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"count": 117,
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{
"id": 51,
"polity": {
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
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{
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Vietnam",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“In 1603 the Suminokura were allowed to dispatch one vessel per year from Nagasaki […] the ship returned laden with such items as […] aromatic wax, and incense.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 89]</a> “The Japanese used their own dyes and dyeing techniques, and the resulting effect was quite different, but there is no doubt that they took Coromandel chintz as their model.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FDMNRKTN\">[Atsushi 2013]</a> “In 1603 the Suminokura were allowed to dispatch one vessel per year from Nagasaki […] the ship returned laden with such items as […] aromatic wax, and incense. […] The Suminokura ship was authorized to trade with Tonkin (the region around Hanoi-Haiphong in present day Vietnam).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 89]</a> “The Japanese used their own dyes and dyeing techniques, and the resulting effect was quite different, but there is no doubt that they took Coromandel chintz as their model.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FDMNRKTN\">[Atsushi 2013]</a> “In 1586, in the midst of the construction, a delegation of Jesuit priests was welcomed to the castle and Hideyoshi personally guided them through the donjon. […] In one of the chambers through which we passed, there were ten or twelve new cloaks, dyed a scarlet hue and hanging on silk cords – a most unusual sight in Japan’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 33]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 52,
"polity": {
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Though this is not explicit, the following quotes refer to the period in question. “the famous Shin'an wreck was discovered some 30 years ago. This Chinese merchant ship on its way to Japan […] Some ceramic vessels even still held their organic content, such as black pepper […]” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JP96S42F\">[Seyock 2006, p. 135]</a> “Spices, gums and perfumes from China and the Indies, were luxuries which wealthy Japanese deemed indispensable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HEUTUTJS\">[Sansom 1931, p. 424]</a> “Japan exported to China […] and, in return, imported […] dye” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 102]</a> Though this is not explicit, the following quotes refer to the period in question. “Spices, gums and perfumes from China and the Indies, were luxuries which wealthy Japanese deemed indispensable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HEUTUTJS\">[Sansom 1931, p. 424]</a> “the famous Shin'an wreck was discovered some 30 years ago. This Chinese merchant ship on its way to Japan […] Some ceramic vessels even still held their organic content, such as black pepper […]” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JP96S42F\">[Seyock 2006, p. 135]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 53,
"polity": {
"id": 152,
"name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
"long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
"start_year": 1603,
"end_year": 1868
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 152,
"name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
"long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
"start_year": 1603,
"end_year": 1868
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“richly dyed materials […] were used by the wealthy.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FR896GQ7\">[Hanley 2008, p. 690]</a> “important examples of cash crops included […] indigo plants for the production of textile dyes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DTHP9XA2\">[McNabb 2016, p. 185]</a> “The early Tokugawa period saw the development of a commercial economy, especially in the central, south and west Japan, that finally proved disruptive of the traditional village structure. […] Instead . . . he could turn to one of the cash crops for which the growth of city culture and the rise in standards of living had created a demand: […] indigo, and others” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DTHP9XA2\">[McNabb 2016, pp. 185-186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 54,
"polity": {
"id": 43,
"name": "kh_khmer_k",
"long_name": "Khmer Kingdom",
"start_year": 1432,
"end_year": 1594
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "A contemporary account by a foreign traveller mentions the trade in pepper and cloves. “Sixteenth and seventeenth century Cambodia lacks solid documentation, as remaining Cambodia-generated chronicle accounts of that era are idealised storylines rather than being rooted in verifiable and otherwise substantiated historical events. Thus Western, Chinese, and Japanese sources provide the initial proven and externally verifiable historical records and Western observations of contemporary Cambodia. […] The following traveller’s account Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (1512–1513) provides details: ‘[…] The land of Camboja produces much good quality rice, meat, fish, and local wines. And this country has gold from the Battambang [western Cambodia] area and Laos [in the north]); it produces lacquer, many elephants [for regional military and labor purposes], tusks, dried fish, and rice. Trade goods in Camboja (include) fine white Bengalla [northern Bay of Bengal] cloth, a little pepper, cloves, cinnabar, mercury, liquid storax, and red pearls. […]’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3DFKWHTD\">[Hall_Smith 2018, pp. 12-13]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 55,
"polity": {
"id": 434,
"name": "ml_bamana_k",
"long_name": "Bamana kingdom",
"start_year": 1712,
"end_year": 1861
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The Masina uprising was in 1818, and the other wars referred to were perhaps afterward, but this quote refers to trade routes in the centuries previous, and the value of some of the goods. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 56,
"polity": {
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "North Africa; other African polities",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Indigo. “[Referring to the political and administrative organisation of the Mali Empire under Mansa Musa] The neighbouring African countries provided Mali with…indigo”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SF4689A5\">[Maïga 2009, p. 28]</a> “[Referring to the role of craftsmen during the Mali Empire] Cloth dyed with indigo quickly became a speciality of the Takrur and Soninke peoples. A special clan, the Mabo, handled weaving and dyeing in Takrur.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 170]</a> “[Referring to the role of craftsmen during the Mali Empire] A special clan, the Mabo, handled weaving and dyeing in Takrur\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 170]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 57,
"polity": {
"id": 433,
"name": "ml_segou_k",
"long_name": "Segou Kingdom",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1712
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The Masina uprising was in 1818, and the other wars referred to were perhaps afterward, but this quote refers to trade routes in the centuries previous, and the value of some of the goods. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 58,
"polity": {
"id": 242,
"name": "ml_songhai_2",
"long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
"start_year": 1493,
"end_year": 1591
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 242,
"name": "ml_songhai_2",
"long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
"start_year": 1493,
"end_year": 1591
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "North Africa",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘’’ “Niger society was an ordered and cultivated society, at least at the level of the aristocracy. They liked ample garments and babush, the easy life of the home, highly spiced food and above all good company.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/587CAWSP\">[Cissoko_Niane 1984, p. 207]</a> “Certainly, the Songhai in any case managed to monopolise the Saharan caravan trade which brought rock salt and luxury goods like fine cloth, glassware, sugar, and horses to the Sudan region in exchange for gold, ivory, spices, kola nuts, hides, and slaves.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/587CAWSP\">[Cissoko_Niane 1984]</a> “[S]alt is in very short supply because it is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GU9AEZE6\">[Africanus_Brians 0]</a> “Certainly, the Songhai in any case managed to monopolise the Saharan caravan trade which brought rock salt and luxury goods like fine cloth, glassware, sugar, and horses to the Sudan region in exchange for gold, ivory, spices, kola nuts, hides, and slaves. Timbuktu, with a population of around 100,000 in the mid-15th century, continued to thrive as a trade 'port' and as a centre of learning into the 16th and 17th centuries when the city boasted many mosques and 150-180 Koranic schools.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/587CAWSP\">[Cissoko_Niane 1984]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 59,
"polity": {
"id": 444,
"name": "mn_zungharian_emp",
"long_name": "Zungharian Empire",
"start_year": 1670,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign in the Qing Dynasty, the data for the goods sold to the Zunghar Khanate were as follows: Silk and satin cloth accounted for 75.8% of the total trade value, amounting to 31,241.2 tael of silver out of a total of 41,240.35 tael. Tea accounted for 10.2%, totaling 4,218.6 tael. Religious items such as gold pieces for Buddha statues and hadas made up 1.39%, totaling 572.55 tael. Rhubarb accounted for 3.75%, totaling 1,545.75 tael. Other items like jujubes, rock sugar, ginger from Fujian, and tobacco accounted for 1.1%, totaling 467.8 tael. Daily household items like leather boxes and plates accounted for 0.7%, totaling 292.95 tael. Silver coins accounted for 6.5%, totaling 2,667.18 tael. In the thirteenth year of the Qianlong reign, silk and satin cloth, thread, and other materials accounted for 81.6% of the total trade value, totaling 60,839.45 tael out of 74,560.175 tael. Tea accounted for 13.2%, totaling 9,808.8 tael. Spices and food items like ginger from Fujian, rock sugar, pepper, and jujubes accounted for 0.23%, totaling 171.75 tael. Bowl and plate daily household items accounted for 0.48%, totaling 357.76 tael. Rhubarb accounted for 1.8%, totaling 1,310.9 tael. Silver coins accounted for 1.9%, totaling 1,439.52 tael. (乾隆九年清朝卖给准噶尔的货物数据，其中，绸缎、布匹为31241.2两白银，约占全部贸易额41240.35两的75.8%；茶叶为4218.6两，约占10.2%；佛金、哈达等宗教用品为572.55两，约占1.39%；大黄为1545.75两，约占3.75%；胶枣、冰糖、闽姜、烟等为467.8两，约占1.1%；皮箱、盘碗等日常生活用品为292.95两，约占0.7%；现银2667.18两，约占6.5%。表6为乾隆十三年清朝卖给准噶尔的货物数据，其中绸缎、布匹、花线等为60839.45两，约占总贸易额74560.175两的81.6%；茶叶为9808.8两，约占13.2%；闽姜、冰糖、胡椒、胶枣等调味品、食品为171.75两，约占0.23%；碗碟类日用品为357.76两，约占0.48%；大黄为1310.9两，约占1.8%；现银为1439.52两，约占1.9%。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJUSTDJ6\">[Lv 2014, pp. 21-38]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 60,
"polity": {
"id": 774,
"name": "mw_early_maravi",
"long_name": "Early Maravi",
"start_year": 1400,
"end_year": 1499
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 774,
"name": "mw_early_maravi",
"long_name": "Early Maravi",
"start_year": 1400,
"end_year": 1499
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Salt from the southern Lake Malawi area was traded more in the interior than at the coast. It was at one time such an important commodity that it was described as ‘a staple of regional trade and a source of capitalization for international trade’. According to Abdallah, salt had been a trade item for a longer time than ivory or slaves. The salt made by the Maravi was described as being so good that it competed very well with the salt available at the coast” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 61,
"polity": {
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise. [...] In Aztec times, tierra fria supplied resources such as staple foodstuffs, maguey, timber, obsidian, reeds, clay for pottery, and salt on its abundant arable lands, pine-oak forests, and mountain-rimmed basins with large lakes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “Other foods consisted of chilis, honey, cacao, and salt. [...] Copal was used as incense and copious quantities were given in tribute, as was amaranth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 42-48]</a> “The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise. [...] In Aztec times, tierra fria supplied resources such as staple foodstuffs, maguey, timber, obsidian, reeds, clay for pottery, and salt on its abundant arable lands, pine-oak forests, andmountain-rimmed basins with large lakes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “Copal was used as incense and copious quantities were given in tribute, as was amaranth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “For instance, a farmer whose agricultural schedule provides much free time in the winter months can (and did) devote those months to a convenient craft such as making baskets, sandals, obsidian blades, or colorful dyes and paints.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 59]</a> “Royal construction projects, ritual obligations (such as burning copal incense), burial offerings, and other activities also took many tribute goods out of circulation.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 80]</a> “Other daily needs were provided by neophyte priests: collecting maguey spines, firewood, and fir branches; maintaining fires; offering incense; and making temple repairs. [...] The needs of priests, from their daily fare to their specialized garments and ritual paraphernalia, were met by tributes, temple offerings and gifts, alms, volunteered or conscripted labor, yields from the rather enigmatic temple lands (teopantlalli),and even ritualized stealing (Berdan, 2007:256). [...] Much other ritual paraphernalia (such as priestly tunics, incense burners, black paint, priestly bags, tobacco pouches, banners, and sacrificial knives) do not appear on the Codex Mendoza tribute tally. Perhaps they were included in Durán’s more inclusive list of “all things created under the sky,” or priests obtained them through gifts and offerings, marketplace exchanges, or in-temple production (Figure 14).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 48-49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 62,
"polity": {
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt, cochineal. “Through trade, highland people sought coastal and lowland products such as cotton, cacao, fish, shellfish, salt, tropical fruits, ornamental shell, and quetzal feathers. Given the scarcity of these resources in the highlands most were considered social valuables and access to some items was restricted to nobles by sumptuary rules such that they should be considered prestige goods. In return, highland peoples sent products like cochineal dye, pulque, and agricultural surpluses to the lowlands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> The following quote refers to tributary goods paid to Tututepec and listed in the Relaciones “A second class of goods are identified as valuable raw materials (e.g., gold dust, feathers, cochineal) for crafting highly ornate luxury goods or social valuables, such as jewelry or fancy clothing.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7UJPVP\">[Levine 2011, p. 27]</a> Expert help needed to determine exact provenance of salt. Cochineal was a domestic product. “Through trade, highland people sought coastal and lowland products such as cotton, cacao, fish, shellfish, salt, tropical fruits, ornamental shell, and quetzal feathers. Given the scarcity of these resources in the highlands most were considered social valuables and access to some items was restricted to nobles by sumptuary rules such that they should be considered prestige goods. In return, highland peoples sent products like cochineal dye, pulque, and agricultural surpluses to the lowlands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> “Through trade, highland people sought coastal and lowland products such as cotton, cacao, fish, shellfish, salt, tropical fruits, ornamental shell, and quetzal feathers. Given the scarcity of these resources in the highlands most were considered social valuables and access to some items was restricted to nobles by sumptuary rules such that they should be considered prestige goods. In return, highland peoples sent products like cochineal dye, pulque, and agricultural surpluses to the lowlands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> “Through trade, highland people sought coastal and lowland products such as cotton, cacao, fish, shellfish, salt, tropical fruits, ornamental shell, and quetzal feathers. Given the scarcity of these resources in the highlands most were considered social valuables and access to some items was restricted to nobles by sumptuary rules such that they should be considered prestige goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 63,
"polity": {
"id": 669,
"name": "ni_hausa_k",
"long_name": "Hausa bakwai",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1808
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 669,
"name": "ni_hausa_k",
"long_name": "Hausa bakwai",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1808
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“It is impossible to identify all the various works of art and crafts of the Nigerian people in the precolonial period. […] Generally, craftwork took place both in the home and outside. Craft production included palm oil extracting, cotton spinning, weaving (cloth, baskets, and mats), salt making, brewing and food processing, metalwork, dyeing, pottery, canoe making, tanning, leather making, and wood carving. These crafts were carried out by specialists and nonspecialists, as well as full- time and part- time labor.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, p. 175]</a> “Textile production involved cotton growing, spinning, weaving, sewing, dyeing, and embroidery. The indigo plant (Indigofera SPP) first grew naturally but then began to be cultivated by the early twentieth century. Cloth manufacturing was common in Igboland, Nupeland, Yorubaland, Benin, and the Hausa states. Many nineteenth- century travelers recorded information about woven textiles and dyeing pots or pits found on their journey.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, p. 175]</a> “Trade has played an integral role in the rise and fall of political entities in Nigeria for centuries. Well-developed trade networks for almost any major goods on the global market passed through Nigeria, including tin, textiles, slaves, salt, and kolanuts. Thesuccess of these early trade networks was due to a combination of dispersed settlements, such as the Hausa of northern Nigeria, and the centralized kingdoms, such as the Oyo Empire.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 345]</a> “Omoiya’s (2013) work affirms the above and points out that their migration into Ilorin must have begun by the 17th century or earlier. Omoiya (2013) asserts that as early as this period, Hausa migrants brought articles such as cows, hides and skin and slaves, among other goods, for exchange with items such as Kola nut, palm oil, textile materials and salt.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JNSW3EC\">[Owoseni 2023, p. 35]</a> The two major routes for long- distance trade were north– south and east– west, trading products such as swords, potash, salt, slaves, copper, stone beads, and horses (Obayemi 1976). Salt was obtained through the east– west trade route of the Niger– Benue system, while ori (shea butter), whose fat was used for cooking, lighting, and traditional medicine— came from Nupeland (Obayemi 1976, 1980).” […] “From Kano, goods such as salt, glass, beads, silk, leather goods, livestock and horses, and slaves went southwards to Old Oyo and Ilorin, while kola nut, pepper, and other spices were supplied to the north by traders from the area of Old Oyo. The main export of Kano through Old Oyo to the coastal market was human cargo. Other items supplied to the coast included textiles, dyestuffs, and ivory in return for European, Asian, and Mediterranean goods (e.g., textiles and beads, cowry shells, brass, iron, and firearms) (Law 1980).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, p. 179]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, p. 184]</a> “The farmers grew millet, sorghum, rice, maize, peanuts and beans as well as cotton, indigo, henna, tobacco and onions. Shea, tamarind and nere were also cultivated, and honey was collected.” […] “Kebbi sent salt to Nupe, Ilorin and Gwanja, from which it received tunics and kola nuts. […] The Sahara and Azbin sent Arab and European goods to these markets, including mirrors and paper, but particularly horses (the dan Azbin breed, also called bagazam, from Azbin), camels, dates, henna, salt (palma after the city of Bilma), swords and other articles. Part of the salt and sword consignments were in transit and bound ultimately for the south. In return, Hausaland supplied them with slaves, clothes, fabrics, millet, hides, iron, gold dust and kola nuts from Gwanja. Borno had horses (dan Bahar or Bahargazal), natron and salt to offer, and in exchange received metal articles, gold dust and kola nuts, again from Gwanja. Hausaland exported salt, swords, condiments, hides, clothes and fabrics, slaves and horses to Gwanja, Borgu, Nupe and Yoruba and received in return various European goods, local iron, antimony, slaves and eunuchs, rifles from Nupe (for Kano), and kola nuts from Gwanja for general consumption” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJ8JS6WR\">[bookSection_The Hausa States]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJ8JS6WR\">[bookSection_The Hausa States]</a> Textile production involved cotton growing, spinning, weaving, sewing, dyeing, and embroidery. The indigo plant (Indigofera SPP) first grew naturally but then began to be cultivated by the early twentieth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, p. 175]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 64,
"polity": {
"id": 660,
"name": "ni_igodomingodo",
"long_name": "Igodomingodo",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1450
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\">[Bondarenko_Roese 2001, pp. 185-186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 65,
"polity": {
"id": 612,
"name": "ni_nok_1",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -1500,
"end_year": -901
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 66,
"polity": {
"id": 615,
"name": "ni_nok_2",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -900,
"end_year": 0
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 67,
"polity": {
"id": 663,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
"long_name": "Oyo",
"start_year": 1300,
"end_year": 1535
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PK7F26DP\">[Ogundiran 2005, pp. 151-152]</a> Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliest period of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 33]</a> Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 68,
"polity": {
"id": 661,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́",
"start_year": 1601,
"end_year": 1835
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 661,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́",
"start_year": 1601,
"end_year": 1835
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. “Luxury foodstuffs and manufactured goods of high quality could, however, be profitably traded over considerable distances. […] Salt, extracted from sea-water at the coast, and camwood (powdered for use as a medicinal ointment) from Benin were taken to Oyo, and even beyond into Nupe” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 217]</a> “Luxury foodstuffs and manufactured goods of high quality could, however, be profitably traded over considerable distances. […] Salt, extracted from sea-water at the coast, and camwood (powdered for use as a medicinal ointment) from Benin were taken to Oyo, and even beyond into Nupe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 217]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 69,
"polity": {
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "coca leaf; molle tree; chilca tree; taro tree; indigo; cochineal beetle; relbunium. “After that, Huayna Capac went off to battle, not to prove himself as a military commander worthy of his legendary father and grandfather, but for the purpose of acquiring the things he would need to stage an elaborate public funeral for his mother: coca leaf, ceremonial foods, plunder, and captives who would become servants of Mama Ocllo’s mummy.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 33]</a> “Most dyes came from local plants. For example, the molle, chilca and taro trees of coastal valleys gave shades of yellow; blue came from the indigo plant and red from a madder-like plant known as relbunium. Purple could be obtained from secretions of a shellfish and another came from the cochineal beetle, which lives on the prickly pear cactus. Colour was often affected by the mordants used, the most common of which were alum and urine. There was also an iron-based one, which has often rotted the yarns.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5EXRHPGE\">[Feltham 1989, p. 20]</a> “The Incas were highland maize farmers from the warm valley-bottom lands, but they extended imperial power up into the high grasslands of the Lake Titicaca basin and down to the lowlands of the Pacific coast and Amazonian jungles. This meant gaining control over many valued products—gold, coca leaf, cotton, colorful feathers, shell—which signaled the capacity to reach far beyond the kin-based labor networks of highland farming and herding societies who were their first conquests.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 57]</a> “After that, Huayna Capac went off to battle, not to prove himself as a military commander worthy of his legendary father and grandfather, but for the purpose of acquiring the things he would need to stage an elaborate public funeral for his mother: coca leaf, ceremonial foods, plunder, and captives who would become servants of Mama Ocllo’s mummy.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 33]</a> “Royal estate projects constructed palaces and transformed parts of the Cuzco countryside, creating country palaces, parkland, corrals, coca plantations, and huge areas of irrigated valley-bottom agricultural terraces. 40” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 53]</a> “He gave them rich gifts produced by his artisans—precious gems, gold, and silver, as well as garments made of the finest cloth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 112-113]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 70,
"polity": {
"id": 445,
"name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial",
"long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial",
"start_year": 1734,
"end_year": 1883
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that organic dyes were used. However, it is unclear whether they should be considered luxurious. “[Referring to research gathered by the author during fieldwork in the Orokaiva region of Papua New Guinea from September 1923 to March 1925, and here to organic dyes used to decorate ‘special’ forms of adornment that were manufactured and in use prior to European contact in the mid-1880s] The skin of cuscus (pauri, koviro) may be attached to the armlets in the form of long streamers on which tufts of feathers may be tied at intervals. (The tanning of the skin is done, I am told, by powdering with red ochre or lime)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3T4XXPM3\">[Williams 1969, p. 41]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 71,
"polity": {
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "RA’s note: The following quote discusses archaeological finds at Indo-Greek cities, where archaeologists have found incense burners suggesting incense was present during this period of time. ‘Further stucco and schist sculptures, relic caskets, copper finials, incense-burners and bells were recovered from the complex’s monasteries (ibid., 247-287). To some extent similar objects have also been recovered from the previously identified religious loci in Sirkap. … Thus in conclusion we may suggest that stucco and schist sculptures, bells, schist caskets, ritual tanks and clay figurines, votive stupas, stupa-shaped caskets and vessels, incense burners, terracotta portraits and ivory and metal caskets represent objects with a religious, or rather ritual association.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KG2JRHIQ\">[Coningham_Edwards 1998, p. 58]</a> Inferred from information on a similar polity (the Greek kingdom in Bactria). ‘We have an image of more ‘pure’ consumption in palatial and court contexts under the Greek Kingdoms through the palace excavated at Ai Khanum, which was certainly the seat of the king and court of east Bactria under the Graeco-Bactrians when the inner circle was not on campaign. [...] Presuming that certain items discovered in Ai Khanum’s treasury (which had survived the city’s looting post-abandonment) were intended for use in the palace, we can assume that consumption in this space included the accumulation and use of everything from imported prestige furniture (such as a throne inlaid with agate and rock crystal), art objects, incense, apparently precious foodstuffs like olive oil (presumably not a native product of Bactria) and cinnamon, to intellectual materials like philosophical and dramatic texts.22’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 164]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 72,
"polity": {
"id": 136,
"name": "pk_samma_dyn",
"long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty",
"start_year": 1335,
"end_year": 1521
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Inferred from the following quote, which refers to the early 17th century. “Thus the account by the English factors Richard Steele and John Crowther, en route from Ajmer to Isfahan in 1614: 'Lahore is a goodly greate citie, and one of the fairest and ancientest of India. From this place came the treasure of the Portugals’ trade, when they had peace, as being the centre of all Indian traffique. And here they embarqued the same down the river for Tatta whence they were transported for Ormus and Persia. The merchants also passing that way betwixt Persia and India payd them fraight. They did likewise drive a great trade up the river for pepper and spices, furnishing these parts of India therewith'” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UTJMZCJC\">[Subrahmanyam 1991, p. 10]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 73,
"polity": {
"id": 133,
"name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid",
"long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period",
"start_year": 854,
"end_year": 1193
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 133,
"name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid",
"long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period",
"start_year": 854,
"end_year": 1193
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Dyes. “Dyeing. A flourishing industry of textiles ensured a flourishing trade. Quite large number[s] of the local people were engaged in this profession but the members of the Sumirah tribe were mainly involved in it. Indigo produced at Siwistan was used by the dyers of Thatta. The main agent of dyeing was indigo. So it was considered one of the most important cash crops of Sind. Besides sugarcane and some other items of agricultural produce it was exported to different countries. The local dyers also used a considerable quality of the locally produced indigo in the textile industry and hence they were the major consumers of this commodity.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8DZ7RPZ8\">[Islam 1990, p. 230]</a> For indigo, at least. “Dyeing. A flourishing industry of textiles ensured a flourishing trade. Quite large number[s] of the local people were engaged in this profession but the members of the Sumirah tribe were mainly involved in it. Indigo produced at Siwistan was used by the dyers of Thatta. The main agent of dyeing was indigo. So it was considered one of the most important cash crops of Sind. Besides sugarcane and some other items of agricultural produce it was exported to different countries. The local dyers also used a considerable quality of the locally produced indigo in the textile industry and hence they were the major consumers of this commodity.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8DZ7RPZ8\">[Islam 1990, p. 230]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8DZ7RPZ8\">[Islam 1990, p. 241]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 74,
"polity": {
"id": 708,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1495,
"end_year": 1579
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Pepper; cloves; nutmeg; cinnamon; cardamom; mace; saffron; ginger; gum; drugs; dragon’s blood; pastel; urzela; amber; sandalwood; aloes wood; incense; myrhh. “Once the Portuguese reached India, their empire, like the Venetian trade with Islam, rested on a foundation of pepper. This wonderful spice not only improved the frequently rancid meats and monotonous dishes of the sixteenth century, but, according to contemporaries, it bettered people's eyesight, cured dropsy, and eliminated liver pains. As living standards rose during that hundred-year span, fewer and fewer townsmen and nobles went without its habitual use, and consumption more than doubled.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZV5XKKUP\">[Diffie_Winius 1977, pp. 317-318]</a> “In 1499 the feitoria was shifted from Bruges to Antwerp where the Portuguese began selling pepper. Within five years Portugal had secured a near monopoly of pepper imports into Europe, mainly at the expense of Venice – and its dominance was not challenged till the mid-sixteenth century, and even then not very seriously. The Antwerp feitoria also handled Portuguese re-exports of many other Asian goods, including Chinese porcelain, silk and an increasing range of spices such as cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg and cloves.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 147]</a> “Buyers could buy in whatever quality or quantity they wished and transport their purchases back to Europe in ships owned by the crown, or even in private ones if they thought they could effect savings over the official freight charges… all ships transporting spices from the Orient had to call in Lisbon and pay the royal duties, upon pain of confiscation: 18 cruzados per quintal of pepper, 30 on cloves and most of the luxury spices, and 50 on nutmeg.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZV5XKKUP\">[Diffie_Winius 1977, p. 424]</a> “By the end of Manuel’s reign [1521 CE] Lisbon had new suburbs that spilled out beyond its walls towards the north and west and had far outgrown its old Medieval perimeter. The commercial district (cidade baixa) was particularly vibrant, with busy, crowded streets and houses up to four or five storeys high. Besides traditional Portuguese and European commodities the shops here offered a rich variety of imports from Asia and Africa. As a contemporary verse boasted, anyone coming to Portugal could now find there an astonishing range of luxuries. They included…spices, drugs and gums...“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 148]</a> “In order to gain an idea of the international quality of such goods, let us join that lisboeta as he inspected the cargoes being unloaded on the wharves of Lisbon in the 1550s… more important were the various vegetable dyes and resins used in the textile industry: ‘dragon’s blood’ (sangue de dragéo), a red resin from the dragon-tree present on Porto Santo; woad (pastel); and litmus roccella (urzela)… From the Baltic originated amber... But it was goods from east of Cape Comorin which were most likely to spur his imagination and stimulate taste and smell. First and foremost were the spices: cinnamon (Ceylon); cardamom (cardamom grande; Ceylon, Coromandel coast, Siam); cloves (volcanic islands of the Moluccas, but especially Ternate and Tidor); mace and nutmeg (Banda islands). There were the aromatic woods and fragrant gums and resins: sandalwood (especially Timor, but also Coromandel, Siam, and Makassar); two species of aloes wood, differentiated in Malay by the words garu and calambac (Gujarat, Bengal, Sumatra, Malacca, Ceylon, Siam and Indochina peninsula); camphor (Borneo, Sumatra, Pacem, China); white and black gum benzoin (the best from Siam and Pegu); and saffron, a colouring agent. In” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 124-127]</a> “The nerve centre for the India operations was right under the monarch’s nose, in the India House. It was set up on the ground floor of the palace and was in charge of the administration and management of trade throughout the empire. It weighed cargoes, logged deliveries and kept ledgers. Ships had their own storage rooms there. Góis described the Casa da Índia as an ‘emporium of aromas, pearls, rubies, emeralds and other gems that year after year are brought from India.’ That wasn’t all. It also piled up bags of pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and other spices. It took receipt of porcelains, silk, incense and myrrh” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URZAQIM6\">[Hatton 2018, p. 55]</a> “Once the Portuguese reached India, their empire, like the Venetian trade with Islam, rested on a foundation of pepper. This wonderful spice not only improved the frequently rancid meats and monotonous dishes of the sixteenth century, but, according to contemporaries, it bettered people's eyesight, cured dropsy, and eliminated liver pains. As living standards rose during that hundred-year span, fewer and fewer townsmen and nobles went without its habitual use, and consumption more than doubled.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZV5XKKUP\">[Diffie_Winius 1977, pp. 317-318]</a> “In order to gain an idea of the international quality of such goods, let us join that lisboeta as he inspected the cargoes being unloaded on the wharves of Lisbon in the 1550s… more important were the various vegetable dyes and resins used in the textile industry: ‘dragon’s blood’ (sangue de dragéo), a red resin from the dragon-tree present on Porto Santo; woad (pastel); and litmus roccella (urzela)… From the Baltic originated amber… But it was goods from east of Cape Comorin which were most likely to spur his imagination and stimulate taste and smell. First and foremost were the spices: cinnamon (Ceylon); cardamom (cardamom grande; Ceylon, Coromandel coast, Siam); cloves (volcanic islands of the Moluccas, but especially Ternate and Tidor); mace and nutmeg (Banda islands). There were the aromatic woods and fragrant gums and resins: sandalwood (especially Timor, but also Coromandel, Siam, and Makassar); two species of aloes wood, differentiated in Malay by the words garu and calambac (Gujarat, Bengal, Sumatra, Malacca, Ceylon, Siam and Indochina peninsula); camphor (Borneo, Sumatra, Pacem, China); white and black gum benzoin (the best from Siam and Pegu); and saffron, a colouring agent. In” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 124-127]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 75,
"polity": {
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Indigo; cochineal; tobacco; pepper; clove; cinnamon; nutmeg; ginger. “Pombaline economic policy in the 1760s tried to combat this new situation by promoting the production of any colonial commodities, old or new, which seemed to have export potential… One governor who paid good heed to these orders was Luı´s de Almeida, marquis of Lavradio, who was governor of Bahia (1768–9), then viceroy of Brazil (1769–79). Lavradio encouraged expansion of tobacco cultivation and fostered the production of coffee, indigo, cochineal, rice and hemp.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 288]</a> “Although the government of Maria I maintained broadly similar economic settings to those of Pombal in his later years, it partially phased out reliance on monopolistic trading companies… By then these companies had achieved much of their original purpose, havingstimulated new colonial export industries, such as cotton, rice and coffee, and re-invigorated older ones like sugar, tobacco and hides.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 314]</a> “The loss of Colombo to the Dutch in 1656 not only deprived the Portuguese of access to spices, especially cinnamon from Ceylon, but placed these resources in Dutch hands. In the seventeenth century, not only the Dutch but also the English had direct access to supplies in Asia and transported spices to Europe. Portugal witnessed a decline in her revenues derived from the spice trade, especially pepper… Keenly conscious of the commercial importance of oriental spices, in 1678 the crown ordered the viceroy in Goa to dispatch plants such as pepper, clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger, from India to regions more securely under Portuguese control, namely Portuguese America and even metropolitan Portugal and the Atlantic islands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 152-153]</a> “Pombaline economic policy in the 1760s tried to combat this new situation by promoting the production of any colonial commodities, old or new, which seemed to have export potential… One governor who paid good heed to these orders was Luı´s de Almeida, marquis of Lavradio, who was governor of Bahia (1768–9), then viceroy of Brazil (1769–79). Lavradio encouraged expansion of tobacco cultivation and fostered the production of coffee, indigo, cochineal, rice and hemp.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 288]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 76,
"polity": {
"id": 694,
"name": "rw_bugesera_k",
"long_name": "Bugesera",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1799
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 192]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. However, by mentioning that hawkers brought salt both to rulers’ courts and the “countryside”, it perhaps also suggests that (perhaps wealthier) commoners might be able to access them. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 77,
"polity": {
"id": 692,
"name": "rw_gisaka_k",
"long_name": "Gisaka",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 192]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. However, by mentioning that hawkers brought salt both to rulers’ courts and the “countryside”, it perhaps also suggests that (perhaps wealthier) commoners might be able to access them. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 78,
"polity": {
"id": 691,
"name": "rw_mubari_k",
"long_name": "Mubari",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1896
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 192]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. However, by mentioning that hawkers brought salt both to rulers’ courts and the “countryside”, it perhaps also suggests that (perhaps wealthier) commoners might be able to access them. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 79,
"polity": {
"id": 689,
"name": "rw_ndorwa_k",
"long_name": "Ndorwa",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1800
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 192]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. However, by mentioning that hawkers brought salt both to rulers’ courts and the “countryside”, it perhaps also suggests that (perhaps wealthier) commoners might be able to access them. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 80,
"polity": {
"id": 687,
"name": "Early Niynginya",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Uvinza",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "High-quality salt. “Although low-quality salt […] was widely available, high quality, crystalline salt was rare. One of the most important sources for the latter form was Uvinza, at the confluence of the Rushugi and Malagarassi rivers in western Tanzania. Archaeological excavations at Uvinza have produced fifth or sixth century AD dates for the beginning of salt-making activity there. Pottery excavated at the same site shows that it was occupied in the mid-second millennium as well; perhaps this occupation was continuous. Travelers’ descriptions do indicate that Uvinza had become a major center for salt production and trade by the mid-1800s. Styles of potshers found there and oral traditions link the Uvinza salt trade to a wide region.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, p. 158]</a> “The other staple of regional exchange was salt, a necessity of life to men who lived chiefly on vegetable foods. Most peoples produced small quantities by burning grass or collecting surface deposits, but high-quality sources were rare. The most famous were the brine springs of Uvinza, on a tributary of the Malagarasi which flowed into Lake Tanganyika. These had probably been exploited since the first millennium after Christ. The brine was evaporated by boiling after a priest had invoked the tutelary spirits. Anyone could boil salt at Uvinza, provided that he paid a tithe to the local chief. The product was traded throughout the western plateau.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 81,
"polity": {
"id": 687,
"name": "Early Niynginya",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 192]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a> The following quote suggests that some varieties of salt were higher-quality than others, and therefore presumably more expensive and/or exclusive. However, by mentioning that hawkers brought salt both to rulers’ courts and the “countryside”, it perhaps also suggests that (perhaps wealthier) commoners might be able to access them. “Salt could be obtained from the ashes of certain reeds or from briny mud, but better-quality, intensive production that yielded standardized packets was developed on three saltworks sites: Kibiro on Lake Albert's shore (in Bunyoro), the salty springs near the confluence of the Malagarasi and the Rutshugi in Uvinza, and Katwe and Kasenyi on the volcanic sites (therefore producing year-round) between Lakes Edward and George. […] Hawkers transported these products to rulers' courts or across the countryside.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, pp. 192-193]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 82,
"polity": {
"id": 676,
"name": "se_baol_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Baol",
"start_year": 1550,
"end_year": 1890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
},
{
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 83,
"polity": {
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 84,
"polity": {
"id": 681,
"name": "se_great_fulo_emp",
"long_name": "Denyanke Kingdom",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1776
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
},
{
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 85,
"polity": {
"id": 682,
"name": "se_jolof_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jolof",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1865
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Mauritania",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “the Moors of Mauritania brought salt to the Wolof states in exchange for millet — in 1839, for example, a Moorish salt cara- van was reported on the Waalo-Jolof border.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRGZDV3Z\">[Charles 1977, p. 8]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 86,
"polity": {
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 87,
"polity": {
"id": 677,
"name": "se_sine_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Sine",
"start_year": 1350,
"end_year": 1887
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
},
{
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 88,
"polity": {
"id": 678,
"name": "se_waalo_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Waalo",
"start_year": 1287,
"end_year": 1855
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 674,
"name": "se_cayor_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Cayor",
"start_year": 1549,
"end_year": 1864
},
{
"id": 675,
"name": "se_saloum_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum",
"start_year": 1490,
"end_year": 1863
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a> “The Wolof state of Cayor and the Serer State of Saloum […] contained saltworks” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJRN8UJ8\">[Klein 1972, pp. 421-422]</a> Salt. Elite women. NB The following refers to the “precolonial era”, suggesting it is relevant to this polity. “With strong ties to the powerful and centralized Wolof (Jolof) states of Waalo, Kayor, Baol, Sine, and Saloum, Wolof women had notable impacts on trade relations with Europeans. […] They also held positions in powerful ruling families that gave them entry to a large network from which to draw resources from military forces and highly skilled artisan castes. […] Wolof women broadly were members of these networks and political councils, and female members of the royal family—sisters, wives, aunts, grandmothers, and Queen mothers (linguere)—held power over areas of production as well as people’s lives. They oversaw territory inhabited by people who paid them taxes; monopolized certain domains of luxury trade in the region that included ivory, wax, cloth, baobab fruit, salt, and certain types of fishing; and collected taxes from long-distance traders including foreigners and local agents.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AT6ZQAF3\">[Fourshey 2019]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 89,
"polity": {
"id": 621,
"name": "si_sape",
"long_name": "Sape",
"start_year": 1400,
"end_year": 1550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 621,
"name": "si_sape",
"long_name": "Sape",
"start_year": 1400,
"end_year": 1550
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The production of salt became a lucrative industry, especially given the salinity of the northern rivers of Sierra Leone. The Bullom, as did the Baga, became quite adept at not only the production of salt, but also its distribution, with women traders becoming widely recognized as leading distributors.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WBFJ8QU5\">[Cole 2021, pp. 3-4]</a> “Along the sea board of the Northern Province, the manufacture of salt has been an important industry for many centuries, and, before the advent of European traders, a source of much wealth to the people concerned” […] “At the time there was no money currency and all transactions were effected by bartering. For this purpose salt was an excellent medium, being desired by all, and, when properly treated, convenient to transport.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAKUJHZI\">[Glanville 1930, p. 52]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAKUJHZI\">[Glanville 1930, p. 55]</a> “Given their skills in producing salt, rice cultivation, and fishing, the Bullom became increasingly involved in commercial exchanges with others to obtain resources not produced in an appreciable quantity within their ecological zone or to supplement their own production. Boat-building and navigation along the coastal littoral thus became special trade skills in an environment where the movement of goods, including salt, rice, and kola, was of great importance and value to the regional economy. The production of salt became a lucrative industry, especially given the salinity of the northern rivers of Sierra Leone. The Bullom, as did the Baga, became quite adept at not only the production of salt, but also its distribution, with women traders becoming widely recognized as leading distributors. One Senhora Maria, described as “a leading Bullom lady,” was noted for the production and wide distribution of salt in the upper Port Loko Creek, where it was exchanged for rice.9 Indeed, the Bullom engaged in commercial relations with the people of Port Loko, the local Loko, with whom they exchanged salt for rice.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WBFJ8QU5\">[Cole 2021, pp. 3-4]</a> “One of the essentials of diet not available in many areas in Sierra Leone was salt. The coastal areas were the main producers of salt and people often travelled long distances towards the coast in search of this precious commodity. Mandingo and Koranko Muslim traders from the northern region visited the coastal countries to procure salt and in the process helped to islamize some of the people they came into contact with.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MGRDTDAE\">[Alie 1990, p. 28]</a> \"Along the sea board of the Northern Province, the manufacture of salt has been an important industry for many centuries, and, before the advent of European traders, a source of much wealth to the people concerned” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAKUJHZI\">[Glanville 1930, p. 52]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 90,
"polity": {
"id": 639,
"name": "so_ajuran_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate",
"start_year": 1250,
"end_year": 1700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "India",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Inferring that at least some spices (and incense) that circulated in this polity at this time were relatively luxurious because they were imported from afar. “Pankhurst mentions ships from the Indies loaded with incense, pepper and cloth (Pankhurst 1974, p. 186)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MTM7PUVQ\">[Jama 1996, p. 86]</a> The literature consulted does not specify which Indian polity exported the luxury good in question to the sultanate. “Pankhurst mentions ships from the Indies loaded with incense, pepper and cloth (Pankhurst 1974, p. 186)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MTM7PUVQ\">[Jama 1996, p. 86]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 91,
"polity": {
"id": 646,
"name": "so_ifat_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ifat Sultanate",
"start_year": 1280,
"end_year": 1375
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The following quote refers to the Horn of Africa in the 14th century. The Sultanate of Ifat is name-checked a few paragraphs beforehand as one of the foremost Muslim polities in the region. “The Christian king, Amda-Siyon, not only wanted to monopolize the commerce, the principal source of strength for the Muslim leaders, but also wanted to deprive the Muslim leaders of essential commodities such as imported iron weapons. However, the Muslim rulers, whose whole wealth was derived from the lucrative trade, and who were notoriously addicted to refined and \"effeminate luxuries\", could by no means dispense with the importation of costly and elegant foreign goods, and were deter mined to resist the king’s threat to the core of their luxurious life. The luxury articles which were imported and enjoyed by the Muslim rulers were envied by the rapidly expanding Christian Amhara ruling class. These foreign goods became necessary to feed the pleasures and maintain the grandeur of a kingdom, glutted to satiety with the success of conquest. The imports consisted mainly of silk and fine dresses, iron weapons, spices and a few luxury items, which the king distributed to raise the morale of his best warriors.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5RPUR5M\">[Hassen 1983, p. 10]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 92,
"polity": {
"id": 638,
"name": "so_tunni_sultanate",
"long_name": "Tunni Sultanate",
"start_year": 800,
"end_year": 1200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘‘‘ The Tunni Sultanate appears to be an especially obscure polity, with barely information easily available on it anywhere in the relevant literature.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 93,
"polity": {
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
},
"year_from": 1644,
"year_to": 1767,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Inferred from the fact that some spices were imported from other countries. “A clear picture is available of Ayutthaya, thanks largely to 17th Century French visitors who characteristically devoted a considerable amount of space to the subject of food in their accounts of the kingdom […] From these accounts it is clear that for all its seeming simplicity, the presence of exotic spices, herbs, and vegetables were evidence of trade with the outside world, and the fact that numerous Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and the Indians lived in Ayutthaya suggests other likely influences.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2NZ9JF9\">[Narisa 2005, p. 63]</a> ‘’The city had become perhaps even more cosmopolitan. The Description of Ayutthaya details many trading communities besides the Chinese: Lao who hawk live birds; Mons who manufacture brass and other metal wares; Chams who weave cloth and high-quality mats; Pattani Khaek who weave silk and cotton cloth; Moken sea gypsies who sell fish; Indians who sell cloth, incense, jewelry, and cosmetics.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> \"The goods carried from China to Siam in the early eighteenth century included metals, cane sugar, tools, copper basins and pails, crockery, silks, sweetmeats, dried fruits, dyes, gums, and thread – mostly consumer goods, suggesting that the city was not only growing but prospering.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 94,
"polity": {
"id": 175,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
"start_year": 1517,
"end_year": 1683
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 175,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
"start_year": 1517,
"end_year": 1683
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "India; Indonesia",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The Ottoman Empire continued to receive spices directly from India and Indonesia throughout the [sixteenth] century [...] Every year twenty ships, laden with spices, arrived in Jidda, the seaport of Mecca, and Ottoman pilgrims returned from Mecca carrying spices, dyes and Indian cloth” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MXZ7DKD8\">[Halil 1994, p. 127]</a> “Egypt and Syria were vital for the economy of Istanbul and the empire. Provisions for the sultan’s palace, such as rice, wheat, barley, spices or sugar, came by galleon from Egypt, and in the 16th century Syria annually sent 50,000kg. of soap to the Palace. Sudanese gold came to Istanbul from Egypt; and the imperial treasury in the capital took the surplus of the Egyptian budget, amounting to half a million ducats annually” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MXZ7DKD8\">[Halil 1994, p. 128]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 95,
"polity": {
"id": 176,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire III",
"start_year": 1683,
"end_year": 1839
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 98,
"name": "in_mughal_emp",
"long_name": "Mughal Empire",
"start_year": 1526,
"end_year": 1858
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "East India Company; Venetian Republic",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“From India, the Ottoman Empire bought pharmaceuticals, perfumes, and precious stones but its main trade was in spices, indigo, and cloth […]. Indigo, a dye essential to the Ottoman textile industry, came from the Agra region in the 17th century and in the 18th century from the factories established by the English in Bengal. Cloth also constituted a major part of the merchandise imported from India, especially muslins-a light, thin cotton cloth-and printing calicos-cotton prints with floral and other patterns. The most luxurious were painted by hand; the others were painted by using carved boards applied successively. Finally, the magnificent cashmere woolen shawls were among the luxury items imported products[…].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJTXCVQ7\">[Panzac 1992, p. 190]</a> “Ottoman imports[from the Mediterranean] were composed mainly of manufactured products: especially woollen fabrics but also gold brocade and Tunisian-style caps, metal and mechanical goods, paper, and other products. The third group consisted of products that came from the European colonies in America: dyes (especially indigo and cochineal), sugar, and coffee” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJTXCVQ7\">[Panzac 1992, p. 191]</a> “From India, the Ottoman Empire bought pharmaceuticals, perfumes, and precious stones but its main trade was in spices, indigo, and cloth […]. Indigo, a dye essential to the Ottoman textile industry, came from the Agra region in the 17th century and in the 18th century from the factories established by the English in Bengal..” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJTXCVQ7\">[Panzac 1992, p. 190]</a> That the Ottomans largely obtained American products through Venice suggested by the following: “Venice, particularly, despite frequent interruptions due to open conflicts with the Ottomans, maintained a prominent position in the Western trade of the empire, with a solid implantation in major urban centres and a predominance of its high-quality cloth on the local market for luxury textiles.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GJAP2FNN\">[Faroqhi 2006, p. 13]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 96,
"polity": {
"id": 177,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV",
"start_year": 1839,
"end_year": 1922
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a> “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 97,
"polity": {
"id": 696,
"name": "tz_buhayo_k",
"long_name": "Buhaya",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Uvinza",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "High-quality salt. “Although low-quality salt […] was widely available, high quality, crystalline salt was rare. One of the most important sources for the latter form was Uvinza, at the confluence of the Rushugi and Malagarassi rivers in western Tanzania. Archaeological excavations at Uvinza have produced fifth or sixth century AD dates for the beginning of salt-making activity there. Pottery excavated at the same site shows that it was occupied in the mid-second millennium as well; perhaps this occupation was continuous. Travelers’ descriptions do indicate that Uvinza had become a major center for salt production and trade by the mid-1800s. Styles of potshers found there and oral traditions link the Uvinza salt trade to a wide region.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, p. 158]</a> “The other staple of regional exchange was salt, a necessity of life to men who lived chiefly on vegetable foods. Most peoples produced small quantities by burning grass or collecting surface deposits, but high-quality sources were rare. The most famous were the brine springs of Uvinza, on a tributary of the Malagarasi which flowed into Lake Tanganyika. These had probably been exploited since the first millennium after Christ. The brine was evaporated by boiling after a priest had invoked the tutelary spirits. Anyone could boil salt at Uvinza, provided that he paid a tithe to the local chief. The product was traded throughout the western plateau.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a> “Anyone could boil salt at Uvinza, provided that he paid a tithe to the local chief. The product was traded throughout the western plateau.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 98,
"polity": {
"id": 716,
"name": "tz_early_tana_1",
"long_name": "Early Tana 1",
"start_year": 500,
"end_year": 749
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Many Indian products, such as cotton, teak and pepper, are hard to recognise in the archaeological record. This may give a biased interpretation for areas below where the surviving evidence from archaeological sites is commonly stone, bone, ceramic and glass.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EEK9BPGI\">[Pollard_Kinyera 2017, p. 941]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 99,
"polity": {
"id": 717,
"name": "tz_early_tana_2",
"long_name": "Early Tana 2",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 999
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Many Indian products, such as cotton, teak and pepper, are hard to recognise in the archaeological record. This may give a biased interpretation for areas below where the surviving evidence from archaeological sites is commonly stone, bone, ceramic and glass.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EEK9BPGI\">[Pollard_Kinyera 2017, p. 941]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 100,
"polity": {
"id": 715,
"name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1",
"long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age",
"start_year": 200,
"end_year": 499
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘‘‘ No information could be found in the literature regarding the trade in or consumption of luxury goods in this era.",
"description": null
}
]
}