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{
"count": 83,
"next": null,
"previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/ec/luxury-statuary/?format=api",
"results": [
{
"id": 51,
"polity": {
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Momoyama is often designated as the period directly after Sengoku but there is much cultural continuity between the two. Additionally, the early dates of Momoyama are often called the last stages of the Sengoku period. “Sculpture in the Momoyama era took on two separate and very different aspects: architectural decoration suited to the flamboyant taste of triumphant warlords; and statues of Buddhist and Shinto deities […] the former, innovative and colorful, embodied the vaunting ambitions of the new rulers; the latter carefully crafted, sought to preserve the heritage of the past.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 87]</a> Momoyama is often designated as the period directly after Sengoku but there is much cultural continuity between the two. Additionally, the early dates of Momoyama are often called the last stages of the Sengoku period. “Sculpture in the Momoyama era took on two separate and very different aspects: architectural decoration suited to the flamboyant taste of triumphant warlords; and statues of Buddhist and Shinto deities […] the former, innovative and colorful, embodied the vaunting ambitions of the new rulers; the latter carefully crafted, sought to preserve the heritage of the past. […] the names and biographies of Momoyama-era master carpenters (daiku) have been recorded: the Kora and Heinouchi families, for example, hereditary craftsman from western Japan […] the decoration carvers (horishi), however, remain largely unknown: but where factual history has faltered, Japanese folklore has created an archetypal horishi […].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 87]</a> “This singular portrait statue commemorates a rich Kyoto shipping magnate and hydraulic engineer, Suminokura Ryoi (1554-1614) […] Ryoi belonged to a prosperous, long established family of medical doctors who had also become doso – money lenders and merchants.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 89]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 52,
"polity": {
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Terracotta statuary. “[Referring to the illustration of a terracotta equestrian figure, C13-15] This equestrian figure is one of hundreds of different terracotta sculptures made during the Mali Empire”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJIRVABU\">[Nelson 2017, p. 12]</a> “[Referring to the illustration of a terracotta figure, possibly the same as above] A terracotta figure of a mounted warrior from Mali, 13th to 15th century. The cylindrical form of the torso and limbs of both horse and rider together with the detailed rendering of the helmet, quiver and bridle are characteristic of the so-called Jenne style of terracotta art…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H8VHGHCZ\">[Idrissa 2023, p. 75]</a> “Terracotta sculptures from the Inland Niger Delta…are among the oldest surviving art objects of the Western Sudan…Little is known about the function or significance of these figures, which date to the period of the Mali Empire…One of its [the Inland Niger Delta] largest trading centers was Jenne, today called Jenne-Jeno or Ancient Jenne, and it is in and around this now abandoned city that many sculptures have been found”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RRVPG98I\">[Bickford_Smith 1997, p. 108]</a> Terracotta statuary. “[Referring to the recovery of terracotta statuary dating to the Mali Empire in the Inland Niger Delta region] One of its largest trading centers was Jenne, today called Jenne-Jeno or Ancient Jenne, and it is in and around this now abandoned city that many sculptures have been found”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RRVPG98I\">[Bickford_Smith 1997, p. 108]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 53,
"polity": {
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Other religious structures and monuments also relied on economic support from polity and populace. Massive sacrificial stones and other monoliths required huge labor investments in moving the rocks into the city centers, efforts only available to powerful tlatoque (see Section 3.1.2 and Berdan, 2014:149–150). Murals decorated walls, stone monoliths were transformed into sacred sculptures by skilled artisans, and godly idols housed in temple shrines were divinely adorned with cloth, gold, shells, feathers, and fine stone artistry. Some idols themselves were made from wood or stone, but others were fashioned from amaranth dough.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “Inter-craft collaborations were the rule among luxury artisans such as the feather workers who depended on the contributions of scribes, gold workers, and lapidaries in producing their feathered masterpieces, and residential clustering of some crafts in Otompan “facilitated a high degree of interdependence among industries” (Nichols 1994: 184).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 27]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 54,
"polity": {
"id": 660,
"name": "ni_igodomingodo",
"long_name": "Igodomingodo",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1450
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\">[Bondarenko_Roese 2001, pp. 185-186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 55,
"polity": {
"id": 612,
"name": "ni_nok_1",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -1500,
"end_year": -901
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 56,
"polity": {
"id": 615,
"name": "ni_nok_2",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -900,
"end_year": 0
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 57,
"polity": {
"id": 663,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
"long_name": "Oyo",
"start_year": 1300,
"end_year": 1535
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "\"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PK7F26DP\">[Ogundiran 2005, pp. 151-152]</a> Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliest period of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 33]</a> Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 58,
"polity": {
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“After the ceremony, Mama Ocllo’s descendants created a golden statue of the empress and placed the remains of her womb in its hollow interior.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 35]</a> “Quechua speakers like the Incas called their most powerful supernatural forces huacas, and these beings also had portable avatars, often described as anthropomorphic stones and statues that lived in the Inca capital. As Inca rulers built Cuzco to be the center of their universe, they brought many of these portable huacas to live in Cuzco. The most important Inca huacas occupied the Coricancha, the palace-temple built by the first Inca and his four sisters. The temple housed a golden statue of the midday sun, Punchao, and had rooms for the moon, thunder, and other celestial bodies.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 58]</a> “As Inca rulers built Cuzco to be the center of their universe, they brought many of these portable huacas to live in Cuzco. [...] Inca emperors possessed the supernatural ability to craft powerful statues and identify stone huacas. [...] In some instances, new rulers overturned the prevailing dynastic history, fabricating new ancestral statues, reassigning estates and retainers to royal mummies, and even killing record keepers who preserved old narratives of the past.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 58-61]</a> “Other stone huacas occupied the countryside surrounding Cuzco, and Inca elites gave them offerings and prayers as part of a municipal shrine system that radiated out from the Coricancha temple. 55” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 58]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 59,
"polity": {
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘The two outstanding monuments of the Greeks in Taxila that have survived the wreck of the ages are the city which they founded in Sirkap (Ch. 4) and the temple at Jandial (Ch. 5). In contrast with the irregular, haphazard planning of the older city of the Bhir Mound, this new city was laid out on the symmetrical chess board pattern characteristic of other Hellenistic cities of this period, and it was protected by a bastioned wall of stone in place of the older mound of beaten earth or unbaked brick which surrounded the Bhir Mound city. The plans of the houses were altogether more symmetrical. In the temple of Jandial, which stands in the northern suburb of the city, the plan hardly varies from the orthodox plan of a Greek temple; the pillars are of Ionic order, though provided with plain shifts; the base mouldings are distinctively Greek; and the methods of construction are similar to those which were in vogue in Attica. In the sphere of arts and crafts the Greeks made many valuable contributions to the material culture of the North-West. It was they who introduced a vastly superior type of coin, bearing the name and, usually, the portrait of the ruling sovereign stamped upon it in relief, with the legend repeated in the Kharoshthi as well as in the Greek script. It was they who encouraged the use of schist and other soft stones for the manufacture of the carved dishes, cups, goblets, toilet-trays and the like which are afterwards found in such abundance in Sirkap.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2Z263M2B\">[Marshall 1960, p. 22]</a> ‘Emergence of stone sculpturing in ancient Taxila Valley revolves around three major archaeological sites; Bhir Mound city (600-200 BC), Sirkap City (200 BC-200 CE) and Buddhist monastic complex of Dharamarajika (300 BC-500 CE). Investigation and astonishing discoveries revealed that till the invasion of Greeks, at local level art of stone sculpturing was not evidenced. In the light of investigation at Bhir mound city the hypothesis strengthen that stone sculpturing art introduced in Taxila valley after the invasion of Alexander the great. The stone artifacts found in the Bhir mound are daily use utensils but not sculptures of human beings or animals. After the Greek invasion, there is difference between the T.C figurines of Bhir mound city and Sirkap city. Mauryan influence faded out and it replaced by Hellenistic influence from west (Marshall 1951:Vol.II,440). Most common were terra cotta votive tanks adorned with terra cotta figurines.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASUFC5AK\">[Baloch_Lone 2021, p. 249]</a> ‘The stone sculptures include figured reliefs, statues; architectural items (decorated or simply moulded) forming part of monuments. Different tools are used for stone chiseling, ranging from heavy-duty tools to more delicate instruments depending on the work to be carried out and the result to be achieved, such as percussion tools, cutting tools (percussion, abrasion, rotation); as well as measuring instruments (Fig.4 ). This paper lists the tools whose use is proven, or likely, in the Gandharan area, though clearly including reference to classical and Near Eastern areas. Sometime various pieces of stone sculptures, prepared off site, were placed in position (in a pre established sequence indicated by signs or markscut into the single pieces), fixed and made good between them (using mortice and tendon joints, continuous bridle joints, cramps, dovetail cramps, nails) (Pl. 3).’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASUFC5AK\">[Baloch_Lone 2021, p. 250]</a> ‘There are two local stones frequently available in Taxila valley, hard lime stone and Kanjur. Both are found at the hill side and along the banks of Tamra and Haro River. It is significant to mention that lime stone is largely used for construction and rarely for sculptures. In the contemporary era, artisans are also working in different mediums and producing utilitarian objects i.e. grinding stones, water fountains, tiles, vases, grave stones etc. The characteristics of the stone type have influenced working methods. Four kinds of sand stone used in the Bhir mound settlement, i.e. up to the beginning of the second century B.C.7 [...] After the invasion and settlement of Greek in the region, commercial demand increased for the production of stone artifact.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASUFC5AK\">[Baloch_Lone 2021, pp. 249-250]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 60,
"polity": {
"id": 123,
"name": "pk_kachi_post_urban",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period",
"start_year": -1800,
"end_year": -1300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Some stone sculptures were deliberately broken.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 91]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 61,
"polity": {
"id": 133,
"name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid",
"long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period",
"start_year": 854,
"end_year": 1193
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“According to Istakhri, the market complex of Multan was very spacious and crowdy. In the centre there was a big temple, which was covered by the arcades of shapes dealing in artifacts made of ivory and bronze”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8DZ7RPZ8\">[Islam 1990, p. 57]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 62,
"polity": {
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Statues; marble reliefs. “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings… Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 271]</a> “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings… Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 271]</a> “The crowning moment of the reconstruction project came in 1775, twenty years after the earthquake. Portugal’s first bronze statue was erected in the middle of Praça do Comércio, even though the square was not yet finished.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URZAQIM6\">[Hatton 2018, p. 157]</a> “João V was not only a keen builder, but an avid collector of artworks. He spent lavishly on paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture, jewellery and scale models of buildings. In 1726, he purchased a particularly outstanding collection of paintings, mainly by Flemish and Dutch masters. This collection, originally accumulated by Dom Luı´s da Cunha (1662–1749), an urbane and highly-experienced Portuguese diplomat, included works by Rembrandt, Raphael, Titian, Rubens, Anthony van Dyck and Jan Breughel. João also acquired scores of paintings through his regular buyers and agents in France, Italy and elsewhere in Europe. Unfortunately many of these paintings, as well as other artworks, were destined to be lost in the 1755 earthquake. However, those housed at Mafra survived – among them numerous marble reliefs and statues that João had ordered from Rome.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 271]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 63,
"polity": {
"id": 694,
"name": "rw_bugesera_k",
"long_name": "Bugesera",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1799
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and statuary does not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 64,
"polity": {
"id": 692,
"name": "rw_gisaka_k",
"long_name": "Gisaka",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and statuary does not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 65,
"polity": {
"id": 691,
"name": "rw_mubari_k",
"long_name": "Mubari",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1896
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and statuary does not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 66,
"polity": {
"id": 689,
"name": "rw_ndorwa_k",
"long_name": "Ndorwa",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1800
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and statuary does not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 67,
"polity": {
"id": 687,
"name": "Early Niynginya",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and statuary does not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 68,
"polity": {
"id": 638,
"name": "so_tunni_sultanate",
"long_name": "Tunni Sultanate",
"start_year": 800,
"end_year": 1200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘‘‘ The Tunni Sultanate appears to be an especially obscure polity, with barely information easily available on it anywhere in the relevant literature.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 69,
"polity": {
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The Ayutthaya chronicles state that the Peguan army took away “all the statues,” including those that had been taken from Angkor in 1431/2, along with “the royal adornments and the golden utensils reserved for reigning kings, and the concubines and attendants.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> ‘’The palace housed several other storehouses for valuable goods including European articles imported from Dutch Batavia, porcelain from China, silks from Japan, and other textiles from India. A list of gifts sent from Ayutthaya to French royalty in the 1680s reads like the inventory of a museum of Asian luxuries: Japanese furniture, silverware, pottery, and weaponry; Chinese cabinets, silks, and porcelain reckoned “the best and most curious of all the Indies”; Persian and Indian carpets; and countless figurines, powder boxes, flasks, and curiosities.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 70,
"polity": {
"id": 462,
"name": "tj_sarasm",
"long_name": "Sarazm",
"start_year": -3500,
"end_year": -2000
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Four terra-cotta statuettes were found, one in the necropolis in excavation IV, one on the floor of the second horizon of dwellings in II, and two in burial 5 in the necropolis of IV [...] Only one zoomorphic statuette has been found, in excavation IV of the horizon III. (Isakov 1994: 8). “The level of artistic development in Sarazm is vividly reflected in the terra-cotta statuettes, in which one may see the origin of a new artistic trend, the creation of sculptural figures <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NWVCFNW7\">[Isakov 1994, p. 4]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NWVCFNW7\">[Isakov 1994, p. 10]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 71,
"polity": {
"id": 696,
"name": "tz_buhayo_k",
"long_name": "Buhaya",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 72,
"polity": {
"id": 715,
"name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1",
"long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age",
"start_year": 200,
"end_year": 499
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘‘‘ No information could be found in the literature regarding the trade in or consumption of luxury goods in this era.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 73,
"polity": {
"id": 686,
"name": "tz_karagwe_k",
"long_name": "Karagwe",
"start_year": 1500,
"end_year": 1916
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 74,
"polity": {
"id": 683,
"name": "ug_buganda_k_2",
"long_name": "Buganda II",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1894
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 75,
"polity": {
"id": 535,
"name": "ug_bunyoro_k_2",
"long_name": "Bito Dynasty",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1894
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 76,
"polity": {
"id": 695,
"name": "ug_nkore_k_2",
"long_name": "Nkore",
"start_year": 1750,
"end_year": 1901
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 77,
"polity": {
"id": 684,
"name": "ug_toro_k",
"long_name": "Toro",
"start_year": 1830,
"end_year": 1896
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 78,
"polity": {
"id": 102,
"name": "us_haudenosaunee_2",
"long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late",
"start_year": 1714,
"end_year": 1848
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 102,
"name": "us_haudenosaunee_2",
"long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late",
"start_year": 1714,
"end_year": 1848
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Wooden statuary. “[Referring to Midwinter Ceremony rituals during the Confederacy era] On the fifth morning occurred the burning of the white dog. This dog…had been strangled…on the day of the Big Heads, and its body, garlanded with ribbons, beads, and metallic ornaments, hung on the wooden statue of Tarachiawagon, the Creator, before the longhouse”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZK2J9SCQ\">[Wallace 2010, p. 53]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 79,
"polity": {
"id": 18,
"name": "us_hawaii_2",
"long_name": "Hawaii II",
"start_year": 1200,
"end_year": 1580
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 18,
"name": "us_hawaii_2",
"long_name": "Hawaii II",
"start_year": 1200,
"end_year": 1580
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition and examples thereof, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] As in the case of many societies of the past, religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work. […] [Referring to a number of figurative sculptures in wood extant at the time of publication] How representative the existing pieces may be is possibly questionable, but from all available evidence they represent a fair sampling of the thousands of pieces that existed prior to 1820. […] …the data on Hawaiian sculpture…[is] limited to the short period of about fifty years after the discovery of Hawaii by the Europeans…Only the more recent end products [referring to statuary created over the contact period] of the [Hawaiian sculpture] tradition remain…it can be assumed that the pieces of Hawaiian sculpture known to exist throughout the world are a reasonably typical sampling of those that existed just prior to the overthrow of the old religion [from around 1819 onwards]…The age of any of the existing examples of sculpture is almost impossible to determine… […] Many of…[the wooden statuary uncovered in archaeological sites] have been found with European or other foreign objects, indicating that they were buried or hidden during the time of European contact rather than before it. This…does not preclude the possibility that the images could have been made in precontact times, but the styles differ in no essential way from those collected and recorded during the early contact period. It is unlikely…any of the Hawaiian sculpture existing today [as at the time of publication] was produced before A.D. 1750”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] The principal stone tool in ancient Hawai`i was the adze (ko`i). It was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, the carving began, and the image was brought from the forest to the heiau [temple], “with tumultuous noise and shouting” (Malo 1951: 166). On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]; below the image was fixed a crosspiece on which were hung several leis and a sort of banner made of kapa. The makahiki god thus adorned was carried all around the island, stopping at the boundary of each district (ahupuaa) to receive the taxes”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a> “[Referring to the ‘Hawaiian past’ including contact-era Hawaii, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period]…sculpted wooden temple images [manufactured in Hawaii]…represent an apogee of artistic development within Oceania”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UENGBNM5\">[Kirch 1985, p. 6]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition and examples thereof, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period]…religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work. […] Only the more recent end products [referring to statuary created over the contact period] of the [Hawaiian sculpture] tradition remain… […] It is unlikely…any of the Hawaiian sculpture existing today [as at the time of publication] was produced [in Hawaii] before A.D. 1750”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] The principal stone tool in ancient Hawai`i was the adze (ko`i). It was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, [and] the carving began…On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]; below the image was fixed a crosspiece on which were hung several leis and a sort of banner made of kapa”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring to sacred wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, [and] the carving began…On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] As in the case of many societies of the past, religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period]…the adze (ko`i)…was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals]…the carving began [on the third day of the rite], and the image was brought from the forest to the heiau [temple], “with tumultuous noise and shouting” (Malo 1951: 166)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii II period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]…The makahiki god…was carried all around the island, stopping at the boundary of each district (ahupuaa) to receive the taxes”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 80,
"polity": {
"id": 19,
"name": "us_hawaii_3",
"long_name": "Hawaii III",
"start_year": 1580,
"end_year": 1778
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 19,
"name": "us_hawaii_3",
"long_name": "Hawaii III",
"start_year": 1580,
"end_year": 1778
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition and examples thereof, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] As in the case of many societies of the past, religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work. […] [Referring to a number of figurative sculptures in wood extant at the time of publication] How representative the existing pieces may be is possibly questionable, but from all available evidence they represent a fair sampling of the thousands of pieces that existed prior to 1820. […] …the data on Hawaiian sculpture…[is] limited to the short period of about fifty years after the discovery of Hawaii by the Europeans…Only the more recent end products [referring to statuary created over the contact period] of the [Hawaiian sculpture] tradition remain…it can be assumed that the pieces of Hawaiian sculpture known to exist throughout the world are a reasonably typical sampling of those that existed just prior to the overthrow of the old religion [from around 1819 onwards]…The age of any of the existing examples of sculpture is almost impossible to determine… […] Many of…[the wooden statuary uncovered in archaeological sites] have been found with European or other foreign objects, indicating that they were buried or hidden during the time of European contact rather than before it. This…does not preclude the possibility that the images could have been made in precontact times, but the styles differ in no essential way from those collected and recorded during the early contact period. It is unlikely…any of the Hawaiian sculpture existing today [as at the time of publication] was produced before A.D. 1750”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] The principal stone tool in ancient Hawai`i was the adze (ko`i). It was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, the carving began, and the image was brought from the forest to the heiau [temple], “with tumultuous noise and shouting” (Malo 1951: 166). On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]; below the image was fixed a crosspiece on which were hung several leis and a sort of banner made of kapa. The makahiki god thus adorned was carried all around the island, stopping at the boundary of each district (ahupuaa) to receive the taxes”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a> “[Referring to the ‘Hawaiian past’ including contact-era Hawaii, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period]…sculpted wooden temple images [manufactured in Hawaii]…represent an apogee of artistic development within Oceania”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UENGBNM5\">[Kirch 1985, p. 6]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition and examples thereof, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period]…religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work. […] Only the more recent end products [referring to statuary created over the contact period] of the [Hawaiian sculpture] tradition remain… […] It is unlikely…any of the Hawaiian sculpture existing today [as at the time of publication] was produced [in Hawaii] before A.D. 1750”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] The principal stone tool in ancient Hawai`i was the adze (ko`i). It was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, [and] the carving began…On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]; below the image was fixed a crosspiece on which were hung several leis and a sort of banner made of kapa”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring to sacred wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] The construction activities began on the second day of the rite with the consecration of the adzes to be used to cut down the `ohi`a tree from which would be fashioned the primary luakini image (mo`i). The following day, the tree was felled, [and] the carving began…On the final day, the female relatives of the king brought their gift of a loincloth (malo), bleached in seawater, for the mo`i image”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images; smaller-scale portable statuary; support figures or secular objects with figure carving, all manufactured from wood [inferred from the following quotes as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period given that statuary appears to have existed in the region prior to European contact]. “[Referring broadly to the Hawaiian sculpture tradition, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] As in the case of many societies of the past, religion provided most of the…rationale for the Hawaiian sculptor’s work”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988]</a> “[Referring to statuary and the tools used to manufacture statuary in ‘ancient Hawaii’, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period]…the adze (ko`i)…was used in woodworking of all kinds, including sculpting sacred images… […] [Referring to wooden statuary manufactured specifically for luakini war temple rituals]…the carving began [on the third day of the rite], and the image was brought from the forest to the heiau [temple], “with tumultuous noise and shouting” (Malo 1951: 166)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVG4PEED\">[Hommon 2013, p. 96]</a> “[Referring to the environment of ‘Old Hawaii’ and specifically to ceremonial observances of the four-month makahiki season or tax gathering time, inferred as potentially applicable to the Hawaii III period] As one of the activities of the season, an image of the god [Lono-makua, father Lono, god of the makahiki] was made, consisting of a small figure on a long pole [inferred as manufactured of wood]…The makahiki god…was carried all around the island, stopping at the boundary of each district (ahupuaa) to receive the taxes”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJP6A7XN\">[Kuykendall 1938, p. 8]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 81,
"polity": {
"id": 20,
"name": "us_kamehameha_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period",
"start_year": 1778,
"end_year": 1819
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 20,
"name": "us_kamehameha_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period",
"start_year": 1778,
"end_year": 1819
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images and smaller-scale statuary primarily made of wood but also materials such as stone, bone and ivory. “[Referring to the impact of European contact on Hawaii in the C18]…these changes had little discernible effect on the production of most of the arts. Religious images were still produced;…petroglyphs [referring broadly to different types of wood carving] continued to be made, although…these arts reflected in some way the new techniques and foreign influences. It is probable that a consider- […] able amount of the sculpture existing today [as at the late 1980s, illustrations of which are included in the same publication and referred to in-text, for example those cared for by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii] was produced during this significant period of Hawaiian history. […] …the data on Hawaiian sculpture…[is] limited to the short period of about fifty years after the discovery of Hawaii by the Europeans…Only the more recent end products [referring to statuary created during the latter era] of the [Hawaiian sculpture] tradition remain…it can be assumed that the pieces of Hawaiian sculpture known to exist throughout the world are a reasonably typical sampling of those that existed just prior to the overthrow of the old religion [from around 1819 onwards]…There are about thirty-five…[large-scale temple images] remaining, as compared to about sixty-five of the smaller portable religious images, and about forty of the support figures or secular objects with figure carving. It is also reasonably certain that the variation in style among all of the types, except for a few that exhibit European influences, is not due to historical change but represents the variation within the tradition at the period just prior to the overthrow of the old religion [from around 1819 onwards]. These assumptions are reinforced by all of the reports by the first European visitors to the islands during the years 1778 to 1825. Of special value in these reports are the drawings. At least one hundred ten images were recorded by six artists: John Webber (1778-1779), surgeon William Ellis (1787-1789), Louis Choris (1816), Jacques Arago (1819)…The images that are represented in these drawings are stylistically comparable to…[the wooden statuary] now in existence…and are the only visual record of the images at the time when they were functioning in the society…The age of any of the existing examples of sculpture is almost impossible to determine… […] [Referring to an illustration of a wooden carrying pole, c. 6 ft long] Carrying poles such as this belonged only to the households of chiefs…Many of…[the wooden statuary uncovered in archaeological sites] have been found with European or other foreign objects, indicating that they were buried or hidden during the time of European contact rather than before it. This…does not preclude the possibility that the images could have been made in precontact times, but the styles differ in no essential way from those collected and recorded during the early contact period. It is unlikely that any of the Hawaiian sculpture existing today [as at the late 1980s] was produced before A.D. 1750. There is no possibility of reconstructing a detailed story of all the aspects of Hawaiian history and culture that had a determining effect on the sculptural style. The elements of influence are either too numerous and involved to submit to analysis or are simply unknown…The Hawaiian sculptural tradition terminated in 1819. To form a picture of this tradition, we have only the specimens themselves and a fairly well recorded cultural history…[Referring specifically to technology] Wooden objects [including statuary] comprised the major part of Hawaiian technology…The sculptors […] of the religious images were specialists, but their tools, materials, and methods were similar to those of other wood carvers. A few sculptured figures in materials other than wood (such as stone, bone, coral, sea urchin spines, and ivory) do occur, but they are not common…In stone sculpture production was limited, the workmanship was less expert than in wood carving, and no significant tradition seems to have been established…However, stone representations of the great gods, particularly Kane, were very common…Of the woods used for the religious figures, especially the temple images, the wood from the ‘ohi‘a-lehua tree was the most important. This tree was believed to be one manifestation of the major gods, Kane and Ku, and was therefore thought to have great mana…These trees were needed for the large temple images… […] Two very hard woods, both called kauila and both from the buckthorn family, were also used for some of the small figures…The Colubrina variety of the kauila was preferred for religious usage, such as for the small akua ka‘ai images and the tall Lono-i-ka-makahiki image [here referring to several illustrations]…Although wood was the primary sculptural material, several other auxiliary materials were occasionally used with it. Mother-of-pearl was inlaid for eyes; human hair was often attached to the heads of images; human teeth, usually premolars, or occasionally grooved bone, were used as a naturalistic representation of teeth…Oil, stain, and paint were sometimes applied to […] the surface of the sculpture. The harder, darker woods often appear to have been polished…Part of the ritual surrounding the dedication of an image included the wrapping of the figure with tapa, normally in the form of a malo (loincloth)…Some of the small images have cordage attached, which may have been a means of securing feathers to the image as symbols of sacredness...Of the tools and techniques used specifically by the sculptor, very little is known except by inference and from what is known about woodworking in general…For coarse, rough work, preliminary blocking out of the images, and removing large quantities of wood, the most basic and commonly employed tool was certainly the stone adz… […] [Referring to a lithograph by Louis Choris, Temple du Roi dans la baie Tiritatea, 1822, caption ‘Ahuena heiau, Kailua, Kona, Hawaii’] This was the personal temple of Kamehameha I as it appeared in 1816, four years before the destruction of most of the heiau [the temple] and images [statuary], which followed closely on the death of Kamehameha. […] The carvers of the large temple images, and probably of many of the smaller types, were not mere craftsmen; they were kahuna kalai, priest-sculptors. Although there are no records to indicate how sculptors were chosen and trained, we can assume it was a highly regulated procedure…The image sculptors were very likely a hereditary class of kahuna, drawing for trainees on the immediate family, relatives, and adopted children. Training would have started early…Since the work was with sacred materials and the objects made were for religious use, an equal emphasis would have been placed on learning proper prayers and rituals of dedication for tools and materials, and the […] chants, offerings, and procedures required at each stage of the work…The task of carving [a temple image] was a sacred rite, each important stage marked by appropriate chants and sacrifices…Before starting a [temple image] carving, the kahuna kalai first consecrated his tools by a sacrifice and a chant to insure that sufficient mana was contained in them, consequently insuring the efficacy of the image…It is not clear from the…available descriptions whether an image was made by one carver or by several… […] Nor is it possible to say how long it took to complete the carving of a large image… […] The sculpture of Hawaii…emphasizes volume rather than surface [relative to other Polynesian sculpture]…In a number of…ways Hawaiian sculpture differs from the usual Polynesian figures. There is a greater range of types of figure sculpture in Hawaii…[for instance] a number of examples of Hawaiian images [which] occur in pairs [at least ten of which are in existence]…[and] a few style traits are unique to Hawaii - elaboration of the head, dislocation of the eyes, the protruding jaw-mouth-tongue, the wrestler’s posture, and faceted surfaces…In Hawaii…the source of mana is in the head. Of the high chiefs, and consequently the gods, all things related to the head were sacred. Interpreted symbolically in the sculpture, the helmet, hair, and facial features, especially the eyes, conveyed the special meanings appropriate to the gods. Some motifs were extensions of actual forms of the dress, style, facial expressions, and posture of the ali‘i [Hawaiian nobility], connoting attributes of the gods…The arching crests on the sculpture clearly represent the feathered mahiole (helmet), a ceremonial headdress of the nobility. The series of […] notches extending down and back from the brow is an abstraction of long tresses of hair, often with supplementary wigs, that were sometimes worn by persons of extremely high rank…Facial expressions in the sculpture may be read simply for what they appear to be - gestures of defiance, contempt, anger, scorn, power, haughtiness. All of these gestures were practiced in play, war, sport, and ceremony. Not all of the headdress forms had a counterpart in actual life. Some seem to be abstractions for symbols associated with the gods or proliferations developed simply for dramatic effect. It has been suggested that the towering crests represent the rainbow, which was a symbol of the presence of a deity, or that the notches on the crests are the “eight foreheads” of Lono [a reference to the god Lono-ka-‘eho or Lono-the-stone]…The comb patterns in some of the crests suggest a cockscomb. The chicken and several species of wild birds were at times associated with the gods and […] the spirit world…Feathers were particularly valued…[and] red feathers were considered the ultimate symbol of sacredness. Possibly the extended vertical towers on the heads of some images symbolize feathers, or represent the kahili, a royal standard of feathers…Dislocation of the eyes, a trait peculiar to Hawaii, occurs only in the Kona-style images…the curving tongue shape in the ‘aumakua images of Hawaii is the most striking and significant abstraction. In its ultimate abstract shape, it is translated into the whale-tooth ornament, lei niho palaoa…The form occurs in several variations on the head crests of images…A number of meanings might easily be applied to it as a pure symbol…the lei niho palaoa was a badge of rank, its use strictly limited to the ali‘i…The final form in Hawaii, the forward thrusting tongue shape, […] is not very old. Archaeological finds [as at the late 1980s]…establish it as evolving just prior to the discovery period…The tendency toward the chin-mouth-tongue complex in the image sculpture results in a wide range of treatments indicating that the sculptors were free, or expected, to invent variations within a certain acceptable style range…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 20-21]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 23-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, p. 29]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, p. 31]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 33-36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, p. 39]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 41-42]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images and smaller-scale statuary primarily made of wood but also materials such as stone, bone and ivory. “[Referring to the impact of European contact on Hawaii in the C18]…these changes had little discernible effect on the production of most of the arts. Religious images were still produced;…petroglyphs [referring broadly to different types of wood carving] continued to be made, although…these arts reflected in some way the new techniques and foreign influences. It is probable that a consider- […] able amount of the sculpture existing today [as at the late 1980s, illustrations of which are included in the same publication and referred to in-text, for example those cared for by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii] was produced during this significant period of Hawaiian history. […] [Referring specifically to technology] Wooden objects [including statuary] comprised the major part of Hawaiian technology…The sculptors […] of the religious images were specialists…A few sculptured figures in materials other than wood (such as stone, bone, coral, sea urchin spines, and ivory) do occur, but they are not common…In stone sculpture production was limited, the workmanship was less expert than in wood carving…Of the woods used for the religious figures, especially the temple images, the wood from the ‘ohi‘a-lehua tree was the most important…These trees were needed for the large temple images… […] Two very hard woods, both called kauila and both from the buckthorn family, were also used for some of the small figures…The Colubrina variety of the kauila was preferred for religious usage…Although wood was the primary sculptural material, several other auxiliary materials were occasionally used with it. Mother-of-pearl was inlaid for eyes; human hair was often attached to the heads of images; human teeth, usually premolars, or occasionally grooved bone, were used as a naturalistic representation of teeth… […] The carvers of the large temple images, and probably of many of the smaller types, were not mere craftsmen; they were kahuna kalai, priest-sculptors. Although there are no records to indicate how sculptors were chosen and trained, we can assume it was a highly regulated procedure…The image sculptors were very likely a hereditary class of kahuna, drawing for trainees on the immediate family, relatives, and adopted children. Training would have started early…Since the work was with sacred materials and the objects made were for religious use, an equal emphasis would have been placed on learning proper prayers and rituals of dedication for tools and materials, and the […] chants, offerings, and procedures required at each stage of the work…The task of carving [a temple image] was a sacred rite, each important stage marked by appropriate chants and sacrifices…Before starting a [temple image] carving, the kahuna kalai first consecrated his tools by a sacrifice and a chant to insure that sufficient mana was contained in them, consequently insuring the efficacy of the image…It is not clear from the…available descriptions whether an image was made by one carver or by several…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 20-21]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 24-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, pp. 33-34]</a> Religious statuary such as large-scale temple images made of wood. “[Referring to a lithograph by Louis Choris, Temple du Roi dans la baie Tiritatea, 1822, caption ‘Ahuena heiau, Kailua, Kona, Hawaii’] This was the personal temple of Kamehameha I as it appeared in 1816, four years before the destruction of most of the heiau [the temple] and images [statuary], which followed closely on the death of Kamehameha”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, p. 31]</a> Religious statuary such as small-scale statuary made of wood. “[Referring to an illustration of a wooden carrying pole, c. 6 ft long] Carrying poles such as this belonged only to the households of chiefs”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGP35J48\">[Cox_Davenport 1988, p. 24]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 82,
"polity": {
"id": 780,
"name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
"long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Tarafdar himself admits that epigraphic records prepared during Deva, Chandra and Varman rule give no indication of trade, which renders impossible the determination of the extent of commercialisation of the contemporary society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 202]</a> “Not a single new commercial centre sprang up in Bengal between the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. and it appears that this region had hardly a place in external trade for at least 500 years.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 206]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 84,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1650,
"year_to": 1799,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "A~P",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly label almost any of the goods that circulated in this polity at this time as notably luxurious. However, given that Harar was a major trade centre in the nineteenth century, importing and exporting a broad range of items from across the Indian Ocean and East Africa, it seems reasonable to infer that statuary was traded there. “Fitawrari Tackle Hawariyat was nine year old when he entered Harar with Menelik’s army that defeated Amir Abdullah’s small army at Chelenque battle[ in 1987]. He had been living at Addis Ababa just before he left and came to Harar which he described as follows: ‘[…] The shops and stores are stuffed with various types of goods imported from abroad. […]’ As the boy stated the shops and stores were stuffed with goods and merchandises imported from abroad, i.e. Yemen, Arabia, India, China, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}