south India from the best days of the empire of Vijayanagar to the eve of the British occupation of the Carnatic. It might be described as, in essential particulars, a continuation of the struggle for Hindu independence in the south against the advancing tide of Muhammadan conquest which threatened its very existence at the commencement of the fourteenth century. The cause of Hindu independence, for which the last great Hoysala, Vira Ballal, lost his life in Trichinopoly, was finally over thrown by Chandra Sahib who drove, by a perfidious act of his, the last Nayak Queen, Minakshi, to commit suicide in or about the year 1736.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 1) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 652, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1100, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "\"This book follows French anthropologist Michel Izard's dating of the beginning of Mossi history around the fifteenth century, but this choice is by no means beyond debate.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 10) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§ \"According to western historians, some time between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries a Dagomba king called Nedega, who ruled at Gambaga, appeared on the Volta political scene (Delafosse, 1912: 306-12; Tauxier, 1917: 667-77 and 1924: 16-24). Nedega’s only daughter Yennenga married Riale, a Mandingo hunter. Ouidiraogo, a son of this union, became the founder of the Mossi dynasty, which was to proliferate in all directions during the ensuing centuries. He himself founded the first kingdom at Tenkodogo in the south. One of his sons, Rawa, established the kingdom of Zandoma in the north, which later, under his classificatory great-grandson Yadega, became the state of Yatenga. In the east Rawa’s brother Diaba founded Fada n ’Gourma, while a nephew Oubri founded Ouagadougou in the west. Within five generations, according to these traditions, the Mossi kingdoms and principalities attained the form they possess today, and since that distant epoch interconnexions have been maintained among them and are still recognized in terms of kinship (see diagram on p. 155).//\"The colonial régime, dating from 1897, recognized the different Mossi kingdoms and principalities, but with little concern for any ties which existed between them.\" §REF§(Zahan 1967: 152-154) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 653, "polity": { "id": 656, "name": "ni_yoruba_classic", "long_name": "Classical Ife", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1000, "polity_year_to": 1400, "comment": null, "description": "\"The phenomenal elaboration of material culture in the first four centuries of the second millennium A.D. have been identified as the watershed in the cultural florescence of Ile-Ife (Eyo, 1974b; Garlake, 1974, 1977; Willett, 1973), prompting Willett (1967, 1973) to call it the Classical era. I have elsewhere proposed that the Classical period can be subdivided into two phases: A.D. 1000–1200 and A.D. 1200–1400 (Ogundiran, 2001, 2003). The earlier phase was characterized by the construction of concentric walls that defined the new urban landscape (Ozanne, 1969); the florescence of art in durable media, such as copper alloys, terracotta, and granite stones, much of which serviced the royal court and the religious cults (Willett, 1967); the setting up of large-scale production of glass beads about 1.6 km. from the center of the city (Ajetunmobi, 1989; Eluyemi, 1987); the construction of large-scale impluvium houses (houses with an open central courtyard) and extensive potsherd and stone pavements around the city (Agbaje-Williams, 2001; Garlake, 1975, 1977; Ogunfolakan, 1994); and the elaboration of iconography and rituals (Eyo, 1974a, 1974b). Sacred kingship was fully developed during this period. Human sacrifice either began or increased during the eleventh century A.D., sometimes accompanying the elite burials or associated with state rituals. Mortuary goods, such as glass and carnelian beads, copper alloy sculptures and adornment, indicate the orientation of the elite towards external commerce (Garlake, 1974, p. 122).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 150)§REF§" }, { "id": 654, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1140, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 655, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1170, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 656, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1200, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 657, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1300, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 658, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1320, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 659, "polity": { "id": 672, "name": "ni_benin_emp", "long_name": "Benin Empire", "start_year": 1140, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1450, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "The beginnings of the empire are much debated, with most scholars offering broad date ranges. I’ve coded only specific years scholars mentioned. “[M]odern Benin chroniclers are inclined to date the advent of Oranmiyan to Benin about 1170-1200 (Egharevba 1960:6-8, 75; Egharevba 1965:18; Ebolion 1972:8; Eweka 1989:15-16). An exception to the rule are the most apologetically and nationalistically minded writers. Being very far from genuine scholars, they believe in the validity of even earlier dates (e.g., Ugowe 1997:6- 7). Remarkably, several years before Egharevba, the Englishman Palmer dated traditional relations of these events to the same time, \"about 1200\" (Palmer 1928:87). In the meantime, his compatriot Talbot, who also recorded oral traditions of the Bini in the 1920s, dated the rise of the Second dynasty to 1300 (Talbot 1926:1:153). Ife native historians wrote that Oranmiyan lived either in the eleventh century (Biobaku 1958:65-66) or between 1200 and 1300 (Fabunmi 1985:72). // “There has been no unanimity on this point among scholars to date. Some, for example Jungwirth and Onokerhoraye (Jungwirth 1968: 69; Onokerhoraye 1975:297), accept the traditional date, that is, ca. 1200. But other opinions have been expressed as well. The archaeologists Shaw and Clark date this event to the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Shaw 1968:14; Clark 1977:206) while another archeologist, Darling (1984:1:157-60, 2:336) thinks that ca. 1450 is a better choice. The historian Kochakova (1986:176) does not see any opportunity for giving a more exact date than the tenth to fourteenth centuries, while her colleagues Dike, Isichei, Smith, and Sargent believe that the Oba dynasty came to power in the twelfth, end of twelfth, mid-thirteenth, and the first half of fourteenth century respectively (Dike 1959:13; Isichei 1983:137; Smith 1988:81-85; Sargent 1986:406-07). // “Others have also contributed to the solution of this puzzle: Lloyd's answer is the twelfth-fourteenth centuries, Afigbo's is the thirteenth century, Roese's one is between 1200 and 1320, and Bradbury's is the cusp of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (Lloyd 1968:323; Afigbo 1980:315; Roese 1984:207; Bradbury 1964:149; 1967:1; 1973(19591:42). Finally, students of Benin court art have also made attempts to date the time of the Second dynasty's coming to power. In particular, Freyer and Mowat regard this as happening in the late fourteenth century (Freyer 1987:9; Mowat 1991:2). The best-known and most authoritative among all the dates differing from the canonical dating (that of Egharevba) is that proposed by Bradbury, viz., ca. 1300. The British anthropologist's doubts about Egharevba's date was based on his opinion that Egharevba had ascribed too long reigns to the early Oba, especially to those which ruled prior to the first Europeans' arrival (Bradbury 1973[1959]:37-41, 42).” §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 74–75. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “Our survey inclines us to surmise that the Oba dynasty most likely began to govern between ca. 1200 and ca. 1250, i.e., in the interval marked by the dates of Egharevba (and Jungwirth) at one end and of Smith at the other. Naturally, the advent of Oranmiyan happened some time before that date. It seems that there are no possibilities (at least today) for suggesting any more exact dates for these crucial events of Benin history”. §REF§Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). Advent of the Second (Oba) Dynasty: Another Assessment of a Benin History Key Point. History in Africa, 30, 63–85: 76–77. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CESQP6DT/collection§REF§ “In the past few decades much research has appeared on the early history of this kingdom, the origin of its kingship, and the time of the early Ogiso kings, who are considered by many historians as the autochthonous founders of Benin kingship around 900. These Ogiso rulers are assumed to have been replaced between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries by kings of the later Oba dynasty, which supposedly descends from the Yoruba town of Ife and which continues in office at the present.” §REF§Eisenhofer, S. (1995). The Origins of the Benin Kingship in the Works of Jacob Egharevba. History in Africa, 22, 141–163: 141. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WR8MRZAW/collection§REF§ The alleged founder of the Oba dynasty (after the Ogiso rulers) is Oranmiyan, whose son Eweka was the first Oba, but there’s disagreement about when exactly this took place. Eisenhofer collates other researchers’ hypotheses: Oranmiyan 13th century (the Kinglist of Benin); Eweka 1140–1170 (Struck, 1923); Orhamiyan 1300 (Talbot, referenced by Bradbury); Oranmiyan 1170, Eweka 1200 (Egharevba, referenced by Bradbury). §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 147–150. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The chronology of the history of the Benin kingdom is seen by many historians as clarified in the main back to the thirteenth century and even earlier. Apart from the reports of European travelers and missionaries and some information given by merchants, this chronology is based mainly on the Benin kinglist for the periods before 1897. This list names 38 kings (obas) of Benin and covers past centuries with seemingly great accuracy (see table 1). In spite of the many names of former obas and the pretended accuracy of the list's time-frame, it would be problematic to take it as historically factual since it cannot be corroborated by any documentation before the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ Eisenhofer, S. (1997). The Benin Kinglist/s: Some Questions of Chronology. History in Africa, 24, 139–156: 139. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EQFRPBHN/collection§REF§ “The Ɔghɛnɛ (Ɔmi,to give him his Yoruba title) was the ruler of Ile Ife, the cosmic metropolis of the Yoruba people to the west and, for most of the states of the Bight of Benin, the cradle of divine kingship. He sent his son Oranmiyan, who, however, found Benin uncongenial, so after a short stay he departed for home, but not before he had impregnated the daughter of an Edo village chief. She bore a son, who in the course of time was enthroned under the name Eweka.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “In March 1897 a British military expedition took possession of Benin City (Ɛdo); in the following September Ovonramwen, the thirty-fifth Ɔba (king) of Benin, was deported to Calabar. Thus ended the independence of what had been one of the largest and longest lived of the West African forest states.” §REF§Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection§REF§ “For centuries, there was a healthy relationship between Benin and the British. The relationship was sustained and strengthened by trade and religion. However, it is unfortunate and pathetic to note that the relationship finally ended with the British invasion of Benin in February 1897. This invasion led to the fall of the Benin Empire. The Kingdom of Benin ceased to exist as an independent entity in 1897. It was annexed to the Niger Coast Protectorate the same year.” §REF§Aremu, J., & Ediagbonya, M. (2018). Trade and Religion in British-Benin Relations, 1553-1897. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4, 78–90: 88. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/86KXRXBH/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 660, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1400, "polity_year_to": 1897, "comment": null, "description": "\"This book follows French anthropologist Michel Izard's dating of the beginning of Mossi history around the fifteenth century, but this choice is by no means beyond debate.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 10) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§ \"According to western historians, some time between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries a Dagomba king called Nedega, who ruled at Gambaga, appeared on the Volta political scene (Delafosse, 1912: 306-12; Tauxier, 1917: 667-77 and 1924: 16-24). Nedega’s only daughter Yennenga married Riale, a Mandingo hunter. Ouidiraogo, a son of this union, became the founder of the Mossi dynasty, which was to proliferate in all directions during the ensuing centuries. He himself founded the first kingdom at Tenkodogo in the south. One of his sons, Rawa, established the kingdom of Zandoma in the north, which later, under his classificatory great-grandson Yadega, became the state of Yatenga. In the east Rawa’s brother Diaba founded Fada n ’Gourma, while a nephew Oubri founded Ouagadougou in the west. Within five generations, according to these traditions, the Mossi kingdoms and principalities attained the form they possess today, and since that distant epoch interconnexions have been maintained among them and are still recognized in terms of kinship (see diagram on p. 155).//\"The colonial régime, dating from 1897, recognized the different Mossi kingdoms and principalities, but with little concern for any ties which existed between them.\" §REF§(Zahan 1967: 152-154) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 661, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 376, "polity_year_to": 469, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 662, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1810, "polity_year_to": 1920, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 663, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1154, "polity_year_to": 1485, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 664, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1310, "polity_year_to": 1526, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 665, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 568, "polity_year_to": 774, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 666, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1866, "polity_year_to": 1933, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 667, "polity": { "id": 560, "name": "bo_tiwanaku_2", "long_name": "Late Tiwanaku", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1149 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 800, "polity_year_to": 1149, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 668, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1101, "polity_year_to": 1140, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 669, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1776, "polity_year_to": 1865, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 670, "polity": { "id": 591, "name": "gt_tikal_late_classic", "long_name": "Late Classic Tikal", "start_year": 555, "end_year": 869 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 555, "polity_year_to": 869, "comment": null, "description": " " }, { "id": 671, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1486, "polity_year_to": 1689, "comment": null, "description": " The beginning of the Tudor period with Henry VII’s ascension to the throne until the Glorious Revolution in 1689." }, { "id": 672, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 927, "polity_year_to": 1065, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 673, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1649, "polity_year_to": 1918, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 674, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1157, "polity_year_to": 1231, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 675, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 300, "polity_year_to": 1500, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 676, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1631, "polity_year_to": 1727, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 678, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1454, "polity_year_to": 1648, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 679, "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": -188, "polity_year_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 680, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1368, "polity_year_to": 1630, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 681, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1240, "polity_year_to": 1440, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 682, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 861, "polity_year_to": 1003, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 683, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1690, "polity_year_to": 1849, "comment": "Ending with the instability of the 1830s and 1840s (the Chartist Movement)", "description": null }, { "id": 685, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 410, "polity_year_to": 926, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 686, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1816, "polity_year_to": 1870, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 687, "polity": { "id": 572, "name": "at_austro_hungarian_emp", "long_name": "Austro-Hungarian Monarchy", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1867, "polity_year_to": 1918, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 688, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1850, "polity_year_to": 1968, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 689, "polity": { "id": 785, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn_222222", "long_name": "Qasimid Dynasty XXXXXXX", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1637, "polity_year_to": 1805, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 690, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_duration", "polity_year_from": 1776, "polity_year_to": 1917, "comment": null, "description": "" } ] }