Polity Capital List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Capitals.
GET /api/general/polity-capitals/?format=api&page=12
{ "count": 629, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-capitals/?format=api&page=13", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-capitals/?format=api&page=11", "results": [ { "id": 572, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": 800, "year_to": 1080, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Manan", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Dates are tentative and approximative, and based on the following quote(s). \"Manan, Jimi, and Jaja are mentioned as the successive capitals of the early Kanem-Borno empire before its shift to the location west of Lake Chad. The pre-Islamic capital of Manan should, according to the reconstructed map, be located well to the north of the lake.[...] The case of Jimi, the twelfth- and thirteenth-century capital, is equally unsolved. [...] The place to which the Sayfuwa fled after the abandonment of their homeland in Kanem is called Jaja in Ibn Said's text.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-106§REF§ Because it is described as the \"pre-Islamic\" capital, we are inferring Manin to have been the capital roughly from the start of the polity's existence to \"the adoption of Islam by the Kanembu rulers ca. A.D. 1080s\",§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§. Jimi is estimated here to have been the capital until around 1300 due to the following quote: \"The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§ As for Jaja, the last quote suggests it was the capital for at least part of the fourteenth century, but it is unclear for how long" }, { "id": 573, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": 1081, "year_to": 1299, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Jimi", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Dates are tentative and approximative, and based on the following quote(s). \"Manan, Jimi, and Jaja are mentioned as the successive capitals of the early Kanem-Borno empire before its shift to the location west of Lake Chad. The pre-Islamic capital of Manan should, according to the reconstructed map, be located well to the north of the lake.[...] The case of Jimi, the twelfth- and thirteenth-century capital, is equally unsolved. [...] The place to which the Sayfuwa fled after the abandonment of their homeland in Kanem is called Jaja in Ibn Said's text.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-106§REF§ Because it is described as the \"pre-Islamic\" capital, we are inferring Manin to have been the capital roughly from the start of the polity's existence to \"the adoption of Islam by the Kanembu rulers ca. A.D. 1080s\",§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§. Jimi is estimated here to have been the capital until around 1300 due to the following quote: \"The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§ As for Jaja, the last quote suggests it was the capital for at least part of the fourteenth century, but it is unclear for how long" }, { "id": 574, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": 1300, "year_to": 1379, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Jaja", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Dates are tentative and approximative, and based on the following quote(s). \"Manan, Jimi, and Jaja are mentioned as the successive capitals of the early Kanem-Borno empire before its shift to the location west of Lake Chad. The pre-Islamic capital of Manan should, according to the reconstructed map, be located well to the north of the lake.[...] The case of Jimi, the twelfth- and thirteenth-century capital, is equally unsolved. [...] The place to which the Sayfuwa fled after the abandonment of their homeland in Kanem is called Jaja in Ibn Said's text.\"§REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 104-106§REF§ Because it is described as the \"pre-Islamic\" capital, we are inferring Manin to have been the capital roughly from the start of the polity's existence to \"the adoption of Islam by the Kanembu rulers ca. A.D. 1080s\",§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 144)§REF§. Jimi is estimated here to have been the capital until around 1300 due to the following quote: \"The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun described a caravan with gifts arriving at Tunis in 1257 from 'the king of Kanem . . . ruler of Barnu' (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 337). It is from then on that the toponym 'Borno' appears in the text sources. This land of Borno would be of essential importance to the history of the empire since, shortly after Ibn Khaldun wrote his text, a long lingering conflict between the Sayfuwa and a neighboring nomadic ethnic group, the Bulala, broke out. This led to the collapse of the first Sayfuwa state and the abandonment of Kanem (Barth 1857-59 II: 33). The court left the old capital and migrated to a place variously called Jaja or Kaka, where a new political center was established. This Jaja/Kaka was situated in the land of Borno (Barkindo 1985: 240; Lange, 1993: 272). It seems, however, that on-going conflicts with the local population led to an abandonment of Jaja/Kaka and the Kanem-Borno mais were forced to move their seat frequently (Barkindo 1985: 245).\" §REF§(Gronenborn 2002: 103)§REF§ As for Jaja, the last quote suggests it was the capital for at least part of the fourteenth century, but it is unclear for how long" }, { "id": 575, "polity": { "id": 670, "name": "ni_bornu_emp", "long_name": "Kanem-Borno", "start_year": 1380, "end_year": 1893 }, "year_from": 1380, "year_to": 1799, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Ngazargamu", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“It was from the ruins of the Kanem empire that a new empire emerged known as Kanem Borno with its capital at Ngazargamu.” §REF§ADEFUYE, A., & Adefuye, A. I. (1984). The Kanuri factor in Nigeria – Chad relations. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 12(3/4), 121–137: 122. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/3D2ZCZP4/collection§REF§ “The Borno dynasty had its capital in the city of Ngazargamu on the banks of the Yo River, near what is now the border between the modern states of Niger and Nigeria. More information about Mai Idris exists than for any other Borno ruler prior to the nineteenth century, due to the survival of Ibn Fartuwa's panegyric chronicle for the first twelve years of Mai Idris' reign.” §REF§Cory, S. (2009). The Man Who Would Be Caliph: A Sixteenth-Century Sultan’s Bid for an African Empire. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 42(2), 179–200: 187. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FCX99F3P/collection§REF§ Birni Gazargamu seems to be an alternate spelling for Ngazargamu: “The state was governed by a group of individuals whom we shall call the ruling class, almost all of whom lived in the capital, Birni Gazargamu before the nineteenth century, and Kukawa during the nineteenth century.” §REF§Brenner, L. (1973). Sources of Constitutional Thought in Borno. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 7(1), 49–65: 51. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/BGCV72TB/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 576, "polity": { "id": 670, "name": "ni_bornu_emp", "long_name": "Kanem-Borno", "start_year": 1380, "end_year": 1893 }, "year_from": 1800, "year_to": 1893, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Kukawa", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“It was from the ruins of the Kanem empire that a new empire emerged known as Kanem Borno with its capital at Ngazargamu.” §REF§ADEFUYE, A., & Adefuye, A. I. (1984). The Kanuri factor in Nigeria – Chad relations. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 12(3/4), 121–137: 122. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/3D2ZCZP4/collection§REF§ “The Borno dynasty had its capital in the city of Ngazargamu on the banks of the Yo River, near what is now the border between the modern states of Niger and Nigeria. More information about Mai Idris exists than for any other Borno ruler prior to the nineteenth century, due to the survival of Ibn Fartuwa's panegyric chronicle for the first twelve years of Mai Idris' reign.” §REF§Cory, S. (2009). The Man Who Would Be Caliph: A Sixteenth-Century Sultan’s Bid for an African Empire. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 42(2), 179–200: 187. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FCX99F3P/collection§REF§ Birni Gazargamu seems to be an alternate spelling for Ngazargamu: “The state was governed by a group of individuals whom we shall call the ruling class, almost all of whom lived in the capital, Birni Gazargamu before the nineteenth century, and Kukawa during the nineteenth century.” §REF§Brenner, L. (1973). Sources of Constitutional Thought in Borno. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 7(1), 49–65: 51. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/BGCV72TB/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 577, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": 1350, "year_to": 1549, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "UNKNOWN", "polity_cap": { "id": 224, "name": "Unknown", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Pakistan", "latitude": null, "longitude": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": null, "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "“Diakhao was the capital of the Kingdom of Sine from the mid-sixteenth to late nineteenth century.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 578, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": 1287, "year_to": 1710, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Jurbel", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“Until the beginning of the eighteenth century, the brak resided at the right riverbank, in the capital of Jurbel, where he resided over a considerably large court.” §REF§ (Barry 2012, 43) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§ “It has initially Ndiourbel as its capital, situated in Mauritania near Rosso, then Ndiangue, in Senegal on the left bank of the river.” §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ “Ce fut le premier brak qui alla s’établir à Nder; il en fit la troisième capitale du Oualo.” §REF§ (Barry and Amin 1985, 171) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: Le Sénégal avant la conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 579, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": 1711, "year_to": 1780, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Ndiangue", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“Until the beginning of the eighteenth century, the brak resided at the right riverbank, in the capital of Jurbel, where he resided over a considerably large court.” §REF§ (Barry 2012, 43) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§ “It has initially Ndiourbel as its capital, situated in Mauritania near Rosso, then Ndiangue, in Senegal on the left bank of the river.” §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ “Ce fut le premier brak qui alla s’établir à Nder; il en fit la troisième capitale du Oualo.” §REF§ (Barry and Amin 1985, 171) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: Le Sénégal avant la conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 580, "polity": { "id": 678, "name": "se_waalo_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo", "start_year": 1287, "end_year": 1855 }, "year_from": 1790, "year_to": 1855, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Nder", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“Until the beginning of the eighteenth century, the brak resided at the right riverbank, in the capital of Jurbel, where he resided over a considerably large court.” §REF§ (Barry 2012, 43) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§ “It has initially Ndiourbel as its capital, situated in Mauritania near Rosso, then Ndiangue, in Senegal on the left bank of the river.” §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ “Ce fut le premier brak qui alla s’établir à Nder; il en fit la troisième capitale du Oualo.” §REF§ (Barry and Amin 1985, 171) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: Le Sénégal avant la conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 581, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": 1529, "year_to": 1615, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Madurai", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura, and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ “His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital, and it served as the capital of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736.” §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 582, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": 1616, "year_to": 1634, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tiruchirappalli", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura, and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ “His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital, and it served as the capital of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736.” §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 583, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": 1635, "year_to": 1664, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Madurai", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura, and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ “His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital, and it served as the capital of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736.” §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 584, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": 1665, "year_to": 1736, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tiruchirappalli", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“The earliest organized missionary effort was made in the territory of the Nayaks of Madura, and their capital, Madura, itself constituted an important missionary centre, though it shared this honour very early with Trichinopoly.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ “His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital, and it served as the capital of Madurai Nayak Kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736.” §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 585, "polity": { "id": 677, "name": "se_sine_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sine", "start_year": 1350, "end_year": 1887 }, "year_from": 1550, "year_to": 1887, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Diakhao", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“Diakhao was the capital of the Kingdom of Sine from the mid-sixteenth to late nineteenth century.” §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 586, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "unknown", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "“Finally they reached Attila's base, which Priscus describes as a 'very large village'. The Huns must originally have lived in tents, probably round felt ones similar to the yurts and gers of modern Central Asia; but for his permanent base, Attila had abandoned these and both his own palace and those of his leading nobles were constructed in wood. Nor were they simple log cabins, for the wood was planed smooth, and the wooden wall which surrounded them was built with an eye 'not to security but to elegance', though it was also embellished with towers. The only stone building was a bath-house, constructed on the orders of one of Attila's leading supporters, Onegesius. He had had the stone imported from the Roman province of Pannonia across the Danube. It was built by a Roman prisoner of war who had hoped to secure his release after the job was done. Unhappily for him, he had made himself indispensable and was kept on to manage the bath-house. The exact location of Attila's village unfortunately remains a mystery and no traces of it have been found; but it probably lay a short distance east of the Danube, in northern Serbia or southern Hungary.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 44) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§" }, { "id": 587, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Mexico City", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 588, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "London", "polity_cap": { "id": 184, "name": "London", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "United Kingdom", "latitude": "51.50986500", "longitude": "-0.11809200", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/London/@51.5287714,-0.2420218,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x47d8a00baf21de75:0x52963a5addd52a99!8m2!3d51.5072178!4d-0.1275862", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 589, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Prague", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “At the end of the Middle Ages, Prague ranked among the top cities of Europe. It featured the oldest university in Central Europe and was the seat of an archbishopric; both foundations had been established in the 1340s. During the third quarter of the fourteenth century, Prague became a center of relics and religious practice. The extent of this visual religious culture suggests a conscious sacralizing of a late medieval city. The city likewise served as the residence of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. There was every reason to regard Prague as a center of political and religious authority. The city’s virtues had been praised since the tenth century and that reputation remained intact extending to the fifteenth century.”§REF§(Fudge 2010: 19) Fudge, Thomas A. 2010. Jan Hus: Religious Reform and Social Revolution in Bohemia. London; New York: I. B. Tauris. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z325C95F§REF§ Language “The elements of humanism which penetrated the Czech context opened up possibilities for the use of national languages, which were already employed at various levels. German was the first to be used in the chancelleries and private correspondence of nobles and burghers, and shortly after that Czech. Gradually however, and mainly during the era of Charles IV, Czech came into use in the ruler’s chancellery, even though German was given priority because of the frequent official contact with imperial addressees. In the opinion of some linguists, it was in the context of the royal chancellery in Prague that the first attempts at unification of German (New High German) orthography are to be found, which was important especially for the lands of southern and central Germany. The refined style is to be found in the translation of the Old Testament into German from the time of Wenceslas IV, and the famed work Ackermann aus Böhmen, which reached Czech readers in an adapted translation as the well known work Tkadleček. Czech did not lag behind either, developing dynamically even beyond the court environment. In the second half of the 14th century, the first Czech translation of the Bible was made (entitled the Leskovec or Dresden Bible; in Moravian it overlaps with the Olomouc version), and so the Czechs were numbered after Italy and France among the first nations to undertake such a task. Bartoloměj of Chlumec, known as Klaret, along with several assistants and most likely supported by the Emperor, concentrated on lexicographical works which throw light on the scientific terminology of the time, which up to this employed mostly Latin.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 149) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. 2009. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “The church gave him educated officials to administer his possessions, so Latin was widely used in Charles IV’s court, and links existed to the first Italian humanists. German was common, especially for contacts with other parts of the empire. But Czech also made its way in to administration and justice, with the first preserved official document in Czech dating to 1370.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 35) Hugh LeCaine Agnew, The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Stanford, Calif. : Hoover Institution Press, 2004), http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§ “Charles IV furthered Bohemia the prosperity of the land and founded the University of Prague (1348), where the students formed four nations of Bohemians and Poles, Bavarians and Saxons. He encouraged the Czech language and the native merchants, although he continued, like Ottocar II and other previous princes, to call in German colonists, and although his chancery at Prague did much to fix a written form of Middle German which marks an important step in the development toward a common German tongue.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ " }, { "id": 590, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Washington D.C", "polity_cap": { "id": 290, "name": "Washington, D.C.", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "USA", "latitude": "38.88980500", "longitude": "-77.00905600", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Washington,+D.C.,+District+of+Columbia,+USA/@38.8936387,-77.1793868,40290m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x89b7c6de5af6e45b:0xc2524522d4885d2a!8m2!3d38.9071923!4d-77.03", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "Washington D.C became the national capital in 1800.§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: xiii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97§REF§" }, { "id": 591, "polity": { "id": 560, "name": "bo_tiwanaku_2", "long_name": "Late Tiwanaku", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1149 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tiwanaku", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “To some scholars, ancient Tiwanaku stimulates this kind of description: ‘The spacious and impressive, yet simple and elegant ceremonial center of Tiahuanaco, which can be likened to a “holy city,” and its outlying shrines such as Lucurmata and Pajchiri are in sharp contrast to the complex, space-intensive patterning of the multifunctional architecture of the Huari capital and the widely dispersed centers of Wirakochapampa and Pikillkakta [sic] and the numerous administrative outliers. The Tiahuanaco theocratic hegemony there was a long-lived tradition of holy places and pilgrimage centers that had their florescence around A.D. 600-900 and episodically continued to be important in the Inka empire, but there was never a great concentration of political power there, nor did anything other than sacred traditions remain as the folk legacy of this hegemony (Richard Schaedel 1988:772-773).’”§REF§(Albarracin-Jordan 1999: 57) Albarracin-Jordan, Juan V. 1999. The Archeaology of Tiwanaku: The Myths, History, and Science of an Ancient Andean Civilization. Bolivia: Impresión P.A.P. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7MDWPAP§REF§Language “Diverse theories abound regarding what past societies or groups spoke which languages, and when each language originated and declined. In light of documented language distributions, Torero (1970, 1987) argues that the Tiwanaku were Pukina speakers who succumbed to violent conquest by Aymara speakers around AD 1330.Developing this idea, others (e.g., Bouysee-Cassagne 1987; Espinoza 1980) link the origins of each spoken language to successive waves of migration and imperialism in the region. For them, the first inhabitants spoke Uruquilla, followed by the Puquina speakers of Tiwanaku, then the Aymara speakers of the Late Intermediate period polities (señorios), and finally the Quechua speakers associated with Inca conquest.”§REF§(Janusek 2004: 46) Janusek, John Wayne. 2004. Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes: Tiwanaku Cities Through Time. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDDCMA8P§REF§ “On the basis of general linguistic data, the supporters of the invasion hypothesis argue that Tiwanaku constituted a Pukina speaking civilization that fell in the hands of Aymara speaking warriors. Waldemar Espinoza (1980) traces the origin of these Aymara invaders to the southern sector of the altiplano and some of the valleys in northern Chile. He claims that prior to the Aymara conquest, Tiwanaku’s sociopolitical sphere constituted a territory occupied by Pukina people. Espinoza bases his assumptions on ethnohistoric records that indicate the presence of Pukina groups in most of the eastern and northeastern sectors of the Titicaca Basin, in northern La Paz, and in sectors of Chuquisaca, Potosi and the Colca Valley in Arequipa.”§REF§(Albarracin-Jordan 1999: 81) Albarracin-Jordan, Juan V. 1999. The Archeaology of Tiwanaku: The Myths, History, and Science of an Ancient Andean Civilization. Bolivia: Impresión P.A.P. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7MDWPAP§REF§ " }, { "id": 592, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "London", "polity_cap": { "id": 184, "name": "London", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "United Kingdom", "latitude": "51.50986500", "longitude": "-0.11809200", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/London/@51.5287714,-0.2420218,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x47d8a00baf21de75:0x52963a5addd52a99!8m2!3d51.5072178!4d-0.1275862", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "“Of England’s 2.2 million people in 1485, less than 10 percent lived in cities. Of these, London was by far the largest (see map 3). It was at once the capital, the legal center, and the primary seaport for trade with Europe.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 16) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§" }, { "id": 593, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Winchester", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The capital of the Kingdom of England was Winchester, based in Wessex. After William the Conqueror’s invasion and ascendance to the throne, he moved the capital to London in 1066." }, { "id": 594, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Vienna", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " Language “One part of the integration process that could create a loyal populace was, in Joseph’s vision, an overarching public culture in the German language. German was not adopted specifically to benefit the native German speakers of the monarchy, but rather because it was already the primary language of the dynasty, many of the elite, and of the most educated parts of the monarchy’s population. As Joseph himself said, “The German language is the universal language of my empire. Why should I negotiate laws and business with one of my provinces in their own language? I am the ruler of the German Empire and therefore the other states which I possess are provinces which must form one complete state, of which I am the head.”10 This quotation reveals that Joseph’s motivation for “Germanization” was not nationalist but rather centralist; it was pragmatic, in his view, to standardize and centralize his rule by promoting the German language.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 238) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ “The Habsburgs held territories that today are located in twelve different European countries and that in the late eighteenth century included speakers of languages known today as Croatian, Czech, Flemish, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Ladin, Polish, Romanian, Serb, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian, and Yiddish.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 19) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ " }, { "id": 595, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Fez", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “When this rebel learnt of Mawlây Rashïd's arrival he fled and the new sultan was able to enter his native town peacefully. After many vicissitudes, he entered Fez in triumph in 1076/1666. The taking of this capital, without which no government can maintain itself in Morocco, marked the definitive establishment of the 'Alawite dynasty.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 218) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§ “The founder of the dynasty, Mawlay al-Rashid, hastened to give Fes al-BI a new madrasa, that of the Sharrn (1081/1670). His successor, Mawly Ismail, transferred his capital to Meknès. Nevertheless, he had the mausoleum and sanctuary of Mawlay Idris rebuilt. At the beginning of the 18th century, Fez once again became the customary residence of the sultan and the central government.”§REF§(Bosworth 2007: 144) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC§REF§Language “On the other hand, the victory resulted in the Ottomans abandoning any idea of conquering Morocco, which remained the only Arab territory outside Turkish influence. The Arabic language thus retained its purity and authenticity in Morocco, and continued to be used for many centuries. The style of Moroccan epistolary literature and of the decrees issued by the king's ministries remained untainted by any foreign influence. This explains why the texts written during the time of the Sa'âdï and 'Alawites (and up to the reign of Mawlây Hassan I) give the impression of having been written during the glorious age of the Umayyads in Spain and of the Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids in Morocco.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§ “During the reign of Mawlay Isma‘il, Morocco was a complex society that could be divided according to a variety of overlapping social categories. Linguistically, Morocco consisted of Arabic speakers and Berber speakers.3 Religiously, Morocco was composed of an overwhelming Muslim majority and a Jewish minority.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 156) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§ " }, { "id": 596, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Meknes", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “When this rebel learnt of Mawlây Rashïd's arrival he fled and the new sultan was able to enter his native town peacefully. After many vicissitudes, he entered Fez in triumph in 1076/1666. The taking of this capital, without which no government can maintain itself in Morocco, marked the definitive establishment of the 'Alawite dynasty.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 218) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§ “The founder of the dynasty, Mawlay al-Rashid, hastened to give Fes al-BI a new madrasa, that of the Sharrn (1081/1670). His successor, Mawly Ismail, transferred his capital to Meknès. Nevertheless, he had the mausoleum and sanctuary of Mawlay Idris rebuilt. At the beginning of the 18th century, Fez once again became the customary residence of the sultan and the central government.”§REF§(Bosworth 2007: 144) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. ed., Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/HGHDXVAC§REF§Language “On the other hand, the victory resulted in the Ottomans abandoning any idea of conquering Morocco, which remained the only Arab territory outside Turkish influence. The Arabic language thus retained its purity and authenticity in Morocco, and continued to be used for many centuries. The style of Moroccan epistolary literature and of the decrees issued by the king's ministries remained untainted by any foreign influence. This explains why the texts written during the time of the Sa'âdï and 'Alawites (and up to the reign of Mawlây Hassan I) give the impression of having been written during the glorious age of the Umayyads in Spain and of the Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids in Morocco.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 211) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§ “During the reign of Mawlay Isma‘il, Morocco was a complex society that could be divided according to a variety of overlapping social categories. Linguistically, Morocco consisted of Arabic speakers and Berber speakers.3 Religiously, Morocco was composed of an overwhelming Muslim majority and a Jewish minority.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 156) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§ " }, { "id": 597, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "None", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "There was no permanent capital during this period of the HRE. There were several cities and palaces that the emperor and his itinerant court would travel between and reside in. Around 800-1556 CE, the city of Aachen in Germany was the site at which all Emperors were crowned and held the most favoured royal palace, but it was not a capital.§REF§Wilson 2016: 428, 434. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§ There were attempts in the thirteenth century to create a permanent royal centre but they did not take hold.§REF§Power 2006: 103. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V4WE3ZK.§REF§" }, { "id": 598, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Khar-Khorin", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “Arugtai now searched for a suitable descendant of the Golden Lineage to place on the throne, and travelled to the city of Bishbalyg (Besh-Baligh) in the Chagaadai (Chagadai) Khanate and supported Tömör Khaan. From there he invited the youngest son of Elbeg Khaan, Buyanshir (Buniyashir 1379–1412), and in 1408 proclaimed him emperor with the reign title Ölziitömör. Arugtai made Khar-Khorin (Qaraqorum) the capital city and assumed the rank of taish (taishi – ‘grand preceptor’), becoming the supreme military commander. Arugtai Taish’s homeland was in the Khölönbuir (Hulun Buir) region.§REF§(Jamsran 2010: 499) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD§REF§Language “The Oirats were separated from the Mongols proper in the 12th and 13th centuries, and their languages became differentiated. Persian historian Rashid al-Din noted that the Oirats’ vernacular was distinct even in Chinggis Khan’s time. For this reason, some attributes of ancient Mongolian phonetics are observable in the Oirat dialect. Linguistic and phonetic studies of modern Oirats living in Mongolia, Kalmykia, Köke-Nuur, Amdo, Alshaa, and Xinjiang show that, due to historical upheavals and migrations, the Oirats prevented their vernacular from dissolving into neighboring Mongols’ languages. Accordingly, Professor G. D. Sanzheev states that “although the Oirats migrated greatly during the last six or seven centuries, their language has not changed from what it was in the 13th century” (Sanjeev 1953: 7). Traces of the phonetic components of the Oirat dialect and its historical evolution, linguistic forms, and vocabulary during the 17th century can be found in documents written in “Clear Script,” while characteristics of the modern Oirat dialect can be detected in various extant sub-dialects. According to Sanzheev, the 17th-century Oirat dialect has similarities to Middle Mongolian as well as to the modern Mogul and Dagur languages (Sanjeev 1953: 33).”§REF§(Tumurtogoo 2014: 3) Tumurtogoo, D. 2014. “The Formation of the Oirat Dialect,” Senri Ethnological Studies, Oirat People: Cultural Uniformity and Diversification, 86, no. 1 (2014): 1–7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MGHTH44W§REF§ " }, { "id": 599, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Sarai Batu (also Sarai or Saray or Old Sarai)", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The first Golden Horde capital was established by Batu Khan on the lower banks of the Volga River. Under the reign of Berke Khan, the capital was moved upstream and renamed. In the fourteenth century the capital of Sarai was described as a typical Muslim city, having running water, mosques, meddress’ (higher learning), palaces, merchants’ quarters and inns for travellers. §REF§Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§§REF§Schamiloglu 2018: 23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX§REF§" }, { "id": 600, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Sarai Berke (also New Sarai or New Saray)", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The first Golden Horde capital was established by Batu Khan on the lower banks of the Volga River. Under the reign of Berke Khan, the capital was moved upstream and renamed. In the fourteenth century the capital of Sarai was described as a typical Muslim city, having running water, mosques, meddress’ (higher learning), palaces, merchants’ quarters and inns for travellers. §REF§Halperin 1987: 26. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§§REF§Schamiloglu 2018: 23. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DIB5VCX§REF§" }, { "id": 601, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Zaranj", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The first capital of the Saffarid empire was Zaranj. However in the middle of the nineth century, the dynasty’s founder, Ya'qub bin Laith, made Shiraz his capital after he conquered the region of Fars.§REF§Bosworth 2007: 477. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGHDXVAC§REF§" }, { "id": 602, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Shiraz", "polity_cap": { "id": 71, "name": "Shiraz", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Iran", "latitude": "29.66579990", "longitude": "52.39293060", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Schiras,+Fars,+Iran/@29.6657999,52.3929306,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x3fb20d0c8c85f2e3:0x6d0c5b8aef6b4cf6!8m2!3d29.5926119!4d52.5835646", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "The first capital of the Saffarid empire was Zaranj. However in the middle of the nineth century, the dynasty’s founder, Ya'qub bin Laith, made Shiraz his capital after he conquered the region of Fars.§REF§Bosworth 2007: 477. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HGHDXVAC§REF§" }, { "id": 603, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "London", "polity_cap": { "id": 184, "name": "London", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "United Kingdom", "latitude": "51.50986500", "longitude": "-0.11809200", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/London/@51.5287714,-0.2420218,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x47d8a00baf21de75:0x52963a5addd52a99!8m2!3d51.5072178!4d-0.1275862", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 604, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Honolulu", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": " “Honolulu, with the best harbor in the group, serving a rich and productive area, attracted the trading ships and became the commercial metropolis of the kingdom, and finally also the political capital. The growth of trade at Honolulu in the early decades of the nineteenth century caused the establishment of some facilities in the harbor, such as wharves and a shipyard.”§REF§(Kuykendall 1938: 19) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB§REF§Language “It was after the death of Kamehameha I in 1819 that the first major changes in the Hawaiian political system occurred… In consequence, a major step of hybridization took place as the Hawaiian language was brought into written form and the term kānāwai began to be used for printed laws enacted by Ka’ahumanu in Kauikeaouli’s name… At the same time, many orally transmitted classical kānāwai, such as those regulating resource management, remained in force. The main political institutions of the classical system such as the ‘aha ali‘i, and the kālaimoku (prime minister), as well as the kia‘āina in their partly British-style hybridization, remained largely unchanged during the early Christian period.”§REF§(Gonschor 2019: 24-25) Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ§REF§ “In 1882, the power of appointment was vested in the governors of the four islands. Designated courts of no record, the proceedings were in the Hawaiian language… No systematic provisions were made for translating court proceedings into English or any other language until the 1885 treaty with Japan.”§REF§(Beechert 1985: 45-46) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H§REF§ " }, { "id": 605, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Winchester", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.”§REF§(‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527§REF§ The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ " }, { "id": 606, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tamworth", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.”§REF§(‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527§REF§ The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ " }, { "id": 607, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "York", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.”§REF§(‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527§REF§ The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ " }, { "id": 608, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Bamburgh", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.”§REF§(‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527§REF§ The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ " }, { "id": 609, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Colchester", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "Each Kingdom had its own capital: (Kingdom) Wessex – (Capital) Winchester Mercia - Tamworth Northumbria - Bamburgh (north) and York (south – until 867 CE) Essex - Colchester East Anglia - tbc Kent - tbc Danelaw - York (from 867) However, once the kingdoms were unified, Winchester became the capital of ‘England’ from 927 CE. Language “Bede, writing in the 720s, recorded that Britain could be broken down into four nations and five languages: English; British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton); Irish; Pictish; and Latin, the universal language of religion and learned inter-communication.”§REF§(‘Early Medieval: Networks’) ‘Early Medieval: Networks’, English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/networks/. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGSR3527§REF§ The Irish language does not apply for this polity. “There are additional factors which may tell against Dark’s interpretation. One is the very low level of Brittonic which entered Old English. Had large-scale interaction occurred between incoming Germanic communities and numerous indigenous British speakers of equivalent social rank, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary. It is this difficulty which has rendered Dark’s thesis unacceptable to many linguists and etymologists. That said, there is virtually no evidence from graffiti or inscriptions in Roman Britain that Brittonic survived in the lowland zone, and it may well have been speakers of Latin whom the barbarians encountered. However, the number of loan words remains low, even though there is growing evidence of Latin influencing Old English in terms of its structure and organisation. So, too, are place-names of pre-English origin, Brittonic, Latin, or other, scarce in eastern England, particularly in comparison with the West, which seems difficult to reconcile with Dark’s vision of a long and vigorous survival of British political power in the region.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 5) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ " }, { "id": 610, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Paris", "polity_cap": { "id": 41, "name": "Paris", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "France", "latitude": "48.85894660", "longitude": "2.27699610", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Paris,+France/@48.8589466,2.2769961,12z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x47e66e1f06e2b70f:0x40b82c3688c9460!8m2!3d48.856614!4d2.3522219", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 612, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Budapest", "polity_cap": { "id": 282, "name": "Budapest", "alternative_names": "Buda", "current_country": "Hungary", "latitude": "47.46666480", "longitude": "19.04999980", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Budapest,+Buda,+Ungarn/@47.4912214,18.836607,34979m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x4741ddae1d8728f3:0xf41ed7fc34685421!8m2!3d47.4662874!4d19.0495823!16s%2Fg%2F11bc5m8l", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "Vienna had been reinstated as the capital of Austria since 1804.§REF§(Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K§REF§ However, Hungary had it’s own capital, Budapest. “Around 1914, after decades of rapid growth, the twin capitals Vienna and Budapest had populations of 2 million and not quite 1 million respectively.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 290) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ Language “Storm centers of strife in the nationally mixed areas were the crownlands with the culturally most advanced population, particularly Bohemia with its roughly three-fifths to two-fifths relationship between Czechs and Germans. Here the distinction between language of the land (Landessprache) and language customary in the lands (landesübliche Sprache) has to be introduced. The former notion meant that a language of the land was any language spoken as vernacular by at least 20 percent of the people. That applied to Bohemia and Moravia in regard to the Czech and German languages, in Silesia to the Polish as well.30 According to a language ordinance of 1880, administrative actions should be taken in the language in which they were initiated by an individual party with interpreter service provided for the other party, if necessary. The other concept, the language \"customary in the land\" was for the Germans in Bohemia and Moravia the language prevalent in any given district. The Czechs did not recognize any distinction between the two concepts in these two crownlands. The Germans stressed the importance of the distinction. It looked like a hair-splitting theoretical issue, yet in practice the consequences were far-reaching. The Czechs demanded that the Czech language should, on historical grounds be the only official language throughout the two crownlands, even in German districts. The Germans on the other hand held that the official language should be only the one customary in any given district— in the German districts, German. The Germans thereby promoted the administrative separation of Bohemia and Moravia as historic entities, in a Czech and German part. This view was opposed by the Czechs who considered the lands of the Bohemian crown as historically Czech lands once united under the crown of St. Wenceslav… Even more subjective was the German position. Except for the unjustified demand for full administrative partition of Bohemia, the German position would have been arguable there as well as in Moravia, if the Germans had been ready to agree to recognition of the same principles in predominantly Slovene southern Styria or in the Italian part of South Tyrol (the Trentino). Here the Germans insisted that the historic lands must be administered as entities with German majorities, even though Slovenes and Italians had a clear majority in the South of both crownlands. As for the language of administration, a further bone of contention was the administrative practice in regard to a tripartite concept of language use: first, an \"external\" language used in communicating with the interested parties, second an \"internal\" language used within the government agencies for the agenda not to be communicated to the parties, and third the so-called \"innermost\" language used between lower and higher government agencies, in particular in communicating between the crownland administrations and the ministries in Vienna. The struggle for the use of the internal language in the administration of Galicia was won by the Poles in 1868, by the Czechs not until the 1890's and only in part. Prime Minister Count Badeni, appointed in 1895, believed he could settle the enervating Czech-German language conflict in Bohemia and Moravia by two language ordinances of 1897 which provided simply for the conduct of business in both languages, Czech and German throughout the crownlands.”§REF§(Kann 1974: 439-441) Kann, Robert A. 1974. A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918. Los Angeles: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RP3JD4UV §REF§" }, { "id": 613, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": 568, "year_to": 568, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Verona", "polity_cap": { "id": 278, "name": "Verona", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Italy", "latitude": "45.43333400", "longitude": "10.98333300", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/?q=Verona,Italy", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "Verona was made the first capital of Lombard Italy by the conquering king, Albion. §REF§Christie 1998: 145. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 584, when the monarchy was dissolved, the capital city was moved west to Milan.§REF§Christie 1998: 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 620 the capital shifted again to Pavia, just south of Milan, where it remained and housed the royal Lombard court.§REF§Peters 2003: xi. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§§REF§Christie 1998: 147. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§" }, { "id": 614, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": 584, "year_to": 584, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Milan", "polity_cap": { "id": 279, "name": "Milan", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Italy", "latitude": "45.46466400", "longitude": "9.18854000", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Mailand,+Italien/@45.4612108,8.5868919,72617m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x4786c1493f1275e7:0x3cffcd13c6740e8d!8m2!3d45.468503!4d9.1824027!16zL20vMDk0N2w?entry=ttu&g", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "Verona was made the first capital of Lombard Italy by the conquering king, Albion. §REF§Christie 1998: 145. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 584, when the monarchy was dissolved, the capital city was moved west to Milan.§REF§Christie 1998: 146. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ In 620 the capital shifted again to Pavia, just south of Milan, where it remained and housed the royal Lombard court.§REF§Peters 2003: xi. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§§REF§Christie 1998: 147. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§" }, { "id": 615, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": 1787, "year_to": 1790, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "New York", "polity_cap": { "id": 288, "name": "New York", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "USA", "latitude": "40.73061000", "longitude": "-73.93524200", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/New+York+City,+New+York,+USA/@40.6911092,-75.161945,157004m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x89c24fa5d33f083b:0xc80b8f06e177fe62!8m2!3d40.7127753!4d-74.0059728!16zL20vMD", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "The US did not have a capital city until 1787 when the first congress met in New York. In 1790 Philadelphia was established as a temporary national capital while Washington D.C, which was carved out from land straddling the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1788, became the national capital in 1800.§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: xiii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97§REF§§REF§ ‘List of Capitals in the United States’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XYZ5KY4D. §REF§" }, { "id": 616, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": 1790, "year_to": 1800, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Philadelphia", "polity_cap": { "id": 289, "name": "Philadelphia", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "USA", "latitude": "39.95258300", "longitude": "-75.16522200", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/Philadelphia,+Pennsylvania,+USA/@40.6911092,-75.161945,157004m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m6!3m5!1s0x89c6b7d8d4b54beb:0x89f514d88c3e58c1!8m2!3d39.9525839!4d-75.1652215!16zL20vMGR", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "The US did not have a capital city until 1787 when the first congress met in New York. In 1790 Philadelphia was established as a temporary national capital while Washington D.C, which was carved out from land straddling the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1788, became the national capital in 1800.§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: xiii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97§REF§§REF§ ‘List of Capitals in the United States’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XYZ5KY4D. §REF§" }, { "id": 618, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": 1077, "year_to": 1212, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Gurganj", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§" }, { "id": 619, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": 1212, "year_to": 1220, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Samarqand", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§" }, { "id": 620, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": 1220, "year_to": 1221, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Ghazna", "polity_cap": null, "comment": null, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§" }, { "id": 621, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": 1225, "year_to": 1231, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Tabriz", "polity_cap": { "id": 70, "name": "Tabriz", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Iran", "latitude": "38.07770970", "longitude": "46.23198840", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.com/maps/place/T%C3%A4bris,+Ost-Aserbaidschan,+Iran/@38.0777097,46.2319884,12z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x401a05175b8429e1:0x59cb1dc6f21233fb!8m2!3d38.0791831!4d46.2886732", "is_verified": true, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "The city of Gurgānj (also referred to as Jurjaniya, Urgench or Khorezm)§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 181. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§ grew rapidly in the tenth and eleventh centuries as it was a terminus for the caravan routes to Volga and Russia.§REF§Bosworth 2012: 302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§" }, { "id": 622, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": 1454, "year_to": 1583, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Vienna", "polity_cap": { "id": 276, "name": "Vienna", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Austria", "latitude": "48.22023310", "longitude": "16.37964240", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.at/maps/place/Wien/@48.2201153,16.214834,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x476d079e5136ca9f:0xfdc2e58a51a25b46!8m2!3d48.2080696!4d16.3713095!16zL20vMGZocDk?entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI1MDEyNi", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K§REF§§REF§(‘Habsburg Monarchy’) ‘Habsburg Monarchy’, in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_monarchy&oldid=1087774624. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMSU7WA3§REF§" }, { "id": 623, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": 1583, "year_to": 1611, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_capital", "capital": "Prague", "polity_cap": { "id": 277, "name": "Prague", "alternative_names": null, "current_country": "Czech Republic", "latitude": "50.07365800", "longitude": "14.13598290", "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "url_on_the_map": "https://www.google.at/maps/place/Prag,+Tschechien/@50.0592029,14.1359829,10z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x470b939c0970798b:0x400af0f66164090!8m2!3d50.0755381!4d14.4378005!16zL20vMDV5d2c?entry=ttu&g_ep=Eg", "is_verified": false, "note": "" }, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Fichtner 2003: 35) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K§REF§§REF§(‘Habsburg Monarchy’) ‘Habsburg Monarchy’, in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_monarchy&oldid=1087774624. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMSU7WA3§REF§" } ] }