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{
"id": 1,
"polity": {
"id": 127,
"name": "af_kushan_emp",
"long_name": "Kushan Empire",
"start_year": 35,
"end_year": 319
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘The significance of temples as a locus for elite expenditure seems to only increase in the Kushan period with the establishment of monumental temples – for example at the sites of Surkh Kotal and Rabatak, mentioned above – apparently dedicated to cults of the gods of the Kushan pantheon, and fitted with portrait sculptures of the king and perhaps his inner circle.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9PWVBVIJ\">[Morris_Reden 2021]</a> ‘Frustratingly, we lack comparable consumption contexts that can be definitively linked with the Kushan king and court. Here, we can somewhat generously interpret two significant if problematic examples for insights into taste and consumptive capacity among the royal court. First, if we take the standalone ‘royal pavilion’ at Khalchaian not as a ‘palace’ proper but a monument of the early Kushan Empire to host receptions and ceremonies (such as feasts) or conduct ancestor worship, finds of fragments of (presumably) Chinese silk and Roman glass in one of the edifice’s storerooms most likely reflect the expanding transregional reach and scope of courtly consumption. As above, however, even better proxy evidence for consumptive capacity here is found in the program of clay figural sculpture and rich mural decorations adorning this interior of this edifice.' <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 165]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 2,
"polity": {
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Expertly modeled, of imposing dimensions, and exuberantly decorated in inventive variations, this genre of sculpture came to prominence in the middle of the eighteenth century under the patronage of Maharaja Krishnachandra Roy of Nadia (now in West Bengal, India) and has maintained a dynamic presence ever since” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HUTTWVUA\">[Bean 2011, p. 605]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 3,
"polity": {
"id": 619,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I",
"start_year": 701,
"end_year": 1100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 4,
"polity": {
"id": 617,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1400
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 5,
"polity": {
"id": 618,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV",
"start_year": 1401,
"end_year": 1500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 6,
"polity": {
"id": 613,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
"start_year": 100,
"end_year": 500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 7,
"polity": {
"id": 622,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
"start_year": 501,
"end_year": 700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 8,
"polity": {
"id": 690,
"name": "bu_burundi_k",
"long_name": "Burundi",
"start_year": 1680,
"end_year": 1903
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not include statuary of any kind as a typical luxury good in the region at this time. The following is a typical summary of regional trade at the time: “Pots, cloth, iron, and salt were the staples of regional trade, but each area contributed the speciality which helped to define its identity. Nyakyusa produced none of the staples but were expert mat-makers. Kisi fishermen exchanged their catch for cattle from the plains of Usangu. Tobacco was probably the most widely traded agricultural product; standardised packages from Usambara were reaching the coast by the early nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 9,
"polity": {
"id": 470,
"name": "cn_hmong_1",
"long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing",
"start_year": 1701,
"end_year": 1895
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Though scattered across Guizhou, Guizhou, and Anshun, the “Flower Miao” were mainly concentrated in the northwestern Guizhou region and northeastern Yunnan's Zhaotong City during the Ming and Qing dynasties... This disparity stemmed from the Tusi system, prevalent in Yuan, Ming, and early Qing eras. These hereditary rulers, often from other ethnicities, dominated much of Southwest China. By the time the Hmong migrated, existing Tusi systems in Yunnan and Guizhou had already formed powerful political and economic forces. Consequently, the Hmong often found themselves exploited and enslaved within these Tusi regions, relegated to roles like tenant farmers for the Tusi lords... In areas like Xinqu County and Guangshun Prefecture, the Flower Miao, Eastern Miao, Western Miao, and Guyang Miao all suffered under similar burdens, paying rent and performing labor considered comparable to \"commoners,\" pushing them deeper into poverty. By \"commoners,\" we mean the state's registered households and Han Chinese citizens. These Hmong farmers, tilling landlord-owned land like their non-Hmong counterparts, were even worse off than most Han farmers… From 1855-1872, following the lead of Zhang Xiumei and the others, the Hmong in Guizhou and Hunan provinces led a series of rebellions against the Qing dynasty… The Han Chinese landlords, merchants, soldiers, and garrison troops who entered the Hmong areas often used usury to exploit the Hmong peasants… the Hmong peasants were already impoverished. When natural disasters occurred, they were even more miserable. The Hmong epic poems vividly describe this situation.（“花苗”，在遵义、贵阳、安顺地区虽有分布，但明清之际主要集中在黔西北毕节地区和滇东北昭通市地区……由于元明和清初居于土司阶层的多为别的民族，加之云南、贵州不少地区当苗族徙入时，其他民族已经建立了土司制度，形成了较强的政治和经济势力，故苗族在土司地区一般处于被剥削、被奴役的地位。他们多充当土司土目的佃户……新贵县和广顺州一带的“花苗”“东苗”“西苗”“牯羊苗”等，“输租服役，比于良民，故其贫尤甚”。所谓“良民”，即国家的编户齐民和汉族百姓。这些地区的苗民，同他们一样耕种地主土地……比一般汉族农民更为贫困……咸丰五年至同治十一年（1855-1872）……苗族地区，爆发了由张秀眉等人领导的苗族人民起义……在贵州和在湘西一样，进入苗区的汉族地主、奸商、官兵和驻军，掠夺苗族农民的一个主要手段就是放高利贷……苗族农民已穷困不堪，如处水火之中，遇上天灾年荒，就更是饥寒交加，苦楚难言。苗族地区流传的史诗对这种情景有不少生动的记述。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 116]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 148]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 150]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 261]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 263]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 10,
"polity": {
"id": 471,
"name": "cn_hmong_2",
"long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese",
"start_year": 1895,
"end_year": 1941
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Local Hmong people, Yang Hanxian, who graduated from the Sociology Department of West China University, wrote: \"The Hmong society of Weining in modern times was full of serious ethnic and class contradictions. The Yi ethnic minority landlords, who accounted for a very small number of the population, ruled and oppressed the vast majority of Hmong people... According to Hmong elders in the early 20th century, under the rule of the Yi 'nuo' (landlord),... (the above four classes are all Yi ethnic minorities) and those at the bottom of the society, or called the people under the ground, are the 'Miao (Hmong)'.\" ... In modern times, the feudal landlord system with the nature of slavery still existed in the Wumeng Mountains, and the Hmong tenant farmers were strongly dependent on the Yi ethnic minority landlords. In the Qing Dynasty, historian Zhao Yi served as an official in Shuixi. Based on his own observations, he wrote: \"The relationship between the local officials and the local people is the most severe between master and servant... \"The Hmong people wear clothes that they weave themselves from hemp, coarse hemp and worn cloth. They wear a grass belt around their waists, tie their legs with bandages, and wear straw shoes. The old records say that they \"lack clothes, sleep without beds or bedding, cook without pots and cauldrons, and have no food for the next day at home.\"（当地苗族，华西大学社会学系毕业的杨汉先写道：“近代的威宁苗族社会，充满着严重的民族和阶级的矛盾。占人口极少数的彝族土目地主，统治和压迫着广大的苗族劳苦大众……据二十世纪初期苗族老人说，在彝族’诺’（大地主）的统治下……（上述四等人皆为彝族）而处在最底层的或叫地底下的人，即’苗子’。”近代乌蒙山区还残存着带有奴隶制度性质的封建领主制，苗族佃农的人身强烈地依附于彝族土目地主。清代史学家赵翼在水西为官，以其亲见亲历写道：“凡土官之于土民，其主仆之分最严……”苗族穿的衣服是自己绩麻，粗葛败布自己纺织。腰系草带，腿裹绑带，足登草鞋。旧志说他们“身缺衣覆，寝无床被，炊缺锅釜，家无隔夜之粮。”）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 11,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The Capital Museum houses a statue of Wei Tuo (Skanda), sporting a battle helmet, armored attire, and a brocade robe. He once had a \"U\"-shaped drapery (now it's broken) and a tied belt around his waist. His feet are clad in battle boots. In his left hand, he holds his palm upright, while his right hand once grasped a vajra scepter (which is now missing). The statue stands firmly on a pedestal shaped like a mountain. An inscription on the pedestal reads: \"Created with great devotion by the Imperial Workshop in the Xinsi Year of Chongzhen during the Great Ming Dynasty.\" The \"Imperial Workshop\" was an organization of eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty responsible for crafting items for the imperial court. During the most magnificent era in the history of Chinese statuary, the Yongxuan period, bronze gilded Tibetan Buddhist statues bearing the inscriptions \"Yongle\" and \"Xuande\" were produced under the Imperial Workshop… The crafting technique of this Wei Tuo statue was heavily influenced by Tibetan Buddhist statues from the Yongle and Xuande periods, known for their distinctive \"gilded\" style. This involved applying a layer of gold paste onto a copper base and then firing it. (首都博物馆藏韦驮像，头戴战盔，身披铠甲，外裹锦袍，身披倒“U”字形帔帛（已断裂），腰系扎带，足踏战靴。左手竖掌，右手平端金刚杵（已失）。双脚并立站于山形台座之上，台座上刻有“大明崇祯辛巳年虔命御用监恭造”铭文。“御用监”是明代一个由宦官组成的制造宫廷御用物品的机构。中国造像史上最辉煌的年代——永宣时期的“永乐”“宣德”款铜鎏金藏传佛造像，就出自御用监……这尊韦驮像的制作工艺深受永宣宫廷藏传佛教造像的影响，采用了“鎏金”这一藏式佛像所特有的装金方式。以红铜为毛坯，用配置好的金汁涂抹于毛坯周身，进行烧制。” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZEPT9M6\">[Liu 2011, p. 85]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZEPT9M6\">[Liu 2011, p. 87]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 12,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘\" “A collection of 46 bronze waterfowl has been excavated... Covering up imperfections in both surface design and casting, copper plates have been deftly introduced to mend the flaws... This method was commonly used in the old Mediterranean area, including places like Egypt, Greece, and Rome. They especially used it when making bronze statues.... The distinctive set of trace elements within the mud cores of these waterfowl stands out from the composition of the soil in the Qin Mausoleum region. This peculiar contrast suggests that the production of these bronze waterfowl likely occurred outside the confines of the Qin Mausoleum area. (青铜水禽共出土46件……表面的工艺缺陷及铸造缺陷均以铜板镶嵌法进行补缀。……该工艺在地中海地区古埃及、古希腊以及罗马时期青铜雕像上广泛使用……水禽泥芯微量元素与秦陵地区土壤的微量元素明显有别，可能表明青铜水禽的生产地点并非秦陵地区。) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AANEG8NG\">[Xu 2017, p. 114]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 13,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The \"Yu the Great's Flood Control Jade Mountain,\" often acclaimed as the pinnacle of jade carvings, stands tall and majestic, portraying the scenario of Yu the Great commanding a multitude of people to cut through mountains, chisel rocks, and clear water passages amidst towering hills and steep cliffs. According to records found in the Qing Palace archives, the raw material for this magnificent piece weighed over 5,300 kilograms. It was a three-year journey to transport it from Milerta Mountain in Xinjiang to Beijing. This process involved strategies like creating icy roads in winter, harnessing hundreds of horses, and enlisting the efforts of nearly a thousand individuals. Prior to the actual carving, the design was inspired by a Song Dynasty painting depicting \"Yu the Great's Flood Control\"... Once the jade mountain was crafted after an entire decade… it was transported to Beijing… and housed in the Le Shou Hall (in the Qing Palace). (被誉为玉雕之冠的“大禹治水图玉山”，卓立如峰，表现出大禹指挥众人在崇山峻岭、悬崖绝壁上劈山凿石、疏通水害的情景。据清宫档案记载，此器原料重达5300多公斤，是于冬季在道路上泼水结冰、用数百匹马拉，近千人推，经过三年时间，才从新疆米勒塔山运到北京的。在雕琢之前是养心殿造办处如意馆奉旨按宋人画“大禹治水图”为蓝本涉及的……玉山雕琢完工后……送到北京……置于乐寿堂，前后共用十年时间。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 51]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 14,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The term ‘Zi-khyim li-ma’ found in the Qing Palace archives specifically refers to a precious alloy crafted from various noble metals. This special alloy was exclusively used within the palace for the creation of Buddhist statues... According to the archival records, the production of Zi-khyim li-ma Buddha statues continued throughout the Qianlong period, spanning sixty years until 1795... In the subsequent six years, the palace records indicate the creation of over 100 Zi-khyim li-ma statues, with the vast majority depicting Amitāyus. (清宫档案中提到的紫金琍玛特指一种由多种贵金属冶炼而成的珍贵合金材料，在宫中专门用于成造佛像…从档案资料来看，乾隆朝紫金琍玛佛像的铸造一直沿续到六十年（1795年）……在随后的6年中，宫中所造紫金琍玛像见于记载的就有100多尊，且其中绝大多数是无量寿佛……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPN9SU2N\">[Luo 2004, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPN9SU2N\">[Luo 2004, p. 54]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 15,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The naturalistic representation of the human-shaped caryatids is shared by a large group of Warring States human figures. Debris from the foundry at Houma has yielded complicated section molds for casting such figures; finished products from similar molds have been excavated from other sites in Shanxi dated to the late sixth and early fifth centuries B.C. While these Shanxi figures often raise their arms to support objects, many other bronze figures, in either kneeling, squatting, or standing positions, extended their arms to hold hollow tubes or to clasp a tube with both hands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D9EEH7VI\">[Loewe_Shaughnessy 1999, p. 687]</a> Note: Houma was located within the territories of the Wei state during the Warring States period.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 16,
"polity": {
"id": 435,
"name": "co_neguanje",
"long_name": "Neguanje",
"start_year": 250,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“For example, a number of cave-like areas, some with petroglyphs depicting female genitalia, and others with large amounts of pottery, were found.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, p. 32]</a> “Both plazas are connected by way of a finely paved road or path and their entrance is marked at both ends by rather unobtrusive “portals”; the westernmost one with two upright stelae and the easternmost one with two smallish, spheroid-shaped boulders.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, p. 99]</a> “A la vez se puede deducir que aunque hay evidencia de acumulación de riqueza por parte de algunos individuos (como objetos de oro, piedra tallada o casas muy grandes), no hay una explicación satisfactoria para el proceso social que llevó a la formación de la sociedad Tairona descrita por los cronistas.” RA translation: “At the same time, it can be deduced that although there is evidence of wealth accumulation by some individuals (such as gold objects, carved stone, or large houses), there is no satisfactory explanation for the social process that led to the formation of Tairona society as described by the chroniclers.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6MCIVC2J\">[Dever 2010, p. 124]</a> “También existen algunas tallas líticas grandes; varias cabezas humanas de gran tamaño proceden de la región de Minca, cerca de Santa Marta32, y hay persistentes rumores sobre la existencia de grandes estatuas en zonas aún poco exploradas.” RA Translation: “There are also some large lithic carvings; several large human heads come from the Minca region, near Santa Marta32, and there are persistent rumours about the existence of large statues in areas still little explored.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, pp. 168-169]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 17,
"polity": {
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "NB Uncommon, based on the literature consulted. “…in Ayubbid Syria, a village near Aleppo contained statues which were held to hold special powers…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZVXNIDZ\">[Peacock_De_Nicola_Nur_Yildiz 2016, p. 192]</a> “In a village nearby [Aleppo] statues were believed to hold special powers: the nose of the statue of a black man was rubbed by women to ensure they would become pregnant; elsewhere a statue of a scorpion kept snakes and scorpions away; and Ibn Shaddad notes that a tower on the city walls at al-Ashraf’s early capital of Harran had two bronze statues of jinn regarded as talismans against snakes”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSSSMMNG\">[Eastmond 2017, p. 231]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 18,
"polity": {
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Stone and bronze statuary. “In the Napatan Period the Soleb temple was stripped of much of its statuary, which was carted off to embellish the main Kushite religious complex at Jebel Barkal, a process perhaps begun by Piye. […] A little downstream at Dangeil, the discovery of what must be a small part of a cache of royal statues directly comparable to those found at Jebel Barkal and Dokki Gel (Anderson/Salah Ed-Din Mohamed Ahmed 2009) makes the presence here of a (as yet undiscovered) temple certain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NQSB3AGP\">[Welsby 2019, pp. 591-592]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NQSB3AGP\">[Welsby 2019, p. 596]</a> “Bronze workshops producing statuettes and votive objects for the temples are indicated by finds from Meroe City and Kawa”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 527]</a> Bronze statuary. “Bronze workshops producing statuettes and votive objects for the temples are indicated by finds from Meroe City and Kawa”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 527]</a> Stone statuary. “A little downstream at Dangeil, the discovery of what must be a small part of a cache of royal statues directly comparable to those found at Jebel Barkal and Dokki Gel (Anderson/Salah Ed-Din Mohamed Ahmed 2009) makes the presence here of a (as yet undiscovered) temple certain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NQSB3AGP\">[Welsby 2019, p. 596]</a> Stone and bronze statuary. “In the Napatan Period the Soleb temple was stripped of much of its statuary, which was carted off to embellish the main Kushite religious complex at Jebel Barkal, a process perhaps begun by Piye”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NQSB3AGP\">[Welsby 2019, pp. 591-592]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 19,
"polity": {
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Silver and stone statuary. “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] The silver figure, which was dated on stylistic grounds to the Twenty-sixth, or Saite, Dynasty (664-525 B.C.). […] …technical studies undertaken both before and after cleaning provided new insights into the production of silver statuary in ancient Egypt and illustrated the high level of achievement attained by Egyptian craftsmen in this medium. […] There are relatively few extant Egyptian examples of large silver statuary representing human figures. In any case, a consistent production of figural sculpture in metal, even of the more common copper alloys, must be considered a relatively late development in ancient Egypt. […] An unpublished amulet in the British Museum (EA 32770) is of particular relevance since it may be the only other extant Saite Period sculptural representation in silver of an unclothed woman… […] Elemental analysis carried out on a polished cross section [of the silver statuette in the Met] indicated that the figure was made from an alloy containing approximately 96.7 percent silver and 2.6 percent copper. Lesser amounts of gold…and iron…were also detected…The Egyptian tradition of silver working included both hammering and casting, although it appears that statuary was produced almost exclusively by casting. […] Among extant Egyptian statuary the Metropolitan Museum’s silver figure is unique. […] The importance of the [Met’s] statuette is asserted by the wealth of silver and the high quality of workmanship, as well as by the presence of King Necho’s cartouches. These features, together with the artistic refinement of the sculpture and the clarity with which it exemplifies the aesthetic standards of the Saite Period, lead one to conclude that the Metropolitan Museum’s figure is the product of a royal workshop”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 45-47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 51-52]</a> “[Referring to Saite stone statuary] …the Saites especially attacked basalt, breccia, and serpentine, and with these fine-grained and almost homogeneous substances, they achieved extraordinary results…we have proof of the way in which artists of real merit bestowed years and years on the chasing of sarcophagus lids and the carving of statues in blocks of the hardest material. The [goddess] Thûeris, and the four monuments from the tomb of [Saite king] Psammetichus [AKA Psamtik] in the Cairo Museum, are the most remarkable objects hitherto discovered in this class of work. […] The group belonging to Psammetichus…consists of four pieces of green basalt; namely a table of offerings, a statue of Osiris, a statue of Nephthys, and a Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the deceased. […] The Saite school was, in fact, divided into two parties. One sought inspiration in the past, and, by a return to the methods of the old Memphite school, endeavoured to put fresh life into the effeminate style of the day…its works are sometimes mistaken for the best productions of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties. The other, without too openly departing from established tradition, preferred to study from the life, and thus drew nearer to nature than in any previous age”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4JFBV8SP\">[Maspero 2010, pp. 235-236]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4JFBV8SP\">[Maspero 2010, p. 239]</a> “[Referring to Montuemhat AKA Mentuemhat, a Theban official] He also left a large number of high-quality [stone] statues, often recognised as some of the masterpieces of the Kushite-Saite Period. However, the inscriptions on the statues provide little in the way of historical detail… […] The sculpture of the Saite Period was generally of very high quality and was marked by the use of fine-grain hard stone such as schist and diorite…During the Saite Period figures were modelled after Old Kingdom examples…One of the masterpieces of the early Saite Period…is the standing grey granite statue of Montuemhat which he dedicated at Karnak. […] Although there are a number of examples of private statuary, usually placed in temples, there are few reliably dated intact royal statues from the Saite Period, although a number of fragments and incomplete sections have survived. This is possibly because the activities of the Saite kings were predominantly in the Delta region, an area…not conducive to the survival of artefacts. There is also the inherent difficulty in dating extant uninscribed statues of this period. […] The standard of artistic production [by Saite Period artisans] was high and is most visibly demonstrated by the extraordinary quality achieved in some of the hard-stone statues, sarcophagi and reliefs characteristic of this period”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 69-70]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 97-98]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 187]</a> “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] …technical studies undertaken both before and after cleaning provided new insights into the production of silver statuary in ancient Egypt and illustrated the high level of achievement attained by Egyptian craftsmen in this medium. […] …a consistent production of figural sculpture in metal, even of the more common copper alloys, must be considered a relatively late development in ancient Egypt. […] The Egyptian tradition of silver working included both hammering and casting, although it appears that statuary was produced almost exclusively by casting. […] The importance of the [Met’s] statuette is asserted by the wealth of silver and the high quality of workmanship, as well as by the presence of King Necho’s cartouches. These features, together with the artistic refinement of the sculpture and the clarity with which it exemplifies the aesthetic standards of the Saite Period, lead one to conclude that the Metropolitan Museum’s figure is the product of a royal workshop”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 52]</a> “[Referring to Saite stone statuary] …the Saites especially attacked basalt, breccia, and serpentine, and with these fine-grained and almost homogeneous substances, they achieved extraordinary results…we have proof of the way in which artists of real merit bestowed years and years on the chasing of sarcophagus lids and the carving of statues in blocks of the hardest material. The [goddess] Thûeris, and the four monuments from the tomb of [Saite king] Psammetichus [AKA Psamtik] in the Cairo Museum, are the most remarkable objects hitherto discovered in this class of work”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4JFBV8SP\">[Maspero 2010, p. 235]</a> “[Referring to Montuemhat AKA Mentuemhat, a Theban official] He also left a large number of high-quality [stone] statues, often recognised as some of the masterpieces of the Kushite-Saite Period. […] The sculpture of the Saite Period was generally of very high quality and was marked by the use of fine-grain hard stone such as schist and diorite…During the Saite Period figures were modelled after Old Kingdom examples…One of the masterpieces of the early Saite Period…is the standing grey granite statue of Montuemhat which he dedicated at Karnak. […] The standard of artistic production [by Saite Period artisans] was high and is most visibly demonstrated by the extraordinary quality achieved in some of the hard-stone statues, sarcophagi and reliefs characteristic of this period”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 69-70]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 97]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 187]</a> “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] The importance of the statuette is asserted by the wealth of silver and the high quality of workmanship, as well as by the presence of King Necho’s cartouches. These features, together with the artistic refinement of the sculpture and the clarity with which it exemplifies the aesthetic standards of the Saite Period, lead one to conclude that the Metropolitan Museum’s figure is the product of a royal workshop”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 45-47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 51-52]</a> “[Referring to Saite stone statuary] The [goddess] Thûeris, and the four monuments from the tomb of [Saite king] Psammetichus [AKA Psamtik] in the Cairo Museum, are the most remarkable objects… […] The group belonging to Psammetichus…consists of four pieces of green basalt; namely a table of offerings, a statue of Osiris, a statue of Nephthys, and a Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the deceased”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4JFBV8SP\">[Maspero 2010, pp. 235-236]</a> “[Referring to Saite stone statuary] Although there are a number of examples of private statuary, usually placed in temples, there are few reliably dated intact royal statues from the Saite Period, although a number of fragments and incomplete sections have survived. This is possibly because the activities of the Saite kings were predominantly in the Delta region, an area…not conducive to the survival of artefacts”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 98]</a> “[Referring to Montuemhat AKA Mentuemhat, a Theban official] He also left a large number of high-quality [stone] statues, often recognised as some of the masterpieces of the Kushite-Saite Period. However, the inscriptions on the statues provide little in the way of historical detail… […] One of the masterpieces of the early Saite Period…is the standing grey granite statue of Montuemhat which he dedicated at Karnak”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 69-70]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 97]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 20,
"polity": {
"id": 647,
"name": "er_medri_bahri",
"long_name": "Medri Bahri",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1889
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘‘‘ Based on the literature consulted, Eritrean history appears to be especially obscure. No information could be found on the topic of trade or consumption habits in Eritrea in any era before the late 19th century.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 21,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Wood, metal (bronze, lead, tin), marble, ivory, alabaster, plaster and black jasper statuary. “[Referring to the church supporting religious art in Counter-Reformation Spain] Sor Jerónima [a Spanish Catholic nun, 1555-1630]…support[ed]…the Franciscan movement by commissioning a magnificent wooden [polychrome] sculpture [1616-1617] of the Immaculate Conception for the Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo. The Duchess of the Infantado, Ana de Mendoza, donated “precious stones and pearls”, and others gave money to richly adorn the sculpture. Although some theologians bemoaned the practice of adorning sculpted virgins with extravagant jewelry and clothing…it was common practice in early modern Spain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EH86VU3A\">[Owens 2017, p. 26]</a> [Referring to European influences on statuary in modern Japan and specifically the manufacture of historical figures in public spaces i.e. effigies of kings] The Flemish sculptor Giambologna (1529-1608) produced several statues for…Spanish kings in his Florentine workshop, including an equestrian statue of King Philip III of Spain (1578-1621), which, following the artist’s death, was completed by his Italian assistant Pietro Tacca (1577-1640). Tacca later designed a massive equestrian statue of King […] Philip IV (1605-65) that was erected in central Madrid…these sculptures represen[t] single independent monuments dedicated to an individual ruler…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BEISBS58\">[Saaler 2020, pp. 19-20]</a> “Philip IV. of Spain [1621-1665] was induced by the great Velasquez to purchase marbles from Rome. Under the direction of that celebrated painter the first statues of any merit were brought into Spain [to be deposited in the palace of St. Ildefonso]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FC4TNZCC\">[British_Museum_Ellis 1846, p. 57]</a> “[Referring to sculpture collections amassed in Spain during the Spanish Empire] In 1556, Pompeo Leoni arrived in Spain with a series of Imperial portraits [sculptures] in bronze and marble for which Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (King Charles I of Spain) had commissioned his father, Leone Leoni [Florentine sculptor for the Spanish court, b.1509-d.1590]…Charles’s sister Mary of Hungary also moved to Spain and brought with her an incredible collection of…ancient and modern sculptures. This transfer of power to Spain and the eventual centralization of the court at Madrid brought about a significant rise in wealth and power in the aristocratic classes and, with it, a desire to display status and political affiliations through possessions [such as sculptures]… […] In the larger society, religious sculptures were collected to serve as objects for personal devotion, but also to display one’s piety…Oratories were filled with large polychrome figures with garments that could be changed…and other devotional sculptures...[Referring to gift-giving] Viceroys and other agents of the court in Italy and Flanders sent gifts to the [Spanish] king[s]…State gifts of sculpture were sent [to Spain] from Italy and Flanders…there was [also] a growing interest in Spain’s Roman past and archaeological digs were undertaken throughout the peninsula. Men of erudition sought out the sculptures…from these digs for study and display in their homes. The sculptures [Pompeo] Leoni brought to Spain eventually became an important component of the royal sculpture collection; their style and typology, along with others commissioned and collected by Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II, informed sculpture collectors and patrons for well over a century. […] [Referring to the roots of art collecting in the C16] Charles [was]…an important patron of Leone Leoni’s and commissioned from him relief, full-length and bust-length portraits…In many ways, Charles V’s preference for classicizing, Italian and Flemish sculptures in bronze and marble (especially portraits) defined Spanish royal taste through the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century. Noble collectors followed this model closely as they formed their own collections. The majority of Philip II’s collection was formed by sculptures he inherited from his father, Charles V, his aunt, Queen Mary of Hungary, his son, Don Carlos, and others, and those given to him as gifts. Philip was also sent series of portrait busts and other gifts of sculpture to decorate the newly remodeled quarters of the Alcázar in Madrid and the newly constructed complex of El Escorial…The royal collection of sculpture continued to grow under Philip’s heir, Philip III. New sculptures listed in the inventory of the Alcázar after his death include nine busts, three small marble heads, and eight more busts of emperors…In 1608, he ordered that 148 sculptures be sent to the Alcázar, including 13 portrait sculptures still in Pompeo Leoni’s workshop. He also received numerous bronze and marble sculptures from Flanders, sent by the Count of Mansfield, for El Pardo. […] It was Philip IV (1622-1665) who sought to bring the quantity and quality of the sculptures and their display to the same level of prestige as those of other European princes. He was the first of the Spanish kings to acquire large quantities of sculptures in Italy…Philip IV fully incorporated sculpture into the decoration of the royal residences, especially at the Alcázar in Madrid. Diego Velázquez was in charge of the Alcázar’s transformation and deemed that higher quality…classical sculptures were needed to elevate the king’s collections to the rank of other European princes. Velázquez was sent to Italy from 1649 […] to 1651 to buy Greek and Roman sculptures (originals, copies, or moulds to be cast in Spain), as well as sculptures by contemporary artists. He brought back at least 300 sculptures for the gardens and many others for other sites. Philip IV’s heir, and the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, Charles II, did not add a great deal to the royal collections. He did, however, acquire various pieces from the major estate sales that took place during his reign. In addition, he received some important gifts of sculpture, such as the equestrian statuette of him by Giovanni Battista Foggini from the papal nuncio Archinto in 1698…The main project of this period was initiated by Charles II’s regent, […] Mariana de Austria, who…ordered 80 marble figures to be sent from Genoa. In general, one can perceive that the fading reign of Habsburg power in Spain was parallel to the decline in sculpture collecting by the Crown during the time of Charles II…[Referring to the collecting of sculpture by members of the high aristocracy]…[sculpture collecting] served as a model for the collections of members of the court and the nobility and…their possessions bolstered their status in the “society of honor” of late sixteenth and seventeenth-century Spain…Those who had the political connections or the money necessary to have sculptures sent from Italy did so. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza and the duque de Alcalá are among the most important aristocratic collectors of the early sixteenth century. They, like the duque de Villahermosa and the marqués de Mirabel, procured sculptures while they were in Italy and sculptures uncovered in local excavations in Spain…The collections represented the erudition, wealth and diplomatic careers of their owners. During the reign of Philip III, the number of collectors and the size of sculpture collections increased markedly. This is in large part due to the dramatic increase in the frequency and luxury of diplomatic gifts sent from Italy and Flanders. The duque of Lerma was undoubtedly the man who profited most… […] His collection of sculptures included 24 marble busts of Emperors with black jasper pedestals…Men and women in Lerma’s circle also received gifts of sculpture and formed important collections. During the reigns of Philip IV and Charles II, noble collectors followed the king’s lead, forming collections of unprecedented quality and quantity. Also like the royal collection, sculpture became more fully integrated into the interiors of palaces…[Referring to the increased popularity of certain subject matters in Spanish sculpture collections, including]…“Niños de Nápoles”, polychrome sculptures of the Christ Child or Child St John the Baptist. The reign of Charles II is characterized by the opulence of the collections formed at that time. The marqueses de Castel Rodrigo, the duquesa de Feria, Ana Fernández de Córdoba, and her husband Pedro Antonio de Aragón, the marqués de Carpio and the almirante de Castilla formed enormous collections, with hundreds of sculptures…Huge shipments arrived from Italy…[Referring to other types of collections] The range in social rank of collectors and the variety and number of sculptures they collected increased during this period. Non-noble courtiers, merchants, scholars and artists assembled collections for various reasons, such as study, social posturing, and religious piety. The vast majority of these types of people were not able to collect or perhaps they were not interested in collecting sculptures. Again, it tended to be people that had access to Italy […] (because they were Italian, or because they travelled there) that obtained sculptures. Francisco de los Cobos, Mateo Vázquez de Leca, Antonio Peréz and other court secretaries, received some gifts of sculpture from Italy, such as…busts…Merchants…formed collections as well…merchants…of Italian descent - Ippolito Resta, a bookseller, and Paolo Giustiniano, a Genoese merchant…mostly owned religious sculptures made of a variety of materials - bronze, polychrome wood, lead and tin. The only non-noblemen who were able to form [sculpture] collections that were comparable to those of the nobility in this period were two artists, Pompeo Leoni and Vicencio Carducho…[Pompeo Leoni] owned originals and casts after ancient and modern sculptures, including copies of some of his and his father’s sculptures. The 297 sculptures he owned were of various materials including marble, bronze, gilded bronze, ivory, alabaster, and plaster. Of those sculptures…53 [are] portrait busts and heads…[and] [Vicencio] Carducho…had an important collection of sculptures…[including] statuettes… […] [Referring to types of sculpture] It is rare to find examples of full-length portraits before 1625; smaller-scale portraits were much more commonly collected. They could be transported with much greater facility and were sent from Italy as gifts or commissioned from sculptors in Italy or Flanders, emigrants from those countries or native Spanish sculptors. While busts and statuettes were most popular, by the end of the seventeenth century, large-scale sculptures were increasingly common. Some were imported, but others were made by local sculptors…Portraits tended to be in the form of busts; religious sculptures could be in a variety of formats (from small bronze or ivory Crucifixions to large-scale polychrome saints), and mythological subjects appear most commonly in statuettes until the end of the sixteenth century…[Referring to portrait sculptures] The prevalence of busts in aristocratic collections emulated the series of busts in the royal collections. Ancient busts (or copies of ancient busts) of emperors were avidly collected and, in some cases, were placed alongside busts of modern personages. […] Beginning around the middle of the [seventeenth] century, some inventories reveal that portrait busts of family members were displayed along with other busts… […] …large-scale sculptures remained difficult and expensive to obtain [in the seventeenth century]. Bronze statues, in particular, were highly desirable, but large-scale bronzes remained prohibitively expensive for most collectors, in part because there was no tradition for the production of bronze sculptures in Spain. When the demand for bronzes arose, therefore, sculptures and/or sculptors were imported from Italy and the Netherlands…Bronze statuettes offered an easier option and were collected in greater numbers. Because of the facility of transporting small sculptures as compared to large scale bronze or marble sculptures, statuettes became a major product of the Florentine bronze workshops…[and] were important components of sculpture collections of this period. […] Another common mode of acquisition of sculptures was to travel to Italy and/or Flanders to acquire objects directly. Men who served in diplomatic roles in those countries were often the recipients of gifts from local members of the nobility or officials trying to win their favor. They also sought out works of art [including sculptures] to purchase…While most sculpture appears to have come from Italy, there were also sculptures that arrived from Flanders. Philip III received a large shipment of sculptures from Count Mansfeld…Yet another way to form a sculpture collection was through inheritance. With the establishment in the mid-sixteenth century of the mayorazgo (or entailment) as a legal protection of one’s estate to be handed down to a named heir, collections were passed from generation to generation. Since collectors viewed their possessions as a key to their family’s wealth and […] social position, it was important to have the estate stay in the family…The possessions that were not part of the entailment or stipulated as bequests in the will were then sold at an almoneda, or public estate sale. Almonedas…provided yet another means of acquiring sculptures in Spain…documents of almonedas…indicate that artists, members of the aristocracy, court officers, and even members of the royal family acquired sculptures at these sales. There was also a veritable sculpture market, with businessmen in Italy and Spain who dealt with import/export and supplying an array of types and qualities of sculptures to a broad clientele…Between 1616 and 1623, [Andrea di Galeotto] Compagni sold sculptures acquired in Florence…in Madrid…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 1]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 3]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 5-12]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 16]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 23]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 25]</a> Wood, metal (bronze) and marble statuary. “[Referring to European influences on statuary in modern Japan and specifically the manufacture of historical figures in public spaces i.e. effigies of kings] The Flemish sculptor Giambologna (1529-1608) produced several statues for…Spanish kings in his Florentine workshop, including an equestrian [bronze] statue of King Philip III of Spain (1578-1621), which…was completed by his Italian assistant Pietro Tacca (1577-1640). Tacca later designed a massive equestrian [bronze] statue of King […] Philip IV (1605-65) that was erected in central Madrid…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BEISBS58\">[Saaler 2020, pp. 19-20]</a> “Philip IV. of Spain [1621-1665] was induced by the great Velasquez to purchase marbles from Rome. Under the direction of that celebrated painter the first statues of any merit were brought into Spain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FC4TNZCC\">[British_Museum_Ellis 1846, p. 57]</a> “[Referring to gift-giving] Viceroys and other agents of the court in Italy and Flanders sent gifts to the [Spanish] king[s]…State gifts of sculpture were sent [to Spain] from Italy and Flanders…there was [also] a growing interest in Spain’s Roman past and archaeological digs were undertaken throughout the peninsula. […] [Referring to the roots of art collecting in the C16] Charles [was]…an important patron of Leone Leoni’s [Florentine sculptor]…In many ways, Charles V’s preference for classicizing, Italian and Flemish sculptures in bronze and marble (especially portraits) defined Spanish royal taste through the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century. Noble collectors followed this model closely as they formed their own collections. The majority of Philip II’s collection was formed by sculptures he inherited from his father, Charles V, his aunt, Queen Mary of Hungary, his son, Don Carlos, and others, and those given to him as gifts…He [Philip III] received numerous bronze and marble sculptures from Flanders… […] He [Philip IV, 1622-1665] was the first of the Spanish kings to acquire large quantities of sculptures in Italy…Diego Velázquez was in charge of the Alcázar’s transformation [under Philip IV]…Velázquez was sent to Italy from 1649 […] to 1651 to buy Greek and Roman sculptures (originals, copies, or moulds to be cast in Spain), as well as sculptures by contemporary artists. He brought back at least 300 sculptures for the gardens and many others for other sites…he [Philip IV’s heir, Charles II] received some important gifts of sculpture, such as the equestrian statuette of him by Giovanni Battista Foggini from the papal nuncio Archinto in 1698…The main project of this period was initiated by Charles II’s regent, […] Mariana de Austria, who…ordered 80 marble figures to be sent from Genoa…[Referring to the collecting of sculpture by members of the high aristocracy]…Those who had the political connections or the money necessary to have sculptures sent from Italy did so. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza and the duque de Alcalá are among the most important aristocratic collectors of the early sixteenth century. They, like the duque de Villahermosa and the marqués de Mirabel, procured sculptures while they were in Italy and sculptures uncovered in local excavations in Spain…During the reign of Philip III, the number of collectors and the size of sculpture collections increased markedly. This is in large part due to the dramatic increase in the frequency and luxury of diplomatic gifts sent from Italy and Flanders… […] [Referring to aristocratic collections acquired during the reigns of Philip IV and Charles II]…The marqueses de Castel Rodrigo, the duquesa de Feria, Ana Fernández de Córdoba, and her husband Pedro Antonio de Aragón, the marqués de Carpio and the almirante de Castilla formed enormous collections, with hundreds of sculptures…Huge shipments arrived from Italy…[Referring to other types of collections]…it tended to be people that had access to Italy […] (because they were Italian, or because they travelled there) that obtained sculptures. Francisco de los Cobos, Mateo Vázquez de Leca, Antonio Peréz and other court secretaries, received some gifts of sculpture from Italy, such as…busts…Merchants…formed collections as well…of Italian descent… […] [Referring to types of sculpture]…They [smaller scale portraits] could be transported with much greater facility and were sent from Italy as gifts or commissioned from sculptors in Italy or Flanders, emigrants from those countries or native Spanish sculptors…by the end of the seventeenth century, large-scale sculptures were increasingly common. Some were imported, but others were made by local sculptors… […] …Bronze statues, in particular, were highly desirable [in the seventeenth century], but large-scale bronzes remained prohibitively expensive for most collectors, in part because there was no tradition for the production of bronze sculptures in Spain. When the demand for bronzes arose…sculptures and/or sculptors were imported from Italy and the Netherlands…Because of the facility of transporting small sculptures as compared to large scale bronze or marble sculptures, statuettes became a major product of the Florentine bronze workshops… […] Another common mode of acquisition of sculptures was to travel to Italy and/or Flanders to acquire objects directly. Men who served in diplomatic roles in those countries were often the recipients of gifts from local members of the nobility or officials trying to win their favor. They also sought out works of art [including sculptures] to purchase…While most sculpture appears to have come from Italy, there were also sculptures that arrived from Flanders. Philip III received a large shipment of sculptures from Count Mansfeld… […] There was…a veritable sculpture market, with businessmen in Italy and Spain who dealt with import/export and supplying an array of types and qualities of sculptures to a broad clientele…Between 1616 and 1623, [Andrea di Galeotto] Compagni sold sculptures acquired in Florence…in Madrid…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 3]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 5-11]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 16]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 23]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 25]</a> Metal (bronze) and marble statuary. “[Referring to European influences on statuary in Modern Japan and specifically the manufacture of historical figures in public spaces i.e. effigies of kings] The Flemish sculptor Giambologna (1529-1608) produced several statues for…Spanish kings…including an equestrian statue of King Philip III of Spain (1578-1621)…Tacca later designed a massive equestrian statue of King […] Philip IV (1605-65)…these sculptures represen[t] single independent monuments dedicated to an individual ruler…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BEISBS58\">[Saaler 2020, pp. 19-20]</a> “[Referring to the consumption of sculpture by rulers during the Spanish Empire] In 1556, Pompeo Leoni arrived in Spain with a series of Imperial portraits [sculptures] in bronze and marble for which Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (King Charles I of Spain) had commissioned his father, Leone Leoni [Florentine sculptor for the Spanish court, b.1509-d.1590]…Charles’s sister Mary of Hungary also moved to Spain and brought with her an incredible collection of…ancient and modern sculptures. […] [Referring to gift-giving] Viceroys and other agents of the court in Italy and Flanders sent gifts to the [Spanish] king[s]…State gifts of sculpture were sent [to Spain] from Italy and Flanders…there was [also] a growing interest in Spain’s Roman past and archaeological digs were undertaken throughout the peninsula…The sculptures [Pompeo] Leoni brought to Spain eventually became an important component of the royal sculpture collection; their style and typology, along with others commissioned and collected by Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II, informed sculpture collectors and patrons for well over a century. […] [Referring to the roots of art collecting in the C16] Charles [V] [was]…an important patron of Leone Leoni’s and commissioned from him relief, full-length and bust-length portraits…In many ways, Charles V’s preference for classicizing, Italian and Flemish sculptures in bronze and marble (especially portraits) defined Spanish royal taste through the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century…The majority of Philip II’s collection was formed by sculptures he inherited from his father, Charles V, his aunt, Queen Mary of Hungary, his son, Don Carlos, and others, and those given to him as gifts. Philip was also sent series of portrait busts and other gifts of sculpture to decorate the newly remodeled quarters of the Alcázar in Madrid and the newly constructed complex of El Escorial…The royal collection of sculpture continued to grow under Philip’s heir, Philip III. New sculptures listed in the inventory of the Alcázar after his death include nine busts, three small marble heads, and eight more busts of emperors…In 1608, he ordered that 148 sculptures be sent to the Alcázar, including 13 portrait sculptures still in Pompeo Leoni’s workshop. He also received numerous bronze and marble sculptures from Flanders, sent by the Count of Mansfield, for El Pardo. […] It was Philip IV (1622-1665) who sought to bring the quantity and quality of the sculptures and their display to the same level of prestige as those of other European princes. He was the first of the Spanish kings to acquire large quantities of sculptures in Italy…Philip IV fully incorporated sculpture into the decoration of the royal residences, especially at the Alcázar in Madrid. Diego Velázquez was in charge of the Alcázar’s transformation and deemed that higher quality…classical sculptures were needed to elevate the king’s collections to the rank of other European princes. Velázquez was sent to Italy from 1649 […] to 1651 to buy Greek and Roman sculptures (originals, copies, or moulds to be cast in Spain), as well as sculptures by contemporary artists. He brought back at least 300 sculptures for the gardens and many others for other sites. Philip IV’s heir, and the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, Charles II, did not add a great deal to the royal collections. He did, however, acquire various pieces from the major estate sales that took place during his reign. In addition, he received some important gifts of sculpture, such as the equestrian statuette of him by Giovanni Battista Foggini from the papal nuncio Archinto in 1698…The main project of this period was initiated by Charles II’s regent, […] Mariana de Austria, who…ordered 80 marble figures to be sent from Genoa. In general, one can perceive that the fading reign of Habsburg power in Spain was parallel to the decline in sculpture collecting by the Crown during the time of Charles II”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 1]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 3]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 5-8]</a> Wood, metal (bronze), marble, ivory, and black jasper statuary. “[Referring to the consumption of sculpture by elite people during the Spanish Empire] [The] transfer of power to Spain and the eventual centralization of the court at Madrid brought about a significant rise in wealth and power in the aristocratic classes and, with it, a desire to display status and political affiliations through possessions [such as sculptures]… […] In the larger society, religious sculptures were collected to serve as objects for personal devotion, but also to display one’s piety…Oratories were filled with large polychrome figures with garments that could be changed…and other devotional sculptures...[Referring to gift-giving] Viceroys and other agents of the court in Italy and Flanders sent gifts to the [Spanish] king[s]…State gifts of sculpture were sent [to Spain] from Italy and Flanders…there was [also] a growing interest in Spain’s Roman past and archaeological digs were undertaken throughout the peninsula. Men of erudition sought out the sculptures…from these digs for study and display in their homes. The sculptures [Pompeo] Leoni [Florentine sculptor, son of Florentine sculptor Leone Leoni] brought to Spain eventually became an important component of the royal sculpture collection; their style and typology, along with others commissioned and collected by Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II, informed sculpture collectors and patrons for well over a century. […] [Referring to the roots of art collecting in the C16] Charles V’s preference for classicizing, Italian and Flemish sculptures in bronze and marble (especially portraits) defined Spanish royal taste through the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century. Noble collectors followed this model closely as they formed their own collections. […] [Referring to the collecting of sculpture by members of the high aristocracy]…[sculpture collecting] served as a model for the collections of members of the court and the nobility and…their possessions bolstered their status in the “society of honor” of late sixteenth and seventeenth-century Spain…Those who had the political connections or the money necessary to have sculptures sent from Italy did so. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza and the duque de Alcalá are among the most important aristocratic collectors of the early sixteenth century. They, like the duque de Villahermosa and the marqués de Mirabel, procured sculptures while they were in Italy and sculptures uncovered in local excavations in Spain…The collections represented the erudition, wealth and diplomatic careers of their owners. During the reign of Philip III, the number of collectors and the size of sculpture collections increased markedly. This is in large part due to the dramatic increase in the frequency and luxury of diplomatic gifts sent from Italy and Flanders. The duque of Lerma was undoubtedly the man who profited most… […] His [Lerma] collection of sculptures included 24 marble busts of Emperors with black jasper pedestals…Men and women in Lerma’s circle also received gifts of sculpture and formed important collections. During the reigns of Philip IV and Charles II, noble collectors followed the king’s lead, forming collections of unprecedented quality and quantity. Also like the royal collection, sculpture became more fully integrated into the interiors of palaces…[Referring to the increased popularity of certain subject matters in Spanish sculpture collections, including]…“Niños de Nápoles”, polychrome sculptures of the Christ Child or Child St John the Baptist. The reign of Charles II is characterized by the opulence of the collections formed at that time. The marqueses de Castel Rodrigo, the duquesa de Feria, Ana Fernández de Córdoba, and her husband Pedro Antonio de Aragón, the marqués de Carpio and the almirante de Castilla formed enormous collections, with hundreds of sculptures…Huge shipments arrived from Italy… […] [Referring to different types of sculpture found in aristocratic collections] It is rare to find examples of full-length portraits before 1625; smaller-scale portraits were much more commonly collected. They could be transported with much greater facility and were sent from Italy as gifts or commissioned from sculptors in Italy or Flanders, emigrants from those countries or native Spanish sculptors. While busts and statuettes were most popular, by the end of the seventeenth century, large-scale sculptures were increasingly common. Some were imported, but others were made by local sculptors…Portraits tended to be in the form of busts; religious sculptures could be in a variety of formats (from small bronze or ivory Crucifixions to large-scale polychrome saints), and mythological subjects appear most commonly in statuettes until the end of the sixteenth century…[Referring to portrait sculptures found in aristocratic collections] The prevalence of busts in aristocratic collections emulated the series of busts in the royal collections. Ancient busts (or copies of ancient busts) of emperors were avidly collected and, in some cases, were placed alongside busts of modern personages. […] Beginning around the middle of the [seventeenth] century, some inventories reveal that portrait busts of family members were displayed along with other busts… […] …large-scale sculptures remained difficult and expensive to obtain [in the seventeenth century]. Bronze statues, in particular, were highly desirable, but large-scale bronzes remained prohibitively expensive for most collectors, in part because there was no tradition for the production of bronze sculptures in Spain. When the demand for bronzes arose, therefore, sculptures and/or sculptors were imported from Italy and the Netherlands…Bronze statuettes offered an easier option and were collected in greater numbers. Because of the facility of transporting small sculptures as compared to large scale bronze or marble sculptures, statuettes became a major product of the Florentine bronze workshops…[and] were important components of sculpture collections of this period. […] Another common mode of acquisition of sculptures was to travel to Italy and/or Flanders to acquire objects directly. Men who served in diplomatic roles in those countries were often the recipients of gifts from local members of the nobility or officials trying to win their favor. They also sought out works of art [including sculptures] to purchase…While most sculpture appears to have come from Italy, there were also sculptures that arrived from Flanders…Yet another way to form a sculpture collection was through inheritance. With the establishment in the mid-sixteenth century of the mayorazgo (or entailment) as a legal protection of one’s estate to be handed down to a named heir, collections were passed from generation to generation. Since collectors viewed their possessions as a key to their family’s wealth and […] social position, it was important to have the estate stay in the family…The possessions that were not part of the entailment or stipulated as bequests in the will were then sold at an almoneda, or public estate sale. Almonedas…provided yet another means of acquiring sculptures in Spain…documents of almonedas…indicate that artists, members of the aristocracy, court officers, and even members of the royal family acquired sculptures at these sales. There was also a veritable sculpture market [among the aristocratic population] with businessmen in Italy and Spain who dealt with import/export and supplying an array of types and qualities of sculptures to a broad clientele…Between 1616 and 1623, [Andrea di Galeotto] Compagni sold sculptures acquired in Florence…in Madrid…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 1]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 3]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 5]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 8-9]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 11-12]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 16]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 23]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 25]</a> Wood, metal (bronze, lead, tin), marble, ivory, alabaster and plaster statuary. “[Referring to the church supporting religious art in Counter-Reformation Spain] Sor Jerónima [a Spanish Catholic nun, 1555-1630]…support[ed]…the Franciscan movement by commissioning a magnificent wooden [polychrome] sculpture [1616-1617] of the Immaculate Conception for the Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EH86VU3A\">[Owens 2017, p. 26]</a> “[Referring to the consumption of sculpture by non-elite people during the Spanish Empire] In the larger society, religious sculptures were collected to serve as objects for personal devotion, but also to display one’s piety…Oratories were filled with large polychrome figures with garments that could be changed…and other devotional sculptures... […] The range in social rank of collectors and the variety and number of sculptures they collected increased during this period [c. late C17]. Non-noble courtiers, merchants, scholars and artists assembled collections for various reasons, such as study, social posturing, and religious piety. The vast majority of these types of people were not able to collect or perhaps they were not interested in collecting sculptures. Again, it tended to be people that had access to Italy […] (because they were Italian, or because they travelled there) that obtained sculptures. Francisco de los Cobos, Mateo Vázquez de Leca, Antonio Peréz and other court secretaries, received some gifts of sculpture from Italy, such as…busts…Merchants…formed collections as well…merchants…of Italian descent - Ippolito Resta, a bookseller, and Paolo Giustiniano, a Genoese merchant…mostly owned religious sculptures made of a variety of materials - bronze, polychrome wood, lead and tin. The only non-noblemen who were able to form [sculpture] collections that were comparable to those of the nobility in this period were two artists, Pompeo Leoni and Vicencio Carducho…[Pompeo Leoni] owned originals and casts after ancient and modern sculptures, including copies of some of his and his father’s sculptures. The 297 sculptures he owned were of various materials including marble, bronze, gilded bronze, ivory, alabaster, and plaster. Of those sculptures…53 [are] portrait busts and heads…[and] [Vicencio] Carducho…had an important collection of sculptures…[including] statuettes… […] Yet another way to form a sculpture collection was through inheritance. With the establishment in the mid-sixteenth century of the mayorazgo (or entailment) as a legal protection of one’s estate to be handed down to a named heir, collections were passed from generation to generation. […] The possessions that were not part of the entailment or stipulated as bequests in the will were then sold at an almoneda, or public estate sale. Almonedas…provided yet another means of acquiring sculptures in Spain…documents of almonedas…indicate that artists…court officers…acquired sculptures at these sales”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 3]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, pp. 9-10]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 23]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S2RTU6BR\">[Helmstutler_Di_Dio_Coppel 2016, p. 25]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 22,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1800,
"year_to": 1875,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly label almost any of the goods that circulated in this polity at this time as notably luxurious. However, given that Harar was a major trade centre in the nineteenth century, importing and exporting a broad range of items from across the Indian Ocean and East Africa, it seems reasonable to infer that statuary was traded there. “Fitawrari Tackle Hawariyat was nine year old when he entered Harar with Menelik’s army that defeated Amir Abdullah’s small army at Chelenque battle[ in 1987]. He had been living at Addis Ababa just before he left and came to Harar which he described as follows: ‘[…] The shops and stores are stuffed with various types of goods imported from abroad. […]’ As the boy stated the shops and stores were stuffed with goods and merchandises imported from abroad, i.e. Yemen, Arabia, India, China, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 23,
"polity": {
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“[Referring to the arts in Micronesia and Truk specifically in the mid-C20, inferred as also referring to the preceding history of the arts in Truk, given no evidence of statuary in other sources accessed] As Nero (1999) has detailed, in the first American anthropological study of Micronesian ‘art’, through his fieldwork on Ifaluk Atoll [conducted from 1947 to 1948], Edwin Burrows (1963) basically had to redefine the study of arts in the face of the apparent lack of sculpture, painting and drawing as the material expressions of art in contemporary Western comprehension: […] The stunted growth of art is apparently a matter of scant raw materials and a cramping of tradition. As to raw materials…stonework is hardly worthwhile in crumbly coral, nor wood carving in perversely cross-grained coconut or spongy breadfruit wood. There is only a little good hardwood, and not much pigment for painting (Burrows 1963: 6)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZ5WCPT3\">[Rainbird 2004, pp. 35-36]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 24,
"polity": {
"id": 58,
"name": "fm_truk_2",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk",
"start_year": 1886,
"end_year": 1948
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "All forms of statuary. “[Referring to the arts in Micronesia and Truk specifically in the mid-C20] As Nero (1999) has detailed, in the first American anthropological study of Micronesian ‘art’, through his fieldwork on Ifaluk Atoll [conducted from 1947 to 1948], Edwin Burrows (1963) basically had to redefine the study of arts in the face of the apparent lack of sculpture, painting and drawing as the material expressions of art in contemporary Western comprehension: […] The stunted growth of art is apparently a matter of scant raw materials and a cramping of tradition. As to raw materials…stonework is hardly worthwhile in crumbly coral, nor wood carving in perversely cross-grained coconut or spongy breadfruit wood. There is only a little good hardwood, and not much pigment for painting (Burrows 1963: 6)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZ5WCPT3\">[Rainbird 2004, pp. 35-36]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 25,
"polity": {
"id": 461,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon",
"start_year": 1660,
"end_year": 1815
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Versailles represented the culmination of a century of artistic flattery. Catherine de’ Medici had enjoyed tapestries portraying her festivities. Marie de’ Medici had commissioned Reubens’ series of colossal canvases glorifying her regency. Now Louis XIV was decorating the grandest hall in Europe with the official story of his regime. He surrounded himself with tapestries in which he was portrayed as Alexander the Great, and statuary showing him as Apollo, the god of the sun. The overpowering elegance of the chateau and park at Versailles, where every statue and fountain was part of a symbolic program glorifying the king, add weight, even today, to the legend. By the end of his reign Colbert’s vision of victory arches and laudatory statues in every major city had become a reality, along with monumental building projects in Paris [....].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 326]</a> “Versailles represented the culmination of a century of artistic flattery. Catherine de’ Medici had enjoyed tapestries portraying her festivities. Marie de’ Medici had commissioned Reubens’ series of colossal canvases glorifying her regency. Now Louis XIV was decorating the grandest hall in Europe with the official story of his regime. He surrounded himself with tapestries in which he was portrayed as Alexander the Great, and statuary showing him as Apollo, the god of the sun. The overpowering elegance of the chateau and park at Versailles, where every statue and fountain was aprt of a symbolic program glorifying the king, add weight, even today, to the legend. By the end of his reign Colbert’s vision of victory arches and laudatory statues in every major city had become a reality, along with monumental building projects in Paris [....].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 326]</a> “Extravagant (out of place) and shocking to beholders in their geometric encrustation of the royal figures of the Bourbon kings, the triangle, the square, the ellipse, and the octagon were products of human ingenuity-forming shapes divine in character out of stone, gravel, brick, glass, and slate.[...] When close to the sculptures, the beholder sees only irregular rough carved stone, but as one moves away figures spring to the eye in/out of the stone. A sculpture that, in order to be seen, forces the beholder to move, is a Baroque place; the kings on their horses in the places oblige the viewer to move back, through the geometric space created for that purpose.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VDT9XDR7\">[Ranum 1991, pp. 209-210]</a> . It is unclear, based on the literature consulted, if there were any distinctions in quality between the statues available to those with significant wealth, and those of comparatively modest means. “Brightly colored or patterned wallpapers and fabrics began to replace heavy drab tapestries on the walls. Mirrors, clocks, paintings, and statuettes, once a mark of significant wealth, became widespread, as did a range of utilitarian objects such as umbrellas, fans, snuffboxes, watches, and books. More and more families ate from matching sets of decorated earthenware instead of tin or pewter plates.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K6CGKKVT\">[Maza 1997, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 26,
"polity": {
"id": 457,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_1",
"long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom",
"start_year": 987,
"end_year": 1150
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "\"Sculpture or metalwork should be used only for the crucifix, the only exception; to represent that saints one had to be content with the written word or with painting on walls. ‘We tolerate statues of the saints only because of the antiquity of the abuse and the difficulty of reforming the minds of simple folk.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AUHUVCQZ\">[Goody 1993, p. 141]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 27,
"polity": {
"id": 309,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire I",
"start_year": 752,
"end_year": 840
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Of course, a measure of continuity was present, especially in Mediterranean Europe; Roman models, in literature and in material remains, continued everywhere, making possible the revival of classical forms and images. That meant turning back to classical models in the ninth century. The same iconoclastic controversy was one factor in causing the papacy to call for support from the Franks, leading to Charlemagne’s creation of what later became the Holy Roman empire, as well as to the related cultural renovation, a name by which the revival was known to intellectuals at his court. One of those declared, ‘Our times are transformed into the civilisation of Antiquity. Golden Rome is reborn and restored anew to the world.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AUHUVCQZ\">[Goody 1993, p. 144]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 28,
"polity": {
"id": 311,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire II",
"start_year": 840,
"end_year": 987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 311,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire II",
"start_year": 840,
"end_year": 987
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“It has been argued that one of the functions of the reliquary-statue was to legitimise the return of sculpture to the European tradition. This thesis is discounted by others, for the enthroned Maiestas, the seated statues of the Virgin, are by no means all reliquaries. However the first known example, the golden Madonna at Clermont-Ferrand from the late ninth century, was certainly of this kind; so too were others of the Carolingian period.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AUHUVCQZ\">[Goody 1993, p. 140]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 29,
"polity": {
"id": 304,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Merovingian",
"start_year": 481,
"end_year": 543
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“One of the greatest achievements of the ancient world was the statue - the representation in the round of man, god and hero. From the fifth century, it virtually disappeared.[...] Sculpture lived on in other forms but not the statue.[...] There were of course some exceptions. But the start contrast remains and it arose not so much from a loss of technique or the decline of the economy but rather from a deliberate rejection, the roots of which lie deeper than any one religion.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AUHUVCQZ\">[Goody 1993, pp. 79-80]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 30,
"polity": {
"id": 306,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
"start_year": 543,
"end_year": 687
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“One of the greatest achievements of the ancient world was the statue - the representation in the round of man, god and hero. From the fifth century, it virtually disappeared.[...] Sculpture lived on in other forms but not the statue.[...] There were of course some exceptions. But the start contrast remains and it arose not so much from a loss of technique or the decline of the economy but rather from a deliberate rejection, the roots of which lie deeper than any one religion.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AUHUVCQZ\">[Goody 1993, pp. 79-80]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 31,
"polity": {
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The text of his catalogue of 1774, ‘A Catalogue of Cameos, Intaglios, Medals, Busts, Small Statues and Bas-reliefs with a general account of Vases and Other Ornaments after the Antique’, was an exercise in the arts of imitation… Busts, statues, lamps and candelabra, ornamental vases, and bas-relief ornaments were made in imitation of jasper, porphyry, pebble, and other stones, with ‘encaustic paintings from the ancient etruscan vases and finest Grecian Gems’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMJC6WXA\">[Berg 2005, p. 147]</a> “Commissioning monuments in honour of Thomas was a crucial part of the construction of the myth of martyrdom…The commission was given to the up-and-coming young sculptor Prince Hoare of Bath. Hoare had studied with Scheemakers – who had worked extensively for Cobham – before going on a Grand Tour. Upon his return to Bath, he executed busts and statues of many people who had been or were still in the Cobham-Grenville circle, among them Chesterfield, Ralph Allen, and Beau Nash.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RJBCUBSP\">[Coutu 2006, p. 185]</a> Note: The rebuild of Buckingham House demonstrates George IV’s consumption for sculpture. “An alternative solution would have been to start afresh and build an entirely new palace befitting the splendour of a new reign, and indeed Nash had already considered possible plans for such a project in Green Park, but George turned it down: he was too old to build a palace, he said, and in any case he had taken a fancy to Buckingham House with its memories of his mother and father and his early youthful years…With the addition of work in the gardens and domestic offices the cost was estimated at £252,000, allowing for the use of materials from Carlton House, which was to be demolished. The cost did not include sculpture, which was naturally to be lavishly added and applied, with panels in relief and statues at the garden front.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGSQZBAD\">[Smith 1999, p. 320]</a> “In England especially, argued Sombart, it was furnishings and houses which became objects of the greatest expenditure. And he cited the traveller von Archenholtz who wrote in the eighteenth century:…The landing places are adorned with busts, pictures, and medallions; the wainscot and ceilings of the apartments are covered with the finest varnish and enriched with gold bas-reliefs and the most happy attempts in painting and sculpture.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMJC6WXA\">[Berg 2005, p. 39]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 32,
"polity": {
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus; referring specifically in the first quote to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition] According to…Dayak custom, this feast…should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was…a very brave man, but he was young, and…less experienced than Uyut [Badilang Besi?], his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived…[and so] Linggir…agreed that the feast should be Uyut’s celebration. […] The Bird Festival (Gawai Burong) is a great feast of the Iban. It is held in honour of the god Sengalang Burong, for which a sacred statue of the Rhinoceros Hornbill is carved. Rhinoceros Hornbill, King of the Birds in this world, welcomes the spiritual arrival of bird-god Sengalang Burong at the festival. This is the god especially identified with head-hunting, war and bravery…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 39]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 84]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader. It is said, so great is the importance of this Feast, that after it has been once held, even if new heads are obtained, no Feasts need be held in their honour. It is very rarely observed (the last was held several years ago by Kinchang a Skarang Dyak living in the Undup) [inferred as several years prior to the publication date]. The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus; referring specifically in the first quote to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition] According to…Dayak custom, this feast…should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was…a very brave man, but he was young, and…less experienced than Uyut [Badilang Besi?], his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived…[and so] Linggir…agreed that the feast should be Uyut’s celebration. […] The Bird Festival (Gawai Burong) is a great feast of the Iban. It is held in honour of the [bird-]god Sengalang Burong, for which a sacred statue of the Rhinoceros Hornbill [King of the Birds] is carved”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 39]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 84]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness. This figure is supposed to carry off all the patient’s sickness, v. to make such a figure”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> Inferred present on basis of higher-rank of specific Iban mentioned in-text and the association between statuary and particular acts committed by Iban men held in high-esteem i.e. head-hunting and warfare. Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus; referring specifically in the first quote to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition] According to…Dayak custom, this feast…should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was…a very brave man, but he was young, and…less experienced than Uyut [Badilang Besi?], his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived…[and so] Linggir…agreed that the feast should be Uyut’s celebration. […] The Bird Festival (Gawai Burong) is a great feast of the Iban. It is held in honour of the god Sengalang Burong, for which a sacred statue of the Rhinoceros Hornbill is carved. Rhinoceros Hornbill, King of the Birds in this world, welcomes the spiritual arrival of bird-god Sengalang Burong at the festival. This is the god especially identified with head-hunting, war and bravery…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 39]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 84]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader. It is said, so great is the importance of this Feast, that after it has been once held, even if new heads are obtained, no Feasts need be held in their honour. It is very rarely observed (the last was held several years ago by Kinchang a Skarang Dyak living in the Undup) [inferred as several years prior to the publication date]. The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole… […] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness…v. to make such a figure. (A similar figure is used by Dyaks when upon a war, gutta, or other expedition after they have been favoured with a good omen and in that case the wooden figure represents the whole party)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader…The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole… […] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness. This figure is supposed to carry off all the patient’s sickness…(A similar figure is used by Dyaks when upon a war, gutta, or other expedition after they have been favoured with a good omen and in that case the wooden figure represents the whole party)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 33,
"polity": {
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader. It is said, so great is the importance of this Feast, that after it has been once held, even if new heads are obtained, no Feasts need be held in their honour. It is very rarely observed (the last was held several years ago by Kinchang a Skarang Dyak living in the Undup) [inferred as several years prior to the publication date]. The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole… […] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness. This figure is supposed to carry off all the patient’s sickness, v. to make such a figure. (A similar figure is used by Dyaks when upon a war, gutta, or other expedition after they have been favoured with a good omen and in that case the wooden figure represents the whole party)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> “[Referring to the old custom of head-hunting and preparations for war expeditions, which were ‘fast dying out’ under the rule of Rajah James Brooke, 1841-1868]…the men…would get their war-boats ready. They would begin making figure-heads for the bows of their boats… […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition, and in the present day, inferred as referring to around the date of publication, in honour of a successful harvest] Among the preparations for this feast is the making of the tenyalang, a carved wooden figure of the rhinoceros hornbill. Some men carrying offerings, and others beating drums and playing musical instruments, go to the jungle and select a suitable tree. At the foot of it the offerings are placed, and some fowls are killed and the blood sprinkled on the ground to propitiate the spirits. The tree is felled, and a portion of it, which is to be carved, is taken to the Dyak house, where it is received with much rejoicing. This wood is given to the men who are to carve it into the desired shape, and each man has the necessary tools given him. When he has finished his work, he keeps these tools, and, in addition, receives some other payment. The number of carved birds differs according to the number of the people in the house who are of importance, and have taken heads in warfare. The tenyalang are not an exact copy of the hornbill, but are elaborately and fantastically carved and gorgeously painted in many bright colours. Some men go into the jungle and cut down belian trees to make poles on which the figures of the rhinoceros hornbill are to be set up. These are of different lengths, according to the rank of the person who intends to use it, […] the man of greatest importance having the longest pole. The first day of the feast is spent in completing the carving and the colouring of these tenyalang… […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Gajah or ‘Elephant Feast’, held only by a war leader who has been particularly successful against the enemy and obtained a large number of enemy heads]…[This event] is of so great importance that the Dyaks say that, after this feast has been held, no other need be held in honour of any new heads that may be brought into the house. It is very rarely observed in modern times. The last was held some fifteen years ago [inferred as the late 1890s, prior to the date of publication]…Offerings and incantations are made to Singalang Burong [the god of war] as in the Tenyalang feast. The wooden figure of an elephant is placed on the top of a long pole planted in the ground, and to this figure offerings are made”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 76]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 211-212]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 215]</a> Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness. This figure is supposed to carry off all the patient’s sickness, v. to make such a figure”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> “[Referring to the old custom of head-hunting and preparations for war expeditions, which were ‘fast dying out’ under the rule of Rajah James Brooke, 1841-1868]…the men…would get their war-boats ready. They would begin making figure-heads for the bows of their boats… […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition, and in the present day, inferred as referring to around the date of publication, in honour of a successful harvest] Among the preparations for this feast is the making of the tenyalang, a carved wooden figure of the rhinoceros hornbill. Some men carrying offerings, and others beating drums and playing musical instruments, go to the jungle and select a suitable tree. At the foot of it the offerings are placed, and some fowls are killed and the blood sprinkled on the ground to propitiate the spirits. The tree is felled, and a portion of it, which is to be carved, is taken to the Dyak house…This wood is given to the men who are to carve it into the desired shape, and each man has the necessary tools given him. When he has finished his work, he keeps these tools, and, in addition, receives some other payment. The number of carved birds differs according to the number of the people in the house who are of importance, and have taken heads in warfare. The tenyalang are not an exact copy of the hornbill, but are elaborately and fantastically carved and gorgeously painted in many bright colours. Some men go into the jungle and cut down belian trees to make poles on which the figures of the rhinoceros hornbill are to be set up. These are of different lengths, according to the rank of the person who intends to use it, […] the man of greatest importance having the longest pole. The first day of the feast is spent in completing the carving and the colouring of these tenyalang… […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Gajah or ‘Elephant Feast’, held only by a war leader who has been particularly successful against the enemy and obtained a large number of enemy heads, observed only rarely in ‘modern’ times, the last known being held around the late 1890s, prior to the date of publication] Offerings and incantations are made to Singalang Burong [the god of war] as in the Tenyalang feast. The wooden figure of an elephant [likely manufactured by those leading or participating in the feast, as above] is placed on the top of a long pole planted in the ground, and to this figure offerings are made”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 76]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 211-212]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 215]</a> Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader. It is said, so great is the importance of this Feast, that after it has been once held, even if new heads are obtained, no Feasts need be held in their honour. It is very rarely observed (the last was held several years ago by Kinchang a Skarang Dyak living in the Undup) [inferred as several years prior to the publication date]. The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole… […] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness…v. to make such a figure. (A similar figure is used by Dyaks when upon a war, gutta, or other expedition after they have been favoured with a good omen and in that case the wooden figure represents the whole party)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> Wooden statuary manufactured specifically for important feasts and other notable occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Bekenyalang or betenyalang, to hold the final head feast [Gawai Pala(?), details as above(?)] during which a figure of the Hornbill (Tenyalang) is exhibited on the summit of a lofty pole. […] [Referring to the Gawai Gajah or Begajah Elephant Feast] This is held in honour of the heads taken in war by some distinguished leader…The wooden figure of an elephant is placed upon the summit of a lofty pole… […] Pentik (v. f. mentik; bepentik)…a wooden representation of a human figure made by a manang (witch-doctor/‘doctor of magic’) when doctoring a person suffering from a severe illness. This figure is supposed to carry off all the patient’s sickness…(A similar figure is used by Dyaks when upon a war, gutta, or other expedition after they have been favoured with a good omen and in that case the wooden figure represents the whole party)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 18]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 49]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 127]</a> “[Referring to the old custom of head-hunting and preparations for war expeditions, which were ‘fast dying out’ under the rule of Rajah James Brooke, 1841-1868]…the men…would get their war-boats ready. They would begin making figure-heads for the bows of their boats… […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Burong or ‘Bird Feast’, AKA Gawai Tenyalang (the ‘Hornbill Feast’) or Gawai Pala (the ‘Head Feast’), the most important Iban feast held in the past in honour of a successful war expedition, and in the present day, inferred as referring to around the date of publication, in honour of a successful harvest] Among the preparations for this feast is the making of the tenyalang, a carved wooden figure of the rhinoceros hornbill. Some men carrying offerings, and others beating drums and playing musical instruments, go to the jungle and select a suitable tree. At the foot of it the offerings are placed, and some fowls are killed and the blood sprinkled on the ground to propitiate the spirits. The tree is felled, and a portion of it, which is to be carved, is taken to the Dyak house, where it is received with much rejoicing. This wood is given to the men who are to carve it into the desired shape, and each man has the necessary tools given him. When he has finished his work, he keeps these tools, and, in addition, receives some other payment. The number of carved birds differs according to the number of the people in the house who are of importance, and have taken heads in warfare…Some men go into the jungle and cut down belian trees to make poles on which the figures of the rhinoceros hornbill are to be set up. These are of different lengths, according to the rank of the person who intends to use it, […] the man of greatest importance having the longest pole. […] [Referring to preparations for the Gawai Gajah or ‘Elephant Feast’, held only by a war leader who has been particularly successful against the enemy and obtained a large number of enemy heads, observed only rarely in ‘modern’ times, the last known being held around the late 1890s, prior to the date of publication] Offerings and incantations are made to Singalang Burong [the god of war] as in the Tenyalang feast. The wooden figure of an elephant [likely manufactured by those leading or participating in the feast, as above] is placed on the top of a long pole planted in the ground, and to this figure offerings are made”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 76]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 211-212]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 34,
"polity": {
"id": 50,
"name": "id_majapahit_k",
"long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom",
"start_year": 1292,
"end_year": 1518
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“New archeological evidence substantiates that fourteenth century court residents adorned their residences with small terracotta reliefs, in displays of material grandeur rather than monetary wealth. That these spectacular clay figurines - sketches of life and daily affairs rather than the formality of temple art - are concentrated in the court area alone, rather than widely distributed, indicates that they were intended to be conspicuous (and regulated) markers of status.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CA6ZIQSA\">[Hall 2000, p. 56]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 35,
"polity": {
"id": 111,
"name": "in_achik_1",
"long_name": "Early A'chik",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Statuary not included in lists found of items the Garos considered valuable and/or obtained from frontier markets. ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 36,
"polity": {
"id": 112,
"name": "in_achik_2",
"long_name": "Late A'chik",
"start_year": 1867,
"end_year": 1956
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Statuary not included in lists found of items the Garos considered valuable and/or obtained from frontier markets. ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 37,
"polity": {
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“About 900 human and animal terracotta figurines were found, with the human figurines being of two types—soldiers and horse riders. Both these types were bearded. Animal figurines were of horse, elephant, camel, monkey and dog. Terracotta objects included a whistle. Fragments of inscribed Persian glazed tiles with Arabic legends were also recovered “. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTQ4GMMD\">[Varma_Menon 2008, p. 186]</a> “Ceramic deposits can also be located at the northern end of the mound of Jaichand Ka Qila, a stone fortress of the 11th century, spread over an area of 2.8 hectares. Pottery terracotta discs, animal figurines, and votive tanks (diya, little terracotta tanks) as well as bead cores (unfinished beads), stone bead making, worked shells and iron slags have also been found. Extensive structural remains including a terracotta ring well were also unearthed. And, a large number of early historic coins (punch marked as a bull) have been found by the local peasants”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ST5E59PD\">[Kakkar 2017, p. 1016]</a> “A ‘Sultanate’ identity has been ascribed on the basis of glazed ware, coins of Sultanate rulers and human terracotta figurines of bearded soldiers and horse-riders, as well as Persian glazed tiles with Arabic legends. Thus, on the one hand inscribed material and coins are used as chronological markers and on the other, certain identities have been ascribed to particular styles of material culture”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTQ4GMMD\">[Varma_Menon 2008, p. 188]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 38,
"polity": {
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Splendid statues were made of bronze, copper and brass. Among others the following copper objects have been excavated by the archaeologist – a seated Buddha in bronze form from Uttar Pradesh, a standing Buddha in bronze from Bihar (by cast process), and from Bhīṭā near Allahabad, one standing female figure of copper […] But the colossal copper statue of Buddha of about 7 ½ feet high from Sultanganj, which is now in the Birmingham Museum, gives a very good testimony of the standards of copper-casting in those days.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, pp. 104-105]</a> Work in the stone offered a good vocation to masons, stone-cutters and sculptors, and a host of their assistants, working on buildings, pillars, columns, flights of steps, irrigation works, and statues. […] Some of the masterpieces of their art in the form of statues are handed down to us through the grace of the archaeologists. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 112]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 39,
"polity": {
"id": 792,
"name": "in_kanva_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty",
"start_year": -75,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. Most information is based on a few ancient coins, on accounts of the history of the geographical area, and on the Puranas, an ancient account of the Hindu religion that is more useful for genealogical information than for political history. According to the Puranas, the Kanva dynasty had four kings…who ruled for a total of only forty-five years…the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India…” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB\">[Middleton 2015, p. 486]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 40,
"polity": {
"id": 705,
"name": "in_madurai_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai",
"start_year": 1529,
"end_year": 1736
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 705,
"name": "in_madurai_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai",
"start_year": 1529,
"end_year": 1736
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Such monumental figural composite columns are one of the striking developments of Nayaka-period architectural sculpture: good examples of Urdhvatandava and Kali face each other at the west end of Madurai’s early seventeenth-century Pudu Mandapa. The size of the late-nineteenth century architectural sculpture may not be as great, at over two metres high, as the tallest Nayaka period examples but they may still be ambitious sculptures with multiple, radiating arms holding weapons that stand free of the torso, as some of the Kambattadi sculptures demonstrate” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GF65ZWKM\">[Branfoot 2015, p. 281]</a> “Such monumental figural composite columns are one of the striking developments of Nayaka-period architectural sculpture: good examples of Urdhvatandava and Kali face each other at the west end of Madurai’s early seventeenth-century Pudu Mandapa” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GF65ZWKM\">[Branfoot 2015, p. 281]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 41,
"polity": {
"id": 396,
"name": "in_pala_emp",
"long_name": "Pala Empire",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 1174
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 396,
"name": "in_pala_emp",
"long_name": "Pala Empire",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 1174
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "‘Considering the records of individual donors recording names of Pala kings in totality, theprofile of available literature is nevertheless quite extensive. Possibly the earliest publication of a comprehensive list of dedicatory sources, interalia, of the Pala period was by D. C. Sircar (Sircar 1982). It was almost immediately succeeded by a monumental work by Susan L. Huntington who meticulously prepared an exhaustive list of seventy-seven inscribed sculptures of early-early medieval eastern India where as many as fifty five sculptures inscribed during the reign of Pala kings, including specimens unnoticed by Sircar, figured (Huntington 1984).’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G84GJZ88\">[Sanyal 2011, p. 139]</a> ‘Craftsmen of the Pala-Sena school, both technically accomplished and diligent, must have received lavish patronage, as the demand for images was great; literally thousands of them have been excavated from mounds of ruins, or from tanks and ditches in their vicinity. Dr. Ray5 lists some of the more important centers of production: five in Bihar, and six in Ben gal - three to the north, which were noted for the charm and elegance of their work, and three to the south, distinguished by an atmosphere of happy contentment. Sculptors devoted themselves to the making of cult images, their forms determined by dhyana or ‘Craftsmen of the Pala-Sena school, both technically accomplished and diligent, must have received lavish patronage, as the demand for images was great; literally thousands of them have been excavated from mounds of ruins, or from tanks and ditches in their vicinity. Dr. Ray5 lists some of the more important centers of production: five in Bihar, and six in Bengal - three to the north, which were noted for the charm and elegance of their work, and three to the south, distinguished by an atmosphere of happy contentment. Sculptors devoted themselves to the making of cult images, their forms determined by dhyana or sadhana invocations. Some were ordered for personal devotional use, for gifts or votive offerings, and others were for installation in the walls of the usual brick, or occasionally stone, monuments. There is record of an image sent out on elephant-back to faraway Kashmir as a royal gift to Lalitaditya, one of the outstanding kings of the eighth century.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N8QIT4DS\">[Marcus 1967, p. 248]</a> ‘Two other categories of craftsmen were the worker's in stone and wood. The numerous stone images of the Hindu period of Bengal and the beautifully engraved inscriptions on stone slabs bear eloquent testimony both to the volume and skill of the stone-carvers' profession. The black chloride stone, out of which most of these images were carved, was probably obtained from the Rajmahal Hills and carried in boats to the different centers of the sculptors' art in the province. Side by side with the stone carving, wood carving and carpentry also appear to have been practiced on an extensive scale. A few evidences of wood carving are available to us and most of them perished because of the perishable nature of wood. The carpenters seem to have built houses and temples and made household furniture, boats, ships and wheel carriages.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F7Z6IED7\">[Ghosh 2014, p. 21]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 42,
"polity": {
"id": 702,
"name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
"long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
"start_year": 300,
"end_year": 890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 702,
"name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
"long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
"start_year": 300,
"end_year": 890
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“The Pallavas at Kanchipuram, preferred sandstone for temple construction and for making sculptures as it was easy to make minute carvings and intricate designs. This type of stone was available in the capital of Kanchi and in the nearby areas mostly below the ground. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BBE23BWE\">[Adirai 2016, pp. 83-89]</a> “The Pallavas at Kanchipuram, preferred sandstone for temple construction and for making sculptures as it was easy to make minute carvings and intricate designs. This type of stone was available in the capital of Kanchi and in the nearby areas mostly below the ground.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BBE23BWE\">[Adirai 2016, pp. 83-89]</a> Empty_Description",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 43,
"polity": {
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 71,
"name": "tr_roman_dominate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate",
"start_year": 285,
"end_year": 394
},
{
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“On the Other hand, these sites have given evidence, on a large scale, of terracotta figurines of mother-goddess and Kaolin figurines of possibly yakshas and nāga plaques. The large number of squatting female figurines with elaborate ornaments and hair-do, and some with child, is the outstanding feature of the Lamture Collection at Ter. They all belong to late Sātavāhana period and can be assigned to c. 1-2 century A. D.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CCBK6RNG\">[Deo 1975, p. 41]</a> “Brahmapuri has yielded a hoard of Roman metal objects of either copper, brass or bronze. These include a statuette of Poseidon; two handles of wine jugs intricately carved; a thin circular metal repousse emblem with a slightly upturned rim possibly used as a base of a dish or of a small mirror case; a cup; a wine jug; a candlestick base; and a mirror with a slightly raised knob.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XRV77XN5\">[Ray 1983, pp. 159-160]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 44,
"polity": {
"id": 793,
"name": "bd_sena_dyn",
"long_name": "Sena Dynasty",
"start_year": 1095,
"end_year": 1245
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“This relief [a tenth century sculpture of Ganga from Isvaripur (Jessore)] compares very favourably with the sensuous representation of the same goddess, fished out of the Deopara tank and now in the Rajshahi Museum, belonging to the late Sena period (Pl. LXXVI. 179)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, p. 462]</a> “Sociological Background of Pala and Sena Sculpture…There was a change in the attitude of the court during the reign of the Senas. They seem to have developed a rather pompous and luxurious court-life and with it a highly sophisticated and high-brow aesthetic taste, that delighted in over-sensitiveness of form and gestures, a sensuous worldliness and meticulous details of ornamentation. This is reflected in the high-flown and rich ornamental Sanskrit that developed in the Sena court as well as in the art of the period”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, p. 533]</a> “They [the Senas] helped to revive Sanskrit literature, but at this epoch religious life was saturated with a luxurious worldliness, so that poetry as well as sculpture occasionally seemed to have satisfied the aesthetic taste of the royal patron, as for instance that of Vijayasena. In spite of the religious subject matter, the art of the Sena dynasty belongs to the world and to the court and is replete with sensuousness”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8V3DWXSC\">[Kramrisch 0, p. 209]</a> “It is obvious that only those who could afford to pay the artist, and defray the expenses of materials for the making of the image and its installation for purposes of worship, had the privilege of enjoying the luxury of earning religious merit. This presupposes a prosperous lay community that obeyed the requirements of the cult or cults they belonged to”. [NB: should this be noted under the ‘common people’ rather than ‘elite’ category?]. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, p. 533]</a> “The chief factors that created this art of Bengal for four centuries are thus 1) the court; 2) and 3) the cults and their votaries who belonged to prosperous communities with evidently a comparatively higher standard of living; and 4) the artists who in groups and guilds formed a section of the people not generally considered sufficiently respectable. Evidently enough, these chief factors have hardly any room for the people at large. This art, then, was the art of the higher classes, of the dominant groups of the contemporary socio-economic order, and we have hardly any evidence during these centuries of the art of the common people”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, pp. 534-535]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 45,
"polity": {
"id": 385,
"name": "in_sunga_emp",
"long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire",
"start_year": -187,
"end_year": -65
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "Decorative pillars; sculptures; reliefs. “An interesting inscription of the Shunga period is inscribed on a pillar at Besnagar, the site of ancient Vidisha… The Besnagar pillar inscription indicates that the Shungas continued the Maurya tradition of entertaining ambassadors from Greek courts.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UJG2G6MJ\">[Singh 2008, p. 372]</a> “A few other sculptures from Vidisha are assigned to the ‘Shunga’ period, i.e., 2nd century BCE–1st century CE. These include a pillar capital in the form of a banyan tree, which may represent the wish-fulfilling kalpa-vriksha. Representations of large-sized fi gures include an over 3 m high sandstone image of Kubera (king of the yakshas and god of wealth) holding a money bag in his left hand. There is also a stylistically similar but smaller female figure, with a bunch of flowers or fruits hanging down from her left hand and an unidentifiable object in her right hand.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UJG2G6MJ\">[Singh 2008, p. 464]</a> “TheBharhut style of sculpture, with narrative reliefs ornamenting temple structures, was widespread in northern India. The reliefs form a major corpus of material dating to the Sunga dynasty (185–73 B.C.E.)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JBEBEPPM\">[Higham 2004, p. 49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 46,
"polity": {
"id": 191,
"name": "it_papal_state_2",
"long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1378,
"end_year": 1527
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Secular architecture came into its own, especially with the house, or palace, and its wider spatial setting, the city as a whole; and with the country house, or villa, and its wider spatial setting, the garden. Sculpture broadened its range to take in everything from miniatures and medals to equestrian monuments for the adornment of all these places, both inside in palaces and villas and outside in gardens and city squares.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FKIPQNK3\">[Goldthwaite 1987, p. 154]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 47,
"polity": {
"id": 192,
"name": "it_papal_state_3",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
"start_year": 1527,
"end_year": 1648
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Secular architecture came into its own, especially with the house, or palace, and its wider spatial setting, the city as a whole; and with the country house, or villa, and its wider spatial setting, the garden. Sculpture broadened its range to take in everything from miniatures and medals to equestrian monuments for the adornment of all these places, both inside in palaces and villas and outside in gardens and city squares.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FKIPQNK3\">[Goldthwaite 1987, p. 154]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 48,
"polity": {
"id": 193,
"name": "it_papal_state_4",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1809
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 193,
"name": "it_papal_state_4",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1809
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“During the 18th century […] Artists from all over Europe traveled to Rome to advance their professional training through the study of antique sculptures […] Many of the most famous and popular tourist sites of today in Rome, including […] the Trevi Fountain […] were built, renovated, or decorated during the 18th century, and it was in Rome that princely collections were first opened to public […] The variety of coexisting styles, the striking continuity of 17th-century Roman Baroque qualities in […] sculpture, and the fact that so much of the art in Rome was commissioned by foreigners for export has made easy categorization almost impossible […] Pope Clement XI's 1701 edict […] prohibited the export of statues, […] bronzes from the Papal States and ended in 1798 with the invasion of French troops. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQZKFBXV\">[Roworth 2001, pp. 135-136]</a> RA NOTE: The following quotes are referring to an exhibition entitled Splendor of Eighteenth Century Rome.“The city's significance as the seat of Catholic authority in the Papal States with its numerous […] monuments, altarpieces, and devotional objects was, as expected, a major feature of the exhibition […] statues of martyrs, visionary and newly canonized saints, miracles, adorations, sacrifices, and penitents adorned the galleries along with those of mythological subjects […] sculpture was well represented with about fifty objects of varying sizes and materials that included statues, figurines, portrait busts, reliefs of biblical, allegorical, and mythological subjects, and restorations and copies of antique sculpture. […] Other thematic sections in the exhibition demonstrated the elaborate decoration of private palace interiors through the display of […] sculpture. […] The major portion of the exhibition, devoted to religious art, included a diverse array of sculptures <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQZKFBXV\">[Roworth 2001, pp. 137-142]</a> “Sir Thomas Robinson (1703-77), for example, saw commemoration through sculpture as the practice of Italian noblemen. As Baker’s review of sculptural portraiture reveals, it was the impetus of British patrons who […] initiated a new trend in Roman portrait sculpture.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CNU9C2D2\">[Marshal 0, p. 10]</a> “The variety of coexisting styles, the striking continuity of 17th-century Roman Baroque qualities in […] sculpture, and the fact that so much of the art in Rome was commissioned by foreigners for export has made easy categorization almost impossible” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQZKFBXV\">[Roworth 2001, p. 135]</a> “Other thematic sections in the exhibition demonstrated the elaborate decoration of private palace interiors through the display of […] sculpture.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQZKFBXV\">[Roworth 2001, p. 135]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 49,
"polity": {
"id": 545,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
"start_year": 1564,
"end_year": 1797
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 545,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
"start_year": 1564,
"end_year": 1797
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Proto-tableaux were at first appendages to the ducal processions and for centuries displayed only the insignia of the doge or a relic, miraculous painting, or statue of a saint. […] People in the procession began to use portable platforms (solari) on which they carried their reliquaries and statues of saints, sometimes made for the occasion. When the little dramas that could be told with groups of statues or actors took over as the primary visual elements in the processions, tableaux had reached their maturity. Even though there are numerous descriptions of brilliant processions in the fifteenth century, the visual domination of tableaux over the other elements of the procession does not seem to have been common before the first decade of the sixteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5DMDWGKP\">[Muir 1979, p. 40]</a> “In sixteenth-century Italy and Europe, pageantry, though transitory, became a major art form that taxed the ingenuity of some of the greatest […] sculptors […] of the Renaissance.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5DMDWGKP\">[Muir 1979, p. 36]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 50,
"polity": {
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_statuary",
"comment": "“Sculpture in the Momoyama era took on two separate and very different aspects: architectural decoration suited to the flamboyant taste of triumphant warlords; and statues of Buddhist and Shinto deities […] the former, innovative and colorful, embodied the vaunting ambitions of the new rulers; the latter carefully crafted, sought to preserve the heritage of the past.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 87]</a> “Sculpture in the Momoyama era took on two separate and very different aspects: architectural decoration suited to the flamboyant taste of triumphant warlords; and statues of Buddhist and Shinto deities […] the former, innovative and colorful, embodied the vaunting ambitions of the new rulers; the latter carefully crafted, sought to preserve the heritage of the past. […] the names and biographies of Momoyama-era master carpenters (daiku) have been recorded: the Kora and Heinouchi families, for example, hereditary craftsman from western Japan […] the decoration carvers (horishi), however, remain largely unknown: but where factual history has faltered, Japanese folklore has created an archetypal horishi – a left-handed prodigy named Hidari (Lefty) Jingoro, who life dates are traditionally given as 1594 to 1651.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 87]</a> “This singular portrait statue commemorates a rich Kyoto shipping magnate and hydraulic engineer, Suminokura Ryoi (1554-1614) […] Ryoi belonged to a prosperous, long established family of medical doctors who had also become doso – money lenders and merchants. […] the statue is thought to be commissioned at the time of Ryoi’s death by his eldest son.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 89]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}