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{
"id": 1,
"polity": {
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
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"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Indigo was one of the most important items in long-distance trade between northwest India and central Asia in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and was typical of the sorts of cash crops whose cultivation was encouraged by regional rulers for trade and the revenues deriving therefrom. Indigo thus serves as a prism through which to refract various aspects of Durrani political economy, including those related to production, trade, and taxation, and to link it to developments elsewhere in south and central Asia during the colonial transition”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFWWGFG3\">[LALLY 2018, p. 376]</a> “An inquiry into the state of the canals in Multan’s indigo tracts compiled shortly after the British conquest of Punjab notes the Sikhs were able to realise five times more revenue around the River Sutlej than the Durrani authorities had collected a few decades earlier, and without considerably changing the rate of revenue assessment. This resulted, in part, from the extension or elaboration of earlier Afghan initiatives. But it was also because each authority focussed their efforts in different areas—the Afghans focussing on canal cleaning or construction around the Chenab, the Sikhs around the Sutlej—as each nevertheless realised the revenue potential of producing larger surpluses for export. More remarkable, however, was the connection of these initiatives to the production and trade of indigo dye. In the seventeenth century, Lahori, Kabuli, and western Asian traders competed with others buyers for the best indigo in the tracts near Agra, east of Delhi, well beyond Punjab. In contrast, Punjabi indigo receives no mention in Indian and European sources that speak of the best sources of indigo supply, and early eighteenth-century Punjabi sources are similarly silent on indigo”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFWWGFG3\">[LALLY 2018, p. 390]</a> “ The expansion of the Durrani Empire in the lands between central and south Asia, empowered the trade networks of Afghani merchants in South Asia. The author investigates the process of transformation in manufacturing and exchange of indigo dye, horse trade, silk yarn, and cotton cloth”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FSCZ4HAU\">[Khaliyarov 2023, p. 283]</a> “The Durrani Empire not only emerged from this context; it also nurtured the development of a similar type of economy and set of political-economic relations, as refracted into view through the prism of indigo production and trade, for example”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFWWGFG3\">[LALLY 2018, p. 395]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 2,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 72,
"name": "tr_east_roman_emp",
"long_name": "East Roman Empire",
"start_year": 395,
"end_year": 631
},
{
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
{
"id": 258,
"name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn",
"long_name": "Northern Wei",
"start_year": 386,
"end_year": 534
},
{
"id": 130,
"name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2",
"long_name": "Sasanid Empire II",
"start_year": 488,
"end_year": 642
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
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"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘Controlling the Silk Road in its Central Asian part, the Hephthalites took part in world trade, with Iran, Byzantium, India and China. [...] According to the reports from Byzantine, Syrian and Chinese sources, the main trade goods between China and Byzantium were silk, glass, spices, jewels andpaints.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 91]</a> ‘Controlling the Silk Road in its Central Asian part, the Hephthalites took part in world trade, with Iran, Byzantium, India and China. [...] According to the reports from Byzantine, Syrian and Chinese sources, the main trade goods between China and Byzantium were silk, glass, spices, jewels and paints.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 91]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 3,
"polity": {
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
{
"id": 97,
"name": "in_vijayanagara_emp",
"long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire",
"start_year": 1336,
"end_year": 1646
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Gujarati Sultanate; Kingdom of Jaffna; Sultanate of Maldives; Kingdom of Kochi",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The merchants of Bengal along with Gujaratis, Arabs and Persians dominated overseas trade. The main items of export from Bengal were rice, wheat, sugar, cotton and silk cloth, aloe-wood and spices like ginger and pepper[...] Bengal also had considerable links with Cochin and Bengali merchants imported from there minor drugs, spices and pepper and exported textiles”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 230]</a> “Chinese exports to Bengal included gold, silver, satins, silk, blue and white porcelain, copper, iron, vermillion, quicksilver and grass mats. Return cargoes might include muslin, pearls, precious stones, horses, ornate horse saddles, engraved opaque vessels, broad cloths, woollens, cotton velvet, black coarse cotton cloth, sugar, rhinoceros horns, gharuwood, catechu, pepper and areca-nut”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 227]</a> “Chittagong and Satgaon were the main port towns for Bengal’s coastal trade with these regions. Coastal trade was highly variable in size. At one end were large scale operations, comparable to oceanic voyages from Bengal with Gujarat to Sri Lanka and the Maldives, characterised by large vessels. This activity was conducted throughout the year except during the heavy monsoon months on either coast. Commodities like rice, sugar, cloth, indigo, cotton textile, saltpetre, pulses, fruits some kinds of spices, oil and butter were much in demand. Smaller boats typified trade with Coromandel, Gujarat and Malabar”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 229]</a> “The merchants of Bengal along with Gujaratis, Arabs and Persians dominated overseas trade.[...] Bengal also had considerable links with Cochin and Bengali merchants imported from there minor drugs, spices and pepper and exported textiles”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 230]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 4,
"polity": {
"id": 780,
"name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
"long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Tarafdar himself admits that epigraphic records prepared during Deva, Chandra and Varman rule give no indication of trade, which renders impossible the determination of the extent of commercialisation of the contemporary society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 202]</a> “Not a single new commercial centre sprang up in Bengal between the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. and it appears that this region had hardly a place in external trade for at least 500 years.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 206]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 5,
"polity": {
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The main commodities produced and traded in the lands controlled by the Mughals and later by the Marathas, Nawabs and Nizams were luxury spices, silk and fine textiles, cotton, dye, salt, tea and finally but not least opium. It is the trade of opium due to its global historical significance during the period of 1775 to 1850.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/82N2QHBJ\">[Rodas 2012, p. 2]</a> “It was in the sixteenth century that Bengali merchants began to procure spices like pepper, ginger, and cinnamon from Portuguese merchants trading in the Malabar coast, and to bring them to Dhaka, where they began to be used in the kitchens of the Turko-Afghan elite, and would reach a higher refinement later under Mughal rule”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X6WT86V7\">[Sengupta 2023, p. 132]</a> “Apart from meat-based dishes and pulao, another addition made by the Turko-Afghans to Dhaka’s cuisine was the firni – the dessert made with sweetened milk, rice, nuts, and aromatic spices (or sheer biryani, the version with no sugar) – which is still often referred to as the “Afghan custard.” Upper-class Muslims in Dhaka lived extravagant lifestyles during this period, and their food included “smoked and roasted beef and mutton, banana, jackfruit and pomegranate.” Meals were often followed by a course of honey and sweetened rose-water, and drinking wine – including a kind prepared from palm – was common among the elite, consisting of the Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. Gradually in the Mughal period banquets and feasts with music and dance became almost a part of the daily routine of rich Muslim aristocrats and officers, who maintained a grand lifestyle and made a cult of display” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X6WT86V7\">[Sengupta 2023, p. 132]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 6,
"polity": {
"id": 619,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I",
"start_year": 701,
"end_year": 1100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 7,
"polity": {
"id": 617,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1400
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 8,
"polity": {
"id": 618,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV",
"start_year": 1401,
"end_year": 1500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 9,
"polity": {
"id": 613,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
"start_year": 100,
"end_year": 500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 10,
"polity": {
"id": 622,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
"start_year": 501,
"end_year": 700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 11,
"polity": {
"id": 690,
"name": "bu_burundi_k",
"long_name": "Burundi",
"start_year": 1680,
"end_year": 1903
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Uvinza",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "High-quality salt. “Although low-quality salt […] was widely available, high quality, crystalline salt was rare. One of the most important sources for the latter form was Uvinza, at the confluence of the Rushugi and Malagarassi rivers in western Tanzania. Archaeological excavations at Uvinza have produced fifth or sixth century AD dates for the beginning of salt-making activity there. Pottery excavated at the same site shows that it was occupied in the mid-second millennium as well; perhaps this occupation was continuous. Travelers’ descriptions do indicate that Uvinza had become a major center for salt production and trade by the mid-1800s. […] Baragane and Baha recall that they traveled to Uvinza to produce salt, and then transported it to southern Burundi, and even into the Burundi highlands, where its value (as measured in livestock or hoes) was considerably higher.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, p. 158]</a> “Anyone could boil salt at Uvinza, provided that he paid a tithe to the local chief. The product was traded throughout the western plateau.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2AJMVC\">[Iliffe 1979, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 12,
"polity": {
"id": 470,
"name": "cn_hmong_1",
"long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing",
"start_year": 1701,
"end_year": 1895
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Though scattered across Guizhou, Guizhou, and Anshun, the “Flower Miao” were mainly concentrated in the northwestern Guizhou region and northeastern Yunnan's Zhaotong City during the Ming and Qing dynasties... This disparity stemmed from the Tusi system, prevalent in Yuan, Ming, and early Qing eras. These hereditary rulers, often from other ethnicities, dominated much of Southwest China. By the time the Hmong migrated, existing Tusi systems in Yunnan and Guizhou had already formed powerful political and economic forces. Consequently, the Hmong often found themselves exploited and enslaved within these Tusi regions, relegated to roles like tenant farmers for the Tusi lords... In areas like Xinqu County and Guangshun Prefecture, the Flower Miao, Eastern Miao, Western Miao, and Guyang Miao all suffered under similar burdens, paying rent and performing labor considered comparable to \"commoners,\" pushing them deeper into poverty. By \"commoners,\" we mean the state's registered households and Han Chinese citizens. These Hmong farmers, tilling landlord-owned land like their non-Hmong counterparts, were even worse off than most Han farmers… From 1855-1872, following the lead of Zhang Xiumei and the others, the Hmong in Guizhou and Hunan provinces led a series of rebellions against the Qing dynasty… The Han Chinese landlords, merchants, soldiers, and garrison troops who entered the Hmong areas often used usury to exploit the Hmong peasants… the Hmong peasants were already impoverished. When natural disasters occurred, they were even more miserable. The Hmong epic poems vividly describe this situation.（“花苗”，在遵义、贵阳、安顺地区虽有分布，但明清之际主要集中在黔西北毕节地区和滇东北昭通市地区……由于元明和清初居于土司阶层的多为别的民族，加之云南、贵州不少地区当苗族徙入时，其他民族已经建立了土司制度，形成了较强的政治和经济势力，故苗族在土司地区一般处于被剥削、被奴役的地位。他们多充当土司土目的佃户……新贵县和广顺州一带的“花苗”“东苗”“西苗”“牯羊苗”等，“输租服役，比于良民，故其贫尤甚”。所谓“良民”，即国家的编户齐民和汉族百姓。这些地区的苗民，同他们一样耕种地主土地……比一般汉族农民更为贫困……咸丰五年至同治十一年（1855-1872）……苗族地区，爆发了由张秀眉等人领导的苗族人民起义……在贵州和在湘西一样，进入苗区的汉族地主、奸商、官兵和驻军，掠夺苗族农民的一个主要手段就是放高利贷……苗族农民已穷困不堪，如处水火之中，遇上天灾年荒，就更是饥寒交加，苦楚难言。苗族地区流传的史诗对这种情景有不少生动的记述。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 116]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 148]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 150]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 261]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 263]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 13,
"polity": {
"id": 471,
"name": "cn_hmong_2",
"long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese",
"start_year": 1895,
"end_year": 1941
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Local Hmong people, Yang Hanxian, who graduated from the Sociology Department of West China University, wrote: \"The Hmong society of Weining in modern times was full of serious ethnic and class contradictions. The Yi ethnic minority landlords, who accounted for a very small number of the population, ruled and oppressed the vast majority of Hmong people... According to Hmong elders in the early 20th century, under the rule of the Yi 'nuo' (landlord),... (the above four classes are all Yi ethnic minorities) and those at the bottom of the society, or called the people under the ground, are the 'Miao (Hmong)'.\" ... In modern times, the feudal landlord system with the nature of slavery still existed in the Wumeng Mountains, and the Hmong tenant farmers were strongly dependent on the Yi ethnic minority landlords. In the Qing Dynasty, historian Zhao Yi served as an official in Shuixi. Based on his own observations, he wrote: \"The relationship between the local officials and the local people is the most severe between master and servant... \"The Hmong people wear clothes that they weave themselves from hemp, coarse hemp and worn cloth. They wear a grass belt around their waists, tie their legs with bandages, and wear straw shoes. The old records say that they \"lack clothes, sleep without beds or bedding, cook without pots and cauldrons, and have no food for the next day at home.\"（当地苗族，华西大学社会学系毕业的杨汉先写道：“近代的威宁苗族社会，充满着严重的民族和阶级的矛盾。占人口极少数的彝族土目地主，统治和压迫着广大的苗族劳苦大众……据二十世纪初期苗族老人说，在彝族’诺’（大地主）的统治下……（上述四等人皆为彝族）而处在最底层的或叫地底下的人，即’苗子’。”近代乌蒙山区还残存着带有奴隶制度性质的封建领主制，苗族佃农的人身强烈地依附于彝族土目地主。清代史学家赵翼在水西为官，以其亲见亲历写道：“凡土官之于土民，其主仆之分最严……”苗族穿的衣服是自己绩麻，粗葛败布自己纺织。腰系草带，腿裹绑带，足登草鞋。旧志说他们“身缺衣覆，寝无床被，炊缺锅釜，家无隔夜之粮。”）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, p. 30]</a> “The economic development and production and living conditions of the Hmong people in Qiandongnan and Qiannan regions are similar to those in Xiangxi and Guibei regions, and the self-sufficient natural economy also occupies a dominant position. ... The inhabited area is mostly barren and hilly, with few plains, so the gap between rich and poor is very small…（黔东南和黔南地区苗族的经济发展及生产、生活状况，近似于湘西和桂北苗族地区，自给自足的自然经济同样占据主导地位……所居地域“多系硗碓之区，平地无多，故分为贫富悬殊甚微”……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 419]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 14,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘\" \"During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… (春秋战国时期，我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草，主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗，这种方式一直延续到汉代……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BC7MU5BB\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70]</a> ’\" \"During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… (春秋战国时期，我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草，主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗，这种方式一直延续到汉代……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BC7MU5BB\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70]</a> ‘\" \"From the pre-Qin period to the Qin dynasty, the range of incense primarily comprised local herbs... The use of incense was mainly confined to ritual contexts and wasn't commonly incorporated into daily activities. It was only during the Western Han dynasty that the extensive use of incense in everyday life became more widespread.（先秦至秦的香料品种多为本土香草……用香范围也多在祭祀领域，日用并不常见。大规模的生活用香，迟至西汉才开始。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K8W63IAX\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2014, p. 65]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 15,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"The Ming Dynasty government engaged in official spice trade with Indonesia through two main ways: tribute trade and collection trade during Zheng He's voyages to the Western Oceans. In terms of tribute trade, unlike the Song and Yuan periods when Srivijaya was the major contributor of spices to China, by the time of the Ming Dynasty, Java had become the primary nation participating in tribute trade with China… According to the \"Records of Western Ocean Tribute,\" the tribute from Java included various spices such as pepper, sappanwood, aloeswood, benzoin, sandalwood, mace, nutmeg, camphor, storax, frankincense, bdellium, cubeb, white cubebs, myrrh, galangal, black galangal, and opopanax. Srivijaya also contributed a variety of spices referred to as \"all kinds of spices.\" Spices from Sumatra included ambergris, camphor, cloves, benzoin, shan su hup pepper, and sappanwood. Among these spices, pepper was the most significant and was contributed in substantial quantities during the reign of the Ming founder. It was recorded that during the Ming Taizu period, the quantity of pepper received from Srivijaya alone “exceeded 400,000 catties”... In addition to tribute trade, during the Yongle era, Zheng He's seven voyages to the Western Oceans, which included routes near Indonesia, also facilitated spice trade between China and Indonesia. Besides establishing friendly relations and inviting foreign countries to offer tribute to the Ming court, Zheng He's voyages aimed primarily at procuring various spices and exotic goods to meet the government's demands. Gu Yanwu's \"Book on the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Districts in the Empire\" noted, \"In Western Ocean trade, a wide range of goods are often exchanged for items like pepper, and the finer goods often fill the entire ship.\" Specific spice varieties traded with Java included sappanwood, sandalwood, mace, and cubeb. With Sumatra, the primary spice traded was pepper, while with the Malabar Coast, the traded spices included turmeric, storax, garwood, and benzoin. (明朝政府与印尼开展香料贸易的官方途径包括朝贡贸易和郑和下西洋的收揽交易两种途径。就朝贡贸易而言，不同于宋元时期三佛齐是印尼地区与中国开展香料贸易最为频繁的国家。到明朝，爪哇成为到中国开展朝贡贸易的主要国家……据《西洋朝贡典录》记载，爪哇的贡物包括胡椒、苏木、乌木、奇南香、檀香、麻滕香、速香、降香、木香、乳香、龙脑、血竭、肉岂蔻、白岂蔻、没药、丁皮、乌香、黄熟香、安息香等多种香料。三佛齐的贡物也以“诸香”为主。苏门答剌的贡物包括龙涎、木香、丁香、降真香、沈速胡椒、苏木等香料。在这些香料中，胡椒成为其中最为重要的香料品种，进贡数量庞大。明太祖发布的敕令中显示，明太祖时期，明廷所积“三佛齐胡椒已至四十余万”……除了朝贡贸易以外，永乐年间郑和七下西洋多次途径印尼也促进了中印尼之间的香料贸易。郑和下西洋除了向西洋各国表示通好诚意，邀请他们入明朝贡以外，很大程度上也意在采购各类香料和奇珍异货，以满足政府需求。顾炎武《天下郡国利病书》有载：“西洋交易，多用广货易回胡椒等物，其贵细者往往满舶。”其中，与爪哇国交易的香料品种有苏木、白檀香、肉豆蔻、荜拨；与苏门答剌国交易的香料品种为胡椒；与旧港国交易的香料品种包括黄速香、降真香、沉香、金银香四种。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R7IFA2Z\">[Xu_Sun 2021, pp. 125-134]</a> \"China doesn't have its own sources of spices, so it relies on trade with Southeast Asian countries for them…The Ming Dynasty government engaged in official spice trade with Indonesia through two main ways: tribute trade and collection trade during Zheng He's voyages to the Western Oceans. In terms of tribute trade, unlike the Song and Yuan periods when Srivijaya was the major contributor of spices to China, by the time of the Ming Dynasty, Java had become the primary nation participating in tribute trade with China… According to the \"Records of Western Ocean Tribute,\" the tribute from Java included various spices such as pepper, sappanwood, aloeswood, benzoin, sandalwood, mace, nutmeg, camphor, storax, frankincense, bdellium, cubeb, white cubebs, myrrh, galangal, black galangal, and opopanax. Srivijaya also contributed a variety of spices referred to as \"all kinds of spices.\" Spices from Sumatra included ambergris, camphor, cloves, benzoin, shan su hup pepper, and sappanwood. Among these spices, pepper was the most significant and was contributed in substantial quantities during the reign of the Ming founder. It was recorded that during the Ming Taizu period, the quantity of pepper received from Srivijaya alone “exceeded 400,000 catties”... In addition to tribute trade, during the Yongle era, Zheng He's seven voyages to the Western Oceans, which included routes near Indonesia, also facilitated spice trade between China and Indonesia. Besides establishing friendly relations and inviting foreign countries to offer tribute to the Ming court, Zheng He's voyages aimed primarily at procuring various spices and exotic goods to meet the government's demands. Gu Yanwu's \"Book on the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Districts in the Empire\" noted, \"In Western Ocean trade, a wide range of goods are often exchanged for items like pepper, and the finer goods often fill the entire ship.\" Specific spice varieties traded with Java included sappanwood, sandalwood, mace, and cubeb. With Sumatra, the primary spice traded was pepper, while with the Malabar Coast, the traded spices included turmeric, storax, garwood, and benzoin. (中国自身缺乏香料资源，依赖于与东南亚国家的贸易……明朝政府与印尼开展香料贸易的官方途径包括朝贡贸易和郑和下西洋的收揽交易两种途径。就朝贡贸易而言，不同于宋元时期三佛齐是印尼地区与中国开展香料贸易最为频繁的国家。到明朝，爪哇成为到中国开展朝贡贸易的主要国家……据《西洋朝贡典录》记载，爪哇的贡物包括胡椒、苏木、乌木、奇南香、檀香、麻滕香、速香、降香、木香、乳香、龙脑、血竭、肉岂蔻、白岂蔻、没药、丁皮、乌香、黄熟香、安息香等多种香料。三佛齐的贡物也以“诸香”为主。苏门答剌的贡物包括龙涎、木香、丁香、降真香、沈速胡椒、苏木等香料。在这些香料中，胡椒成为其中最为重要的香料品种，进贡数量庞大。明太祖发布的敕令中显示，明太祖时期，明廷所积“三佛齐胡椒已至四十余万”……除了朝贡贸易以外，永乐年间郑和七下西洋多次途径印尼也促进了中印尼之间的香料贸易。郑和下西洋除了向西洋各国表示通好诚意，邀请他们入明朝贡以外，很大程度上也意在采购各类香料和奇珍异货，以满足政府需求。顾炎武《天下郡国利病书》有载：“西洋交易，多用广货易回胡椒等物，其贵细者往往满舶。”其中，与爪哇国交易的香料品种有苏木、白檀香、肉豆蔻、荜拨；与苏门答剌国交易的香料品种为胡椒；与旧港国交易的香料品种包括黄速香、降真香、沉香、金银香四种。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R7IFA2Z\">[Xu_Sun 2021, pp. 125-134]</a> \"During the Ming Dynasty, the spice trade not only brought in tax revenues but also had a significant impact on government practices like gift-giving and salaries. In the early Hongwu period, spices like pepper and sandalwood were primarily used for gifting. For instance, in the 12th year of Hongwu (1379), \"Three catties of pepper were given to each soldier serving in the capital, while those serving in other regions received two catties.\" In the 29th year of Hongwu (1396), \"Over two thousand workers were rewarded with one catty of pepper and five catties of sandalwood upon the completion of the stone bridge outside Sanshan Gate.\"Starting from the Yongle period, pepper and sandalwood were also used to compensate government officials as a way to alleviate the government's financial burdens. In the 20th year of Yongle (1414), \"During spring and summer, cash was used, while in autumn and winter, sandalwood and pepper were provided for officials with rank of five or higher, with a deduction of seven-tenths. For officials with ranks below that, the deduction was six-tenths.\" In the 9th year of Xuande (1434), \"The Ministry of Revenue proposed that in the 8th year of Xuande (1433), officials in the capital should receive their rice allowance as well as pepper and sandalwood. Pepper was valued at 100 strings per catty, and sandalwood at 50 strings per catty, all supplied from the storerooms in the north and south capitals.\" Subsequently, from the 1st year of Zhengtong (1436) to the 7th year of Chenghua (1471), there are documented instances of pepper and sandalwood being utilized to offset government officials' salaries. (明朝时期，香料贸易除带来税收利益以外，由于胡椒、苏木等香料的大量输入和广泛运用，还被明廷大规模地用于赏赐、支俸。洪武年间，胡椒、苏木的用途尚局限于赏赐。如洪武十二年(1379年)，“赐在京役作军士胡椒各三斤，其在卫不役作者，各赐二斤”。洪武二十九年(1396年)，“造三山门外石桥成，赏役夫二千余人胡椒各一斤、苏木各五斤”。“给京卫军士胡椒各一斤，苏木各三斤”。自永乐年始，为缓解政府的财政负担，开拓了胡椒、苏木用于折抵政府官员俸禄的用途。永乐二十年(1414年)，“春夏折钞，秋冬则苏木、胡椒，五品以上折支十之七，以下则十之六”。宣德九年(1434年)，“户部奏，宣德八年(1433年)京师文武官俸米折钞，请给与胡椒苏木，胡椒每斤准钞一百贯，苏木每斤准钞五十贯，南北二京官各于南北京库支给”。此后，正统元年(1436年)至成化七年(1471年)均有关于胡椒、苏木折抵政府官员俸禄的记载。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4R7IFA2Z\">[Xu_Sun 2021, pp. 125-134]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 16,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘\" \"During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… There is a lack of records regarding incense in the research of the Qin dynasty. However, the Xianyang Museum keeps a bronze censer inscribed with the seal script characters \"Da Ji,\" hinting at a Qin-era origin. At the same time, historical documents and archaeological findings from that period do not indicate the presence of foreign incense during the Qin dynasty. This leads to the speculation that the types of aromatic substances used in the Qin dynasty were akin to those used in the pre-Qin era. (春秋战国时期，我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草，主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗，这种方式一直延续到汉代……秦朝留下的极少的著作中，均不见有关香料的记载。不过，咸阳博物馆藏有一件铜熏炉，座上阴刻篆字“大吉”两字，其年代大致为秦。目前的历史文献和考古发掘材料都没有表明秦朝就有外来香料，由此推测，秦朝的用香品种当与先秦类似。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BC7MU5BB\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70]</a> ’\" \"During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… There is a lack of records regarding incense in the research of the Qin dynasty. However, the Xianyang Museum keeps a bronze censer inscribed with the seal script characters \"Da Ji,\" hinting at a Qin-era origin. At the same time, historical documents and archaeological findings from that period do not indicate the presence of foreign incense during the Qin dynasty. This leads to the speculation that the types of aromatic substances used in the Qin dynasty were akin to those used in the pre-Qin era. (春秋战国时期，我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草，主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗，这种方式一直延续到汉代……秦朝留下的极少的著作中，均不见有关香料的记载。不过，咸阳博物馆藏有一件铜熏炉，座上阴刻篆字“大吉”两字，其年代大致为秦。目前的历史文献和考古发掘材料都没有表明秦朝就有外来香料，由此推测，秦朝的用香品种当与先秦类似。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BC7MU5BB\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70]</a> ‘\" \"From the pre-Qin period to the Qin dynasty, the range of incense primarily comprised local herbs... The use of incense was mainly confined to ritual contexts and wasn't commonly incorporated into daily activities. It was only during the Western Han dynasty that the extensive use of incense in everyday life became more widespread.（先秦至秦的香料品种多为本土香草……用香范围也多在祭祀领域，日用并不常见。大规模的生活用香，迟至西汉才开始。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K8W63IAX\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2014, p. 65]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 17,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Annam; Dutch Empire; Ryukyu Kingdom; Emirate of Bukhara",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"Spices played a significant role among the tribute offerings from foreign lands. For instance, Annam (modern-day Vietnam) made tributes every six years, typically including 960 taels of agarwood and 2,368 taels of benzoin. They had also previously presented frankincense, white sandalwood, and medium-quality aloeswood, but these were later exempted from tribute. Siam (modern-day Thailand) tributed every three years, providing a pound of dragon's blood resin, 300 piculs of black pepper, 300 piculs of gamboge, 300 piculs of cardamom, 3,000 piculs of camphor, 300 piculs of benzoin, 300 piculs of ebony, 300 piculs of large camphor, 300 piculs of gold and silver incense, and half the amount of dragon's blood resin for the empress, among others. They had previously included aloeswood and purple-stemmed incense but later ceased these offerings. Bolkhara, a Western Asian nation, didn't have a fixed tribute schedule but offered a variety of spices and incense. Ryukyu (modern-day Okinawa) tributed annually, previously providing ebony, benzoin, cloves, nutmeg, aloeswood, sandalwood, saffron, black pepper, and camphor, but these too were eventually exempted. The Netherlands tributed every five years, offering cloves, sandalwood, and camphor. “As Southeast Asia was known for its spice production, and there was a clear demand for these items among the Chinese elite during this period, spices were an essential part of tribute offerings. Spices were used for various occasions within the palace, such as weddings, royal birthdays, and various ceremonies. For instance, ministers in the Wuying Palace once gifted a \"box of agarwood oil\" to celebrate a birthday. Westerners also presented items like \"two bottles of snuff, one bottle of rose jam, eight bowls of papaya paste, and a box of incense biscuits,\" among other fragrant goods. The Royal Tai Temple, or Taichang Temple, required the use of hundreds of catties (a unit of weight) of valuable incense and spices on the Winter Solstice and the Summer Solstice, including \"77 sticks of round agarwood, 36 agarwood bricks, 48 purple aloeswood bricks, and 3,634 pieces of agarwood\". The temple had previously received incense and spices from the Ministry of Works, including \"311 sticks of round purple aloeswood, 832 purple aloeswood pieces, more than 235 catties of coarse purple aloeswood, 14 taels of fine purple aloeswood, 34 catties of purple aloeswood, agarwood, and benzoin\". “Compared to other nations, Siam held a prominent position in the spice tribute trade during the Qing Dynasty. In the 47th year of Kangxi's reign (1708), Siam was allowed to \"engage in trade in Guangdong as they wished, with the usual tax exemptions.\" In the 2nd year of Yongzheng's reign (1724), the Emperor acknowledged the Siamese king's \"sincerity and obedience,\" considering his journey from afar. Consequently, the \"tax on cargo carried aboard the tribute ships was entirely exempted.\" In reality, this cargo included valuable items like spices, ivory, jewelry, and other precious goods… (香料在这些外夷的朝贡物品中显得格外突出。安南国每六年朝贡一次，其朝贡的香料基本包括：沉香960两，速香2368两，还曾经贡过降真香、白木香、中黑线香，不过后来都免贡了；暹罗国每三年朝贡一次，其朝贡香料基本包括：龙涎香1斤，胡椒300斤，螣黄300斤，豆蔻300斤，苏木3000斤，速香300斤，乌木300斤，大枫子300斤，金银香300斤，贡给皇后的龙涎香等物同，数目减半，旧贡有安息香紫梗香，后来都免贡；西洋博尔都噶尔国贡无定期，所贡香料有各品衣香；琉球国每年朝贡，所贡香料曾经有乌木、降香、速香、丁香、木香、檀香、黄熟香、红花、胡椒、苏木，后俱免贡；荷兰国五年朝贡一次，其贡香料包括丁香、檀香、冰片。因东南亚盛产香料，且中国贵族阶层此时确有此需求，因而对华朝贡品少不了香料。宫廷中娶亲嫁女、皇族成员的寿辰、各种祭祀都离不开香料。武英殿诸大臣曾为庆祝寿典而恭进“沉香油一盒”；西洋人进献“鼻烟二瓶，玫瑰酱一瓶，木瓜膏八碗，香饼一匣”等香货。皇家太庙“太常寺”冬至日与夏至日祭祀要用掉几百斤名贵香料，包括：“圆沉速柱香77枝，沉香饼36枚，紫降香饼48枚，沉速香3634块”，该寺此前已在工部支取的香料包括“圆紫降柱香311枝，紫降香832块，粗紫降香235斤多，细紫降香14两，紫降香沉香速香共34斤，马牙香7斤7两，细攒香5斤6两，沉香丁12两，沉速香丁14两，紫降香丁19斤5两”。暹罗相比其他国家，在清代香料朝贡贸易中地位举足轻重，康熙四十七年(1708)，恩准暹罗“如愿在广东地方贸易，照例免其收税”；雍正二年(1724)，皇帝念其国王“输诚向化”，且“冒险远来”，准其应当征税的“压船随带货物，一概免征”，实际上这些压船随带货物主要包括香料、象牙、珠宝等贵重物品……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 137-139]</a> \"Spices played a significant role among the tribute offerings from foreign lands. For instance, Annam (modern-day Vietnam) made tributes every six years, typically including 960 taels of agarwood and 2,368 taels of benzoin. They had also previously presented frankincense, white sandalwood, and medium-quality aloeswood, but these were later exempted from tribute. Siam (modern-day Thailand) tributed every three years, providing a pound of dragon's blood resin, 300 piculs of black pepper, 300 piculs of gamboge, 300 piculs of cardamom, 3,000 piculs of camphor, 300 piculs of benzoin, 300 piculs of ebony, 300 piculs of large camphor, 300 piculs of gold and silver incense, and half the amount of dragon's blood resin for the empress, among others. They had previously included aloeswood and purple-stemmed incense but later ceased these offerings. Bolkhara, a Western Asian nation, didn't have a fixed tribute schedule but offered a variety of spices and incense. Ryukyu (modern-day Okinawa) tributed annually, previously providing ebony, benzoin, cloves, nutmeg, aloeswood, sandalwood, saffron, black pepper, and camphor, but these too were eventually exempted. The Netherlands tributed every five years, offering cloves, sandalwood, and camphor. \"As Southeast Asia was known for its spice production, and there was a clear demand for these items among the Chinese elite during this period, spices were an essential part of tribute offerings. Spices were used for various occasions within the palace, such as weddings, royal birthdays, and various ceremonies. For instance, ministers in the Wuying Palace once gifted a \"box of agarwood oil\" to celebrate a birthday. Westerners also presented items like \"two bottles of snuff, one bottle of rose jam, eight bowls of papaya paste, and a box of incense biscuits,\" among other fragrant goods. The Royal Tai Temple, or Taichang Temple, required the use of hundreds of catties (a unit of weight) of valuable incense and spices on the Winter Solstice and the Summer Solstice, including \"77 sticks of round agarwood, 36 agarwood bricks, 48 purple aloeswood bricks, and 3,634 pieces of agarwood\". The temple had previously received incense and spices from the Ministry of Works, including \"311 sticks of round purple aloeswood, 832 purple aloeswood pieces, more than 235 catties of coarse purple aloeswood, 14 taels of fine purple aloeswood, 34 catties of purple aloeswood, agarwood, and benzoin\". “Compared to other nations, Siam held a prominent position in the spice tribute trade during the Qing Dynasty. In the 47th year of Kangxi's reign (1708), Siam was allowed to \"engage in trade in Guangdong as they wished, with the usual tax exemptions.\" In the 2nd year of Yongzheng's reign (1724), the Emperor acknowledged the Siamese king's \"sincerity and obedience,\" considering his journey from afar. Consequently, the \"tax on cargo carried aboard the tribute ships was entirely exempted.\" In reality, this cargo included valuable items like spices, ivory, jewelry, and other precious goods… (香料在这些外夷的朝贡物品中显得格外突出。安南国每六年朝贡一次，其朝贡的香料基本包括：沉香960两，速香2368两，还曾经贡过降真香、白木香、中黑线香，不过后来都免贡了；暹罗国每三年朝贡一次，其朝贡香料基本包括：龙涎香1斤，胡椒300斤，螣黄300斤，豆蔻300斤，苏木3000斤，速香300斤，乌木300斤，大枫子300斤，金银香300斤，贡给皇后的龙涎香等物同，数目减半，旧贡有安息香紫梗香，后来都免贡；西洋博尔都噶尔国贡无定期，所贡香料有各品衣香；琉球国每年朝贡，所贡香料曾经有乌木、降香、速香、丁香、木香、檀香、黄熟香、红花、胡椒、苏木，后俱免贡；荷兰国五年朝贡一次，其贡香料包括丁香、檀香、冰片。因东南亚盛产香料，且中国贵族阶层此时确有此需求，因而对华朝贡品少不了香料。宫廷中娶亲嫁女、皇族成员的寿辰、各种祭祀都离不开香料。武英殿诸大臣曾为庆祝寿典而恭进“沉香油一盒”；西洋人进献“鼻烟二瓶，玫瑰酱一瓶，木瓜膏八碗，香饼一匣”等香货。皇家太庙“太常寺”冬至日与夏至日祭祀要用掉几百斤名贵香料，包括：“圆沉速柱香77枝，沉香饼36枚，紫降香饼48枚，沉速香3634块”，该寺此前已在工部支取的香料包括“圆紫降柱香311枝，紫降香832块，粗紫降香235斤多，细紫降香14两，紫降香沉香速香共34斤，马牙香7斤7两，细攒香5斤6两，沉香丁12两，沉速香丁14两，紫降香丁19斤5两”。暹罗相比其他国家，在清代香料朝贡贸易中地位举足轻重，康熙四十七年(1708)，恩准暹罗“如愿在广东地方贸易，照例免其收税”；雍正二年(1724)，皇帝念其国王“输诚向化”，且“冒险远来”，准其应当征税的“压船随带货物，一概免征”，实际上这些压船随带货物主要包括香料、象牙、珠宝等贵重物品……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 137-139]</a> \"The Thirteen Factories (also known as the Canton Factories) were part of the \"Imperial Treasury.\" Beyond their trading activities, the Guangzhou Customs and the Thirteen Factories also had the responsibility of sourcing foreign goods for the imperial palace. They were tasked with providing foreign products for the royal court whenever needed. Every year, these foreign businesses supplied goods to the palace, a practice known as \"procuring palace items.\" These items included rosewood, spices, ivory, enamelware, snuff, clocks, glassware, precious metals, textiles, pets, and more. In the seventh year of Emperor Yongzheng's reign (1729), the Thirteen Factories were instructed to acquire 40 catties of rare Agarwood ((\"Kanankoh,\" in Japanese, and “Qienan” in Chinese) needed for medicinal purposes in the palace. Those in charge of this mission worked diligently, and after a month, they successfully obtained the required amount.（十三行属于“帝室财政”，除了贸易之外，粤海关与十三行还承担着皇宫采办的任务，随时置办皇室所需的域外洋货。洋行每年为宫廷输送洋货，时称“采办宫物”，其中多为紫檀木、香料、象牙、珐琅、鼻烟、钟表、玻璃器、金银器、毛织品及宠物等等。雍正七年(1729)，十三行奉命觅购内廷配药所需的40斤稀有伽楠香，承办者无不战战兢兢，一个月后终于买足。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, p. 138]</a> “incense had a wide range of applications in the Qing Dynasty's imperial court, permeating various aspects of daily life. They played a crucial role in important rituals and ceremonies, from grand temple incense offerings to more personal uses like perfuming oneself, medicinal purposes, and even as precious gifts or ornamental items… Within imperial temples, the emperor conducted numerous rituals each year, often requiring substantial quantities of incense… In the inner chambers of the palace, where spaces were relatively confined, smaller incense burners were employed. These burners usually held incense with delicate and refreshing fragrances, such as aloeswood and amber… In many Qing Palace paintings, it can be observed that small incense burners on the emperor's and empress's tables, highlighting the widespread use of incense in their daily lives. (香料在清代宫廷中使用非常广泛，涉及到日常生活的方方面面，大到重要祭祀、殿堂熏香，小到私人佩香、入药，更以珍贵赏赐或制成观赏器的面貌出现……在宗庙内皇帝每年都会举行数次甚至数十次的祭祀，而每次祭祀都会用到大量的香料……在后宫内，由于居室相对较小，一般使用体积较小的香具，所用的香品也多为香气清新淡雅的类型，如沉香、龙涎香等……在大量的清宫绘画中，皇帝及后妃的桌上都会有小型的香炉……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, p. 81]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 84-85]</a> “Incense and spices have held a special place in the hearts of the nobility throughout history. In the Qing Dynasty, emperors frequently gifted these aromatic treasures to their officials, vassal kings, and others as a way to foster strong bonds and connections. For instance, Ertai, one of the three renowned ministers during Emperor Yongzheng's reign, enjoyed several lavish presents of aloeswood from the emperor, signifying the emperor's favor… (香料自古就受到贵族的推崇。清代皇帝往往会赏赐一些香料给臣下或藩部王公等，作为联系双方感情的纽带，如雍正时三大名臣之一的鄂尔泰就受到皇帝数次赏赐沉香的优渥……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/82XDP3Q4\">[Cao 2014, p. 89]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 18,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Annam; Dutch Empire; Ryukyu Kingdom; Emirate of Bukhara",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"Spices played a significant role among the tribute offerings from foreign lands. For instance, Annam (modern-day Vietnam) made tributes every six years, typically including 960 taels of agarwood and 2,368 taels of benzoin. They had also previously presented frankincense, white sandalwood, and medium-quality aloeswood, but these were later exempted from tribute. Siam (modern-day Thailand) tributed every three years, providing a pound of dragon's blood resin, 300 piculs of black pepper, 300 piculs of gamboge, 300 piculs of cardamom, 3,000 piculs of camphor, 300 piculs of benzoin, 300 piculs of ebony, 300 piculs of large camphor, 300 piculs of gold and silver incense, and half the amount of dragon's blood resin for the empress, among others. They had previously included aloeswood and purple-stemmed incense but later ceased these offerings. Bolkhara, a Western Asian nation, didn't have a fixed tribute schedule but offered a variety of spices and incense. Ryukyu (modern-day Okinawa) tributed annually, previously providing ebony, benzoin, cloves, nutmeg, aloeswood, sandalwood, saffron, black pepper, and camphor, but these too were eventually exempted. The Netherlands tributed every five years, offering cloves, sandalwood, and camphor.As Southeast Asia was known for its spice production, and there was a clear demand for these items among the Chinese elite during this period, spices were an essential part of tribute offerings. Spices were used for various occasions within the palace, such as weddings, royal birthdays, and various ceremonies. For instance, ministers in the Wuying Palace once gifted a \"box of agarwood oil\" to celebrate a birthday. Westerners also presented items like \"two bottles of snuff, one bottle of rose jam, eight bowls of papaya paste, and a box of incense biscuits,\" among other fragrant goods. The Royal Tai Temple, or Taichang Temple, required the use of hundreds of catties (a unit of weight) of valuable incense and spices on the Winter Solstice and the Summer Solstice, including \"77 sticks of round agarwood, 36 agarwood bricks, 48 purple aloeswood bricks, and 3,634 pieces of agarwood\". The temple had previously received incense and spices from the Ministry of Works, including \"311 sticks of round purple aloeswood, 832 purple aloeswood pieces, more than 235 catties of coarse purple aloeswood, 14 taels of fine purple aloeswood, 34 catties of purple aloeswood, agarwood, and benzoin…In 1800, the British East India Company imported spices worth 25,000 taels from Ambon. The following year, a 100-ton ship arrived in Guangzhou, laden with spices from Ambon. In 1801, Guangzhou saw over 10 million pounds of Ambon cloves being traded. Moving forward to 1807, the value of pepper shipped to Guangzhou reached 92,800 taels of silver. By 1810, Aceh was producing 4 million pounds of pepper, with the majority finding its way to China\".(香料在这些外夷的朝贡物品中显得格外突出。安南国每六年朝贡一次，其朝贡的香料基本包括：沉香960两，速香2368两，还曾经贡过降真香、白木香、中黑线香，不过后来都免贡了；暹罗国每三年朝贡一次，其朝贡香料基本包括：龙涎香1斤，胡椒300斤，螣黄300斤，豆蔻300斤，苏木3000斤，速香300斤，乌木300斤，大枫子300斤，金银香300斤，贡给皇后的龙涎香等物同，数目减半，旧贡有安息香紫梗香，后来都免贡；西洋博尔都噶尔国贡无定期，所贡香料有各品衣香；琉球国每年朝贡，所贡香料曾经有乌木、降香、速香、丁香、木香、檀香、黄熟香、红花、胡椒、苏木，后俱免贡；荷兰国五年朝贡一次，其贡香料包括丁香、檀香、冰片。因东南亚盛产香料，且中国贵族阶层此时确有此需求，因而对华朝贡品少不了香料。宫廷中娶亲嫁女、皇族成员的寿辰、各种祭祀都离不开香料。武英殿诸大臣曾为庆祝寿典而恭进“沉香油一盒”；西洋人进献“鼻烟二瓶，玫瑰酱一瓶，木瓜膏八碗，香饼一匣”等香货。皇家太庙“太常寺”冬至日与夏至日祭祀要用掉几百斤名贵香料，包括：“圆沉速柱香77枝，沉香饼36枚，紫降香饼48枚，沉速香3634块”，该寺此前已在工部支取的香料包括“圆紫降柱香311枝，紫降香832块，粗紫降香235斤多，细紫降香14两，紫降香沉香速香共34斤，马牙香7斤7两，细攒香5斤6两，沉香丁12两，沉速香丁14两，紫降香丁19斤5两”……1800年英东印度公司从安汶运来了价值达2.5万两的香料。1801年一艘载重100吨的船满载香料从安汶来到广州，1801年在广州交易的安汶丁香有1000多万磅。1807年，运到广州的萌菇莲胡椒价值9.28万两白银。1810年，亚齐的胡椒产量达到400万磅，其中大部分运到了中国”。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 137-139]</a> \"As Southeast Asia was known for its spice production, and there was a clear demand for these items among the Chinese elite during this period, spices were an essential part of tribute offerings. Spices were used for various occasions within the palace, such as weddings, royal birthdays, and various ceremonies. For instance, ministers in the Wuying Palace once gifted a \"box of agarwood oil\" to celebrate a birthday. Westerners also presented items like \"two bottles of snuff, one bottle of rose jam, eight bowls of papaya paste, and a box of incense biscuits,\" among other fragrant goods. The Royal Tai Temple, or Taichang Temple, required the use of hundreds of catties (a unit of weight) of valuable incense and spices on the Winter Solstice and the Summer Solstice, including \"77 sticks of round agarwood, 36 agarwood bricks, 48 purple aloeswood bricks, and 3,634 pieces of agarwood\". The temple had previously received incense and spices from the Ministry of Works, including \"311 sticks of round purple aloeswood, 832 purple aloeswood pieces, more than 235 catties of coarse purple aloeswood, 14 taels of fine purple aloeswood, 34 catties of purple aloeswood, agarwood, and benzoin…\"(因东南亚盛产香料，且中国贵族阶层此时确有此需求，因而对华朝贡品少不了香料。宫廷中娶亲嫁女、皇族成员的寿辰、各种祭祀都离不开香料。武英殿诸大臣曾为庆祝寿典而恭进“沉香油一盒”；西洋人进献“鼻烟二瓶，玫瑰酱一瓶，木瓜膏八碗，香饼一匣”等香货。皇家太庙“太常寺”冬至日与夏至日祭祀要用掉几百斤名贵香料，包括：“圆沉速柱香77枝，沉香饼36枚，紫降香饼48枚，沉速香3634块”，该寺此前已在工部支取的香料包括“圆紫降柱香311枝，紫降香832块，粗紫降香235斤多，细紫降香14两，紫降香沉香速香共34斤，马牙香7斤7两，细攒香5斤6两，沉香丁12两，沉速香丁14两，紫降香丁19斤5两”……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 137-139]</a> “incense had a wide range of applications in the Qing Dynasty's imperial court, permeating various aspects of daily life. They played a crucial role in important rituals and ceremonies, from grand temple incense offerings to more personal uses like perfuming oneself, medicinal purposes, and even as precious gifts or ornamental items… Within imperial temples, the emperor conducted numerous rituals each year, often requiring substantial quantities of incense… In the inner chambers of the palace, where spaces were relatively confined, smaller incense burners were employed. These burners usually held incense with delicate and refreshing fragrances, such as aloeswood and amber… In many Qing Palace paintings, it can be observed that small incense burners on the emperor's and empress's tables, highlighting the widespread use of incense in their daily lives. (香料在清代宫廷中使用非常广泛，涉及到日常生活的方方面面，大到重要祭祀、殿堂熏香，小到私人佩香、入药，更以珍贵赏赐或制成观赏器的面貌出现……在宗庙内皇帝每年都会举行数次甚至数十次的祭祀，而每次祭祀都会用到大量的香料……在后宫内，由于居室相对较小，一般使用体积较小的香具，所用的香品也多为香气清新淡雅的类型，如沉香、龙涎香等……在大量的清宫绘画中，皇帝及后妃的桌上都会有小型的香炉……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, p. 81]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UVPJKZU7\">[Yan 2016, pp. 84-85]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 19,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "\"During the Spring and Autumn as well as the Warring States periods in ancient China, historical records showed the utilization of incense. The incense used during that time were sourced locally and included aromatic woods and herbs like lan, hui, jiao, gui, xiao, zhi, and mao. These incense were found in various ways of use, from being burned as offerings to deities, being worn, added to soups, used in ointments, and even for making wine. The practice of using censers to burn incense for room purification was prevalent during the Warring States period and extended into the Han dynasty… (春秋战国时期，我国已有使用香料的历史记载。当时所使用的香料都是本土的香木、香草，主要有兰、蕙、椒、桂、萧、芷、茅等。使用香料的方法包括焚烧以祀神、佩带、煮汤、熬膏、制酒。战国时期就有用熏炉焚香净室的习俗，这种方式一直延续到汉代……)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BC7MU5BB\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2013, p. 70]</a> \"From the pre-Qin period to the Qin dynasty, the range of incense primarily comprised local herbs... The use of incense was mainly confined to ritual contexts and wasn't commonly incorporated into daily activities. It was only during the Western Han dynasty that the extensive use of incense in everyday life became more widespread.（先秦至秦的香料品种多为本土香草……用香范围也多在祭祀领域，日用并不常见。大规模的生活用香，迟至西汉才开始。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K8W63IAX\">[Wang_Ma_Li 2014, p. 65]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 20,
"polity": {
"id": 268,
"name": "cn_yuan_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Yuan",
"start_year": 1271,
"end_year": 1368
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“tsa-fu-lan: Arabo-Persian, zafaran, “saffron.” Discussed by Rashıd al-Dın at length, who says it was widely grown in Iran. Saffron had, of course, been known in China well before the Mongols. In T’ang times saffron was in use, but as an incense or perfume. It is only in Yuan times that it is used as a food flavoring following West Asian practice. This preference can be seen in the Baghdad cookbook of 1226, which includes no fewer than twenty-one recipes calling for saffron…Mastic, the resin of the Pistacia lenti- sus L., is first mentioned in the Yuan period. It is found as a food flavoring in the Yin-shan cheng-yao in the form ma-ssu-ta-chi. This goes back to the Arabic mastakı/mastaka, which itself is a borrowing from the Greek “to chew.” This substance was widely used in West Asian medicine, both Muslim and Nestorian, for the treatment of various ailments but mainly as a stomachic. Another Yuan introduction is the emetic nux vomica, the seed of the fruit of the strychnine tree (Strychnos nux vomica L.), which grows in Yemen. Its Arabic name is jauz al-raqa or jauz al-qaı; the Persian is kuchulab, which gave rise to the Chinese form huo-shih-la. According to Laufer, this substance is first mentioned by the Chinese in the fourteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FVZIAB53\">[Allsen 2001, p. 133]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FVZIAB53\">[Allsen 2001, p. 154]</a> “This is what Marco Polo encountered during his stay at the court. He describes in some detail and with evident astonishment the “great hall” which held thou- sands for sumptuous feasts. The qaghan, a most generous host, provided his fortunate guests with a wide range of drinks: wine, spiced drinks, mares’ milk (kumys) and camels’ milk. But of the food which is brought to the tables [he continues] I will tell you nothing, because each must believe that in so magnificent a court it is there in great and lavish abundance of every sort; that he [the qaghan] has dishes and viands many and various of different flesh of animals and birds, wild and domestic, and of fish, when it is the season for this and when he pleases, prepared in various and different ways most deli- cately as befits his magnificence and his dignity. Such productions, most certainly, had moved beyond the rough fare of the steppe and had achieved the status of haute cuisine. While specifics are lacking, except in the matter of drinks, it is apparent that the Yuan court now strove to provide for the discriminating tastes of the qaghan’s diverse retain- ers and guests, and that this required ingredients and cooking skills from all over Eurasia.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FVZIAB53\">[Allsen 2001, p. 129]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 21,
"polity": {
"id": 196,
"name": "ec_shuar_1",
"long_name": "Shuar - Colonial",
"start_year": 1534,
"end_year": 1830
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Several horizontal red bands of achiote are painted, but these can fade over time” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JQP3QTVF\">[Houlton_Wilkinson 2018, p. 32]</a> “...post-mortem UV-sunlight exposure, artificial bleaches and dyes, including the manual cutting and restyling of hair can however alter hair appearance considerably.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JQP3QTVF\">[Houlton_Wilkinson 2018, p. 37]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 22,
"polity": {
"id": 197,
"name": "ec_shuar_2",
"long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian",
"start_year": 1831,
"end_year": 1931
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 197,
"name": "ec_shuar_2",
"long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian",
"start_year": 1831,
"end_year": 1931
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Their teeth were dyed black, their matted hair hung in dirty confusion over their heads. [...] Our companions had smeared their faces with the red dye of the Achiote seed (Bisca orellana), and looked about as wild a crowd of mortals as any we had to deal with in our travels.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, pp. 268-276]</a> “Another part of the ritual was to smear their faces, arms and neck with the juice of a fruit called “sua” (Genipa ameri- cana). It stains the skin a deep blue-black colour, but its effects only appear about six hours after its application. With their skins thus blackened, the warriors are supposed to make themselves less visible to the enemy.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 187]</a> “He had collected a stock of medicinal herbs — balata, beeswax and dozens of other products from nature’s storehouse.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 224]</a> “While making our way along the trail, the women cut down barbasco wood (the Inca name for a vine whose sap is a deadly poison) and packed it along with them. [...] The men proceeded to pound the barbasco between heavy stones and throw it into the pool, where it floated about without having any apparent effect on the water. Within a minute or two the fish began floating to the surface, upside down, and swam about aimlessly in a dazed condition, easy prey for the savages who waited about (swimming and diving themselves when necessary) collecting them. We caught in half an hour at least a hundred pound weight. The arrows are always treated with jambi (poison—Inca). The particular kind which is used, the product of boiling the bark of a vine, has a swift and painless effect on all the animals and birds of the forest, as far as I know, except the jaguar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, pp. 209-212]</a> “A short interrogation sufficed to satisfy myself that this was huito, a kind of giant walnut, of which the outer shell contains a stain or dye, in just the same way as a butternut or a black walnut. The thorny root of a palm is used as a grater to reduce the outer shell to pulp. With this the skin can be dyed jet-black, simply by rubbing it in in the wet state. All the Jivaro tribes use it to paint themselves for battle, and are in- deed loath to attack without doing so. [...] The same huito is used extensively in the small towns, villages, and posts of Ecuador and Peru bordering on the Jivaro territory, by half-castes who are not as dark as the Indians, nor yet as light as the Spanish. They (chiefly women) stain their faces, necks, arms and hands with it in the belief that when it comes off it takes some of the black with it!” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, pp. 264-265]</a> “ He did not express himself one way or the other in words, but stepped out of the house for a few moments, returning with a handful of leaves which I could not identify. These he chopped up carefully, as if making mint sauce, and then put on one side.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 176]</a> “This spirit of commerce, whether it is just buying and selling or the mere bartering of possessions, is an instinct in every one of us, from the more civilized being in London who puts his business in a water-tight compartment all to itself, to the primitive savage who barters bananas for a handful of salt.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 219]</a> The arrows are always treated with jambi (poison—Inca). The particular kind which is used, the product of boiling the bark of a vine, has a swift and painless effect on all the animals and birds of the forest, as far as I know, except the jaguar. [...] The vine from which it is made grows in great profusion through-out the Upper Amazon zone, and the process is simple in the extreme.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, pp. 212-213]</a> “Of course there is a great deal of superstition among the Jivaros in connection with the manufacture of this poison. The medicine man alone can make the pots which are used to boil it, and he is furthermore the only person who is privileged to make the poison itself. He collects the stings from various species of noxious insects. Spiders’ teeth are also greatly favoured; both these ingredients are introduced into the pot with due ceremony and unlimited confidence in their deadliness. [...] There is really a certain amount of risk and danger connected with its manufacture, insomuch as the fumes given off by the boiling liquid are pungent and noxious. I believe that they would prove fatal if inhaled in sufficient quantities; which supposition lends credence to the stories of the Indians that many a medicine man has been found dead over the pot.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, p. 214]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 23,
"polity": {
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Spices; incense; dyes. “Once the caravans reached a city, they [travellers] would find suqs (markets) selling an impressive range of goods: silk, perfume, jewellery, gold, spices, glassware, metalwork and ceramic vessels”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a> “By the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, pepper had become an item regarded as essential to preparation (and preservation) of meats and other perishables in cuisine cultures from the Middle East through northern Europe…The cadre of merchants who oversaw this trade [of spices] in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods was labelled “Karimi” in Arabic sources…References to the word appear initially in chronicles that discussed blockage of European Crusaders from accessing the Red Sea during the Ayyubid period. In 577/1181, Sultan Salah al-Din demanded taxes from Karimi merchants (tujjar al-karim) operating out of Aden in Yemen in return for allowing their fleets to dock at Egyptian coastal ports such as Aydhab. The following year, the Ayyubid Sultan upheld the Egyptian monopoly over transit through the Red Sea when he defeated the Crusader commander Renaud de Châtillon, who had attempted to establish a European presence there. Although Karimi merchants continued to preside over the spice trade throughout the Ayyubid period, references to their activities occur sparsely in contemporary narrative sources”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZUAJ2DM8\">[Petry 2022, p. 173]</a> “In the Ayyubid and Mamluk eras, Egyptian sugar was sold in large quantities, alongside spices and crops, to Italian merchants arriving at Alexandria. Thus, sugar became a staple commodity traded between Europe and the Islamic world in the twelfth century”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V4Z4JQGN\">[Sato 2015, p. 2]</a> “In Aden, for instance, Ayyubid (twelfth century)…tariffs record two kind of taxes on sundry goods, ’ashur [a levy] and shawani [a galley-tax]…As recorded by Ibn al-Mugawir in the later Ayyubid period, almost all commodities were subject to the ’ashur tax, but only five - pepper, indigo, sugar of bamboo, cloves and Goanese slaves - were liable to shawani…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S7CEE7QR\">[Balfour-Paul 2012, p. 28]</a> “[referencing epigraphic bands on brasses which seem to be the product of Syrian workshops]…still decipherable, and quite similar to the Wade Cup, is the inscription on the body of an Ayyubid incense burner with the name and titles of the Ayyubid sultan al-Malik al-‘Adil II, which was probably given to him between the years 636-638 / 1238-40”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G222PDNU\">[Baer 1983, p. 207]</a> Spices. “The cadre of merchants who oversaw this trade [of spices] in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods was labelled “Karimi” in Arabic sources…References to the word appear initially in chronicles that discussed blockage of European Crusaders from accessing the Red Sea during the Ayyubid period. In 577/1181, Sultan Salah al-Din demanded taxes from Karimi merchants (tujjar al-karim) operating out of Aden in Yemen in return for allowing their fleets to dock at Egyptian coastal ports such as Aydhab. The following year, the Ayyubid Sultan upheld the Egyptian monopoly over transit through the Red Sea when he defeated the Crusader commander Renaud de Châtillon, who had attempted to establish a European presence there. Although Karimi merchants continued to preside over the spice trade throughout the Ayyubid period, references to their activities occur sparsely in contemporary narrative sources”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZUAJ2DM8\">[Petry 2022, p. 173]</a> Spices; incense. “In 577/1181, Sultan Salah al-Din demanded taxes from Karimi merchants (tujjar al-karim) operating out of Aden in Yemen in return for allowing their fleets to dock at Egyptian coastal ports such as Aydhab. The following year, the Ayyubid Sultan upheld the Egyptian monopoly over transit through the Red Sea when he defeated the Crusader commander Renaud de Châtillon, who had attempted to establish a European presence there”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZUAJ2DM8\">[Petry 2022, p. 173]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 24,
"polity": {
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Incense. “Each of the dead [at the Kerma cemetery site of Al-Widay] was buried with a standard set of three vessels - cup, bowl, and incense pot…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIE8742S\">[Emberling 0, p. 58]</a> “A total of 35 pieces found in the main burial compartment [of Karakhamun’s Egyptian style temple-tomb, a priest and official from the early Kushite period in Egypt] can be associated with the primary use of TT 223 during Kushite times…A small amount of the material falls into well-known Egyptian types of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, for example, the common beakers with a flat base and a conical shape…These cups or beakers very often show traces of burning and it is safe to assume that within the funerary context they were used as incense burners. […] The only exception from the container purpose [in reference to funerary pottery] is the footed beaker, discussed above, which was used as an incense burner [in relation to ritual activities]. It is noteworthy that incense burners have a similar long lasting tradition in Kush as in Egypt…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78TB5CJN\">[Budka 2014, p. 506]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78TB5CJN\">[Budka 2014, p. 511]</a> Incense. “A total of 35 pieces found in the main burial compartment [of Karakhamun’s Egyptian style temple-tomb, a priest and official from the early Kushite period in Egypt] can be associated with the primary use of TT 223 during Kushite times…A small amount of the material falls into well-known Egyptian types of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, for example, the common beakers with a flat base and a conical shape…These cups or beakers very often show traces of burning and it is safe to assume that within the funerary context they were used as incense burners. […] The only exception from the container purpose [in reference to funerary pottery] is the footed beaker, discussed above, which was used as an incense burner [in relation to ritual activities]. It is noteworthy that incense burners have a similar long lasting tradition in Kush as in Egypt…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78TB5CJN\">[Budka 2014, p. 506]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/78TB5CJN\">[Budka 2014, p. 511]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 25,
"polity": {
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Punt",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Incense; spices. “Punt was famous in the New Kingdom and also mentioned in 26th-Dynasty sources as a source of incense important for Egyptian religious ritual”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 133-134]</a> “[Referring in the previous paragraph to Saite wine] Egypt transmitted many spices and aromatics to Rome…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZRRMVM5\">[Dalby 2002, p. 174]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 26,
"polity": {
"id": 647,
"name": "er_medri_bahri",
"long_name": "Medri Bahri",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1889
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "‘‘‘ Based on the literature consulted, Eritrean history appears to be especially obscure. No information could be found on the topic of trade or consumption habits in Eritrea in any era before the late 19th century.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 27,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Spices; dyes including indigo and cochineal. “The great memorandum of 4 December 1593 to the Cortes of Castile, denounc[ed] the widespread problem of peasant debt…[including] contact with the mores of the town and its luxuries. No one should…sell them [the peasants] on credit…spice… […] [Referring to the old Roman road linking Mérida and Zaragoza with Toledo] Goods from the Indies - ‘much spice, indigo…’ - came up naturally along this route from Mérida and Seville… […] Return commodities from the Indies included cochineal…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 58]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 68]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 73]</a> “The most highly prized of the imports from America…included dye-stuffs…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z7F2369G\">[Elliott 1963, p. 180]</a> Spices; dyes including indigo and cochineal. “[Referring to the old Roman road linking Mérida and Zaragoza with Toledo] Goods from the Indies - ‘much spice, indigo…’ - came up naturally along this route from Mérida and Seville… […] Return commodities from the Indies included cochineal…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 68]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 73]</a> Spices. “The great memorandum of 4 December 1593 to the Cortes of Castile, denounc[ed] the widespread problem of peasant debt…[including] contact with the mores of the town and its luxuries. No one should…sell them [the peasants] on credit…spice”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 58]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 28,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1800,
"year_to": 1875,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly label almost any of the goods that circulated in this polity at this time as notably luxurious. However, given that Harar was a major trade centre in the nineteenth century, importing and exporting a broad range of items from across the Indian Ocean and East Africa, it seems reasonable to infer that (1) spices, incense and/or dyes were traded there, and (2) at least some varieties of spice, incense or dye traded there were especially expensive or exclusive or prestigious, thus meeting our loose definition of what counts as a “luxury good”. “Fitawrari Tackle Hawariyat was nine year old when he entered Harar with Menelik’s army that defeated Amir Abdullah’s small army at Chelenque battle[ in 1987]. He had been living at Addis Ababa just before he left and came to Harar which he described as follows: ‘[…] The shops and stores are stuffed with various types of goods imported from abroad. […]’ As the boy stated the shops and stores were stuffed with goods and merchandises imported from abroad, i.e. Yemen, Arabia, India, China, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 29,
"polity": {
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Processed turmeric including sticks of turmeric for cultural use and for use in exchanges for other goods. “[Note 18] Turmeric [tejuk] was processed into a cosmetic in the old days [c.C18-19] for body painting purposes. Since it could be grown only on the high islands of Truk, it was an important item of trade to the coral islanders in the Greater Truk Area. The processed pieces of turmeric were the closest thing to a recognized medium of exchange [i.e. a valuable luxury good used as payment for the purchase of other goods by local people] in the native economy”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5UGZG6X2\">[Goodenough 1966, p. 75]</a> “[Referring to trade undertaken by Puluwatese people of Puluwat in the C19, now known as Poluwat or Polowat, a coral atoll and municipality of Truk or Chuuk state] Puluwatese visited Chuuk twice a year to trade…The quality of the turmeric from Chuuk was much higher than that of Yapese turmeric…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PESQASI9\">[D'Arcy 2006, p. 154]</a> “[Referring largely in the publication to ‘pre-Christian’ traditions in Truk i.e. prior to the introduction of Christianity in the 1870s] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…sticks of turmeric cosmetic (teyuk)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a> “[Referring to headbands made and worn by Trukese men in the past, inferred c.C18-19 and earlier] The man’s head band (nakasäka) was one of the most valued of ornaments, and according to the literature it evidenced perhaps the finest workmanship of any item of ornamentation. The piece was made by men and worn by men at dances and also, according to Romonum informants, when going out as a war party. The nakasäka was rubbed thoroughly with yellow turmeric powder…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SC7KZS2V\">[LeBar 1964, p. 351]</a> Processed turmeric. “[Referring to turmeric production in Truk c.C18-19] Since it [turmeric or tejuk] could be grown only on the high islands of Truk, it was an important item of trade to the coral islanders in the Greater Truk Area”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5UGZG6X2\">[Goodenough 1966, p. 75]</a> Processed turmeric including sticks of turmeric for cultural use and for use in exchanges for other goods. “[Note 18] Turmeric [trejuk] was processed into a cosmetic in the old days [c.C18-19] for body painting purposes…it was an important item of trade to the coral islanders in the Greater Truk Area. The processed pieces of turmeric were the closest thing to a recognized medium of exchange [i.e. a valuable luxury good used as payment for the purchase of other goods by local people] in the native economy”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5UGZG6X2\">[Goodenough 1966, p. 75]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 30,
"polity": {
"id": 58,
"name": "fm_truk_2",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk",
"start_year": 1886,
"end_year": 1948
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "P~A",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "P~A",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "P~A",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Processed turmeric including sticks of turmeric. NB grown locally but not for local consumption in latter part of perioD. “[Referring to information gathered by various sources including the author prior to and around 1947 to 1948] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…sticks of turmeric cosmetic (teyuk)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a> “[Inferred as referring here to the present day at the time of writing, c.early C20] The acquisition of property on Truk is usually done by means of barter…Smaller units of exchange are…deig (curcuma) [turmeric]…These products of native industry are not present in like quantity or in like quality on all the islands. Thus…Pol [is famous] for curcuma…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XV8IQ8W4\">[Bollig 1927, p. 135]</a> “[Referring to the years 1947 to 1948 when the research for this publication was undertaken] [Note 32] Turmeric is now grown only by a few persons specifically for the Puluwat [west of Truk] trade, since it has dropped out of local use with the introduction of European clothing [and other ‘Western’ forms of personal adornment]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5UGZG6X2\">[Goodenough 1966, p. 57]</a> Processed turmeric. NB grown locally but not for local consumption in latter part of period. “[Inferred as referring here to the present day at the time of writing, c.early C20] The acquisition of property on Truk is usually done by means of barter…Smaller units of exchange are…deig (curcuma) [turmeric]…These products of native industry are not present in like quantity or in like quality on all the islands. Thus…Pol [is famous] for curcuma…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XV8IQ8W4\">[Bollig 1927, p. 135]</a> “[Referring to the years 1947 to 1948 when the research for this publication was undertaken] [Note 32] Turmeric is now grown only by a few persons specifically for the Puluwat [west of Truk] trade, since it has dropped out of local use with the introduction of European clothing”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5UGZG6X2\">[Goodenough 1966, p. 57]</a> Processed turmeric including sticks of turmeric. “[Referring largely in the publication to ‘pre-Christian’ traditions in Truk i.e. prior to the introduction of Christianity in the 1870s] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…sticks of turmeric cosmetic (teyuk)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 31,
"polity": {
"id": 457,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_1",
"long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom",
"start_year": 987,
"end_year": 1150
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Republic of Venice",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The spices imported from Asia therefore included the brazilwood of Java and Ceylon, widely used to give a rich reddish-brown colour. That of Ceylon was reputed to be the best. This was brought to Europe in surprisingly large quantities, for 80% of the examples of red fabrics surviving from the period from around 1100 - 1450 that have been analysed, prove to have been dyed with at least some brazilwood. Around the middle of the fifteenth century it ceased to be used, presumably because Turkish disruption of trade meant that it was no longer available.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 332]</a> “It is often claimed that spices returned to European cuisine with the crusaders, but this, we have seen, is manifestly not the case. They never left. The first most enduring taste, and throughout the Middle Ages far and away the most important spice, was pepper. In 946 there was a pepper sauce - poisoned, in this case - on the table of King Louis IV (ruled 936 - 954) of France. By the turn of the millennium the spice was established as a regular feature of the noble and monastic diet.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a> “The spices imported from Asia therefore included the brazilwood of Java and Ceylon, widely used to give a rich reddish-brown colour.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 332]</a> “Though spices were now a taste shared by the elites across Europe, supply was a largely Italian affair. By the closing years of the millennium traders from several Italian maritime republics were energetically expanding their presence in the Muslim Levant, led, as they would be five hundred years later, by the Venetians.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a> “The first most enduring taste, and throughout the Middle Ages far and away the most important spice, was pepper. In 946 there was a pepper sauce - poisoned, in this case - on the table of King Louis IV (ruled 936 - 954) of France. By the turn of the millennium the spice was established as a regular feature 1 of the noble and monastic diet.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a> “Though spiceswere now a taste shared by the elites across Europe, supply was a largely Italian affair.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a> “Though spices were now a taste shared by the elites across Europe, supply was a largely Italian affair.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 32,
"polity": {
"id": 458,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian",
"start_year": 1150,
"end_year": 1328
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 544,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_3",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice III",
"start_year": 1204,
"end_year": 1563
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The early-fourteenth-century kitchen of Jeanne d’Evreaux, the widow of King Charles IV of France, boasted a small tonnage of cauldrons great and small, solid iron pots, pans, spits and roasters, offset by an equally heavyweight assembly of spices. Jeanne’s pantry found room for no less than six pounds of pepper, 133½pounds of cinnamon, five pounds of grains of paradise, 3½ pounds of cloves, 1¼ pounds of saffron, half a pound of long pepper, a small quantity of mace and a colossal 23½ pounds of ginger.[...] By the standards of the day the widowed queen’s spice stockpile was impressive, but by no means exceptional.[...]The account books of the medieval nobility tell of consumption that looks less like a taste than an addiction. Why this gargantuan appetite for spice, and how on earth did they get through it?” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 120]</a> “For Luxury fabrics the most expensive part of the manufacturing process was dyeing.[...] The most expensive of all dyestuffs used was ‘grain’ or ‘kermes’ used for scarlets. In mid-fifteenth-century Flanders, it cost up to twenty-nine times as much as madder, the most commonly used red dyestuff.[...] Not only grain, but all dyestuffs, even woad, were expensive commodities, and used in relatively small quantities.[...] The spices imported from Asia therefore included the brazilwood of Java and Ceylon, widely used to give a rich reddish-brown colour. That of Ceylon was reputed to be the best. This was brought to Europe in surprisingly large quantities, for 80% of the examples of red fabrics surviving from the period from around 1100 - 1450 that have been analysed, prove to have been dyed with at least some brazilwood. Around the middle of the fifteenth century it ceased to be used, presumably because Turkish disruption of trade meant that it was no longer available.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 332]</a> “Though spices were now a taste shared by the elites across Europe, supply was a largely Italian affair. By the closing years of the millennium traders from several Italian maritime republics were energetically expanding their presence in the Muslim Levant, led, as they would be five hundred years later, by the Venetians.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 112]</a> “Not only grain, but all dyestuffs, even woad, were expensive commodities, and used in relatively small quantities.[...] The spices imported from Asia therefore included the brazilwood of Java and Ceylon, widely used to give a rich reddish-brown colour. That of Ceylon was reputed to be the best. This was brought to Europe in surprisingly large quantities, for 80% of the examples of red fabrics surviving from the period from around 1100 - 1450 that have been analysed, prove to have been dyed with at least some brazilwood. Around the middle of the fifteenth century it ceased to be used, presumably because Turkish disruption of trade meant that it was no longer available.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 332]</a> “One of the most popular sauces across the breadth of medieval Europe was the camelyne, so called for its tawny, camel colour, the key notes of which were cinnamon, vinegar, garlic and ginger, mixed with breadcrumbs and occasionally raisins. (The name was doubly apt, for much of the cinnamon so consumed would have done time on a camel’s back while in transit through Arabia.)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 127-128]</a> “The early- fourteenth-century kitchen of Jeanne d’Evreaux, the widow of King Charles IV of France, boasted a small tonnage of cauldrons great and small, solid iron pots, pans, spits and roasters, offset by an equally heavyweight assembly of spices. Jeanne’s pantry found room for no less than six pounds of pepper, 133½pounds of cinnamon, five pounds of grains of paradise, 3½ pounds of cloves, 1¼ pounds of saffron, half a pound of long pepper, a small quantity of mace and a colossal 23½ pounds of ginger.[...] By the standards of the day the widowed queen’s spice stockpile was impressive, but by no means exceptional.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 120]</a> “The early- fourteenth-century kitchen of Jeanne d’Evreaux, the widow of King Charles IV of France, boasted a small tonnage of cauldrons great and small, solid iron pots, pans, spits and roasters, offset by an equally heavyweight assembly of spices. Jeanne’s pantry found room for no less than six pounds of pepper, 133½pounds of cinnamon, five pounds of grains of paradise, 3½ pounds of cloves, 1¼ pounds of saffron, half a pound of long pepper, a small quantity of mace and a colossal 23½ pounds of ginger.[...] By the standards of the day the widowed queen’s spice stockpile was impressive, but by no means exceptional.[...]The account books of the medieval nobility tell of consumption that looks less like a taste than an addiction. Why this gargantuan appetite for spice, and how on earth did they get through it?” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 120]</a> “Researching the diet of the medieval poor is a frustrating business. By their very nature, most of the available sources are heavily biased in favour of the wealthy, the nobility, the Church and royalty, and even these speak less of the day-to-day consumption than of special occasions such as weddings, feasts and coronations. These sources represent only a tiny portion of the population. By a crude estimate, for the greater part of the Middle Ages the clergy or nobility made up about 1 percent of the population, and about 5 per cent of people lived in towns. The remainder was rural and generally poor peasantry. At the start of the thirteenth century a majority of the population of western Europe was to some extent unfree, tied in some sense to land and lord. For these, cost alone ensured that spices remained out of reach. This was particularly true of the fine Eastern spices: the cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and mace that are so liberally sprinkled through the cookbooks. Like any other books, cookbooks were for the rich, though occasionally they make a nod to the diet of the masses.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 154-155]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 33,
"polity": {
"id": 309,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire I",
"start_year": 752,
"end_year": 840
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Italy",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“At much the same time as the monks of Corbie received their exemption, spices started cropping up around Europe in the context of commercial transactions. Given a chronic shortage of trust-worthy specie, and the absence of standardised coinage from one region to the next, spices had the supreme merit of being accepted everywhere, a sort of universal currency. There are records of serfs buying their freedom with a payment of pepper, and the spice was commonly used as rent payment. During the reign of Charlemagne the church of San Fidis in Genoa received rent in the form of one pound of pepper, a custom that lingered as long as any other tradition of spice” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 102-103]</a> “Our information on goods imported through Venice or other Italian ports from the eastern Mediterranean into western Europe in the Carolingian period is nearly non-existent. Apart from one mention of a transport of olive oil on the Rhine, there is one controversial text concerning the presence at the market of Cambrai of spices and other special oriental wares, which the person for whom the text was written had to buy ‘if there was money enough’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U95RGM7Z\">[Verhulst 2004, p. 107]</a> “The fictional Roland’s real-life suzerain Charlemagne was similarly spiced after his death in 814, and buried in the cathedral of Aachen. His body was perfumed and seated in a golden chair, dressed with a diadem and a gold chain, armed with a gold sword and carrying a golden gospel in his hands and knees, ‘and they filled the tomb with perfumes, spices, balsam and musk and treasures’. Though few could afford to go out in such style, Charlemagne’s burial typified the aspirations of the class he headed: the twin imperatives of piety - buried with a Bible in his hand - and luxury, in the form of gold and spices. Thus although the theological significance of the mortal remains had been downgraded, the need to demonstrate status remained as pressing as ever, and so to the usefulness of spices to that end.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 102-103]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 34,
"polity": {
"id": 311,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire II",
"start_year": 840,
"end_year": 987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Around the time of the break-up of Charlemagne’s empire in the ninth century, a monk or scribe prepared a ‘form-letter’ from a bishop to his ruler, begging to be excused from attending a council on account of illness. The request is sweetened with spices, among various other exclusive goods, described self-deprecatingly as ‘trifling but exotic little gifts from over the sea, such as I believe befit the honour of your divine piety’. Cinnamon, galangal, cloves, mastic and pepper are recommended gifts, complementing a dark green cloth, date palms and their fruits, figs, pomegranates, an ivory comb, vermilion, parrots, and ‘a very long spike of a sea-fish’ (a narwhal spike?) besides. Like the papal offering the clear implication is that spices were apt for nobility: the one was closely identified with the other. They were grouped among the trappings of wealth and power, and therein, as ever, lay much of their attraction.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 104]</a> “Around the time of the break-up of Charlemagne’s empire in the ninth century, a monk or scribe prepared a ‘form-letter’ from a bishop to his ruler, begging to be excused from attending a council on account of illness. The request is sweetened with spices, among various other exclusive goods, described self-deprecatingly as ‘trifling but exotic little gifts from over the sea, such as I believe befit the honour of your divine piety’. Cinnamon, galangal, cloves, mastic and pepper are recommended gifts, complementing a dark green cloth, date palms and their fruits, figs, pomegranates, an ivory comb, vermilion, parrots, and ‘a very long spike of a sea-fish’ (a narwhal spike?) besides. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 104]</a> “Cinnamon, galangal, cloves, mastic and pepper are recommended gifts, complementing a dark green cloth, date palms and their fruits, figs, pomegranates, an ivory comb, vermilion, parrots, and ‘a very long spike of a sea-fish’ (a narwhal spike?) besides. Like the papal offering the clear implication is that spices were apt for nobility: the one was closely identified with the other. They were grouped among the trappings of wealth and power, and therein, as ever, lay much of their attraction.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 104]</a> “[...] spices were apt for nobility: the one was closely identified with the other. They were grouped among the trappings of wealth and power, and therein, as ever, lay much of their attraction.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, p. 104]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 35,
"polity": {
"id": 304,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Merovingian",
"start_year": 481,
"end_year": 543
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Spices, aromatics. It is unclear when in the Merovingian period Marseille first became a significant town for imports and exports. “The archaeological evidence for this period corresponds with the textual data, which led Henri Pirenne to consider Marseille the Mediterranean gateway of Merovingian Gaul (Pirenne 1939). Gregory of Tours clearly shows the importance of this port for the Franks. The fratricidal struggles of succession that pitted the Merovingian princes against one another for possession of the valuable harbour demonstrate the jealousy with which they guarded this important trade hub that resisted the economic decline seen in Arles and elsewhere (Baratier 1969, pp. 87–99). Gregory’s Histories also testify to imports that are invisible to archaeology, including spices, aromatics, skins and leather, papyrus, and slaves, for which Marseille was one of the principal markets (Historiae V, 5).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7322T9B\">[Bonifay_et_al 2020, pp. 860-882]</a> “Many of the more profitable exchanges that transpired in early medieval Gaul, however, did not leave any archaeological traces. For instance, trade in luxury goods—such as spices—attested in the written record for northern Gaul and production places is hard to identify through material remains. Nevertheless, one may surmise that some portion of Mediterranean foodstuffs, when arriving in Marseille, could have been transferred into perishable containers such as barrels. Although barrels were more easily transportable on rivers and roads, they only exceptionally leave traces in the archaeological record. In this scenario, it is possible to imagine that only elites purchased Mediterranean products in their original containers.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7322T9B\">[Bonifay_et_al 2020, p. 874]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 36,
"polity": {
"id": 306,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
"start_year": 543,
"end_year": 687
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Spices, aromatics “The archaeological evidence for this period corresponds with the textual data, which led Henri Pirenne to consider Marseille the Mediterranean gateway of Merovingian Gaul (Pirenne 1939). Gregory of Tours clearly shows the importance of this port for the Franks. The fratricidal struggles of succession that pitted the Merovingian princes against one another for possession of the valuable harbor demonstrate the jealousy with which they guarded this important trade hub that resisted the economic decline seen in Arles and elsewhere (Baratier 1969, pp. 87–99). Gregory’s Histories also testify to imports that are invisible to archaeology, including spices, aromatics, skins and leather, papyrus, and slaves, for which Marseille was one of the principal markets (Historiae V, 5).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7322T9B\">[Bonifay_et_al 2020, pp. 860-882]</a> Dyes “Another tabby example, weft-faced, with 18 warps and more than 90 wefts per centimetre -, shows a thick rectilinear warp of very deteriorated (undetermined) fibre, probably a plant fibre, and a fine silk weft dyed with true shellfish purple (figure 2b). It composed Aregonde’s coat. This is the only example that matches the Roman taste, but here in silk rather than wool. In the queen’s grave, silk dyed with madder was also found as supplementary triple weft for a large tablet-woven band decorated with diamonds, [...].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6RZQVDU\">[Desrosiers_Rast-Eicher 2012, p. 3]</a> Spices “Another reference is in a diploma of Clothar III, king of the Franks (657 - 73), in which he granted the newly founded monastery of Corbie in northern Gaul the right to receive an annual rent in the form of a range of commodities from a royal warehouse which apparently existed at Fos near Marseilles in southern Gaul. These commodities included no less than 30 pounds of pepper, and 150 pounds of cumin, another spice probably imported from the east. We are dealing here with the highest level of the social scale, that of royalty, but clearly there were impressive quantities of spices being imported into Western Europe even at the end of the seventh century - and indeed the grant was confirmed by Clothar III’s successor, King Chilperic II, in 716. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PRRS7864\">[Rollason 2014, p. 160]</a> “In what had been Roman Gaul, the Frankish dynasty of the Merovingians (476 - 750) certainly ate spices, but apparently - this judgement on the basis of extremely few sources - with less sophistication. The poet Fortunatus of Poitiers (c.540 - c.600) portrays the women of Merovingian Gaul as having a taste for the refined novelties of cooking (the men were a different matter). The few recipes to have survived this period are crude versions of Roman archetypes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 96-97]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 37,
"polity": {
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“By 1800 the number of licensed shops had risen to over 62,000, increasing their share to roughly a third of all shops.41 While some shops in the metropolitan marketplace focused exclusively on one product, most sold the full range of the imperial staples of coffee, tea, sugar and tobacco, alongside an impressive array of spices, dried fruits and other sundries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7D2UIF7G\">[Bickham 2020, p. 39]</a> “Fifty years later, officials such as Grenville, Rockingham, and North continued to subsidize colonial production of hemp, flax, and indigo.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6GCMW6A\">[Koehn 2018, p. 86]</a> “The favoured ingestibles of empire – coffee, tea, spices, sugar and tobacco – took centre stage. These goods’ portability, durability and addictive and stimulating qualities were only part of the equation. Equally important was their foreignness, which meant they had to be purchased either in shops or other businesses such as coffeehouses, thus ensuring that consumption was public and founded on innumerable small cash (and increasingly credit) transactions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7D2UIF7G\">[Bickham 2020, p. 55]</a> “For example, many held that primitive savages could digest raw meat; whereas a middling woman in London, whose digestive tract was accustomed to cooked foods served in sanitary conditions, could not endure such a diet. At the same time, the savage would struggle to digest, let alone appreciate, the elaborate dishes found in an elite London home, with their spices, sauces and global ingredients.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7D2UIF7G\">[Bickham 2020, p. 166]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 38,
"polity": {
"id": 113,
"name": "gh_akan",
"long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1701
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "Salt; cloves; pepper; saffron. “Saharan salt, as we have seen, looms large in the early accounts of trade between the greater entrepots to the Western Sudan and the goldfields… Its commercial importance however should not be allowed to obscure the fact that the inventory of the traders was a much more extensive and varied one. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, for example, learned that, at Jenne [Akan trading town], ‘brass and copper are worth very much, as well as red and blue cloths and salt, and all is sold by weight except the cloths. And also cloves, pepper, saffron, fine silk threads and sugar are highly valued there.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 22]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 39,
"polity": {
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“ Spices and aromatics came from Southeast Asia and south India although the role of the former as a source region was more important of the two. Ivory was dominantly African and miscellaneous items like rose water, dates, asafetida and saffron came from west Asia. Among the export items textiles, iron and iron swords, leather and leather goods, timber, aromatics, spices and dyes, precious and semi precious stones, sugar and food grains like rice and wheat, and miscellaneous items like birds, animal horns and slaves were significant”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CHE4KGIX\">[Karmarkar 2012, p. 5]</a> “Agra got rich silken goods, quality carpets, and medium varieties of cotton goods and other luxury goods from Ahmadabad. Indian merchants were supplied spices through Deccan. Perfume, cotton fabrics, silken goods, raw silk, aloe wood, bamboos, elephants, timber, all came from Bengal. Agra also exported some of the products which were produced within the city or its large hinterland areas. Goods made from cotton including carpets, indigo, sugar, and saltpetre were the important exported goods. Apart from that sizable quantities of cotton goods, sugar and indigo were collected from different part of the provinces i.e. Samana and Sirihind in the west, and Lucknow, Khairabad and Banaras in the east. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R2WJPKK8\">[Badaseth 2019, p. 5546]</a> “The exchange of envoys and gifts between China and the Delhi Sultanate proves how important the Indian Ocean trade was to the political powers of the region. The exchange included slaves, luxury goods, and weapons like swords. The Chinese in particular used to send porcelain, spices and silk. Incidentally, spices occupied the bulk of the imports in Chinese trade. Marco Polo listed that each ship could carry 5000 to 6000 bags of spices approximately weighing 720 metric tonnes. Isami refers to the presence of Chinese traders in Delhi during the reign of Iltutmish”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UD5686JC\">[Waghmare 2021, p. 1695]</a> “ Diet of nobility and clergy included meat, butter, spices, pickles and sweet dishes. They used to spend lavishly on eating. Ibn-i-Batuta has mentioned that eatables were served in courses to the guests”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/22RTFZX9\">[Kiran 2008, p. 176]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 40,
"polity": {
"id": 792,
"name": "in_kanva_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty",
"start_year": -75,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. Most information is based on a few ancient coins, on accounts of the history of the geographical area, and on the Puranas, an ancient account of the Hindu religion that is more useful for genealogical information than for political history. According to the Puranas, the Kanva dynasty had four kings…who ruled for a total of only forty-five years…the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India…” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB\">[Middleton 2015, p. 486]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 41,
"polity": {
"id": 705,
"name": "in_madurai_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai",
"start_year": 1529,
"end_year": 1736
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 743,
"name": "nl_dutch_emp_2",
"long_name": "Late Dutch Empire",
"start_year": 1815,
"end_year": 1940
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "It seems reasonable to infer that spices imported from Southeast Asia were relativaly luxurious, especially as they seem to have been used to make diplomatic gifts. “Spices were produced both for local consumption and for export to foreign countries. They were pepper, cinnamon, cloves, mace, cardamom, mustard and ginger. The last one was both green and dried. Among the different products imported were spices like cloves, cardamom and cinnamon, which came from Sumatra, Moluccas and Ceylon. The Moorish ships brought many kinds of spices and drugs such as Olive wood, camphor and frankincense. The perfumes that were imported into the region were saffron, rose water and musk” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 24]</a> “In 1668, for instance, the Dutch ambassador Hendrik van Rheede gifted the ruler of Madurai, Chokkanatha Nayaka, with 30 pounds of nutmeg, and 15 pounds of cloves and mace each; the Pradhani Vadamalaiyappa Pillai and Chokkanatha’s brother Acyutappa Nayaka were each presented with 8 pounds of nutmeg, 4 pounds of cloves, and 4 pounds of mace” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 173]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 42,
"polity": {
"id": 627,
"name": "in_pandya_emp_3",
"long_name": "Pandya Empire",
"start_year": 1216,
"end_year": 1323
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "’’’ The following may perhaps be taken to imply that some varieties of dyes were more luxurious than others. “the Purananuru, the Ahananuru, the Narrinai, Perumpanarruppadi and Paripadal gives us information about the varieties of dyes and dye products.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P8VMZE76\">[Thangapandian 2014, p. 242]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 43,
"polity": {
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
},
"year_from": 1,
"year_to": 203,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "It seems reasonable to infer that at least some items imported from the Roman Empire were considered luxury goods. The following quote mentions a number of spices and dyes. \"[The] Periplus [of the Erythrean Sea] refers to a large number of items shipped by the Romans from the west coast of India to the west were raw or in unfinished state. One can identify the following categories among them: bulk items like ebony, teak, blackwood, sandalwood, bamboo, tusks of ivory, and iron: easily transportable merchandise including aromatics such as spikenard, bedellium, costus, lycium and saffron; items treasured for their medicinal value such as long pepper, malabathrum and cinnabar; dyes such as indigo and lac; semi-precious stones like agate, red jasper, carnelian and onyx; and perhaps once in a while an exotic bird such as the peacock. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 107]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 44,
"polity": {
"id": 704,
"name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur",
"start_year": 1532,
"end_year": 1676
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 632,
"name": "nl_dutch_emp_1",
"long_name": "Dutch Empire",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1795
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“High-profile Dutch embassies carried valuable presents (elephants, Persian horses, Bengal and Persian silks and textiles, sandalwood, rose water, various types of fine spices, etc.) and curiosities (exotic birds and animals, European manufactures, including various types of pistols and matchlocks, glasses and glass mirrors, compasses, and so forth) to members of the Nayaka court. The 1668 mission under Captain Hendrik van Rheede, for instance, carried presents with a total value of 13,110 guilders” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 96]</a> “In 1668, for instance, the Dutch ambassador Hendrik van Rheede gifted the ruler of Madurai, Chokkanatha Nayaka, with 30 pounds of nutmeg, and 15 pounds of cloves and mace each; the Pradhani Vadamalaiyappa Pillai and Chokkanatha’s brother Acyutappa Nayaka were each presented with 8 pounds of nutmeg, 4 pounds of cloves, and 4 pounds of mace” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 173]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 45,
"polity": {
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
},
{
"id": 542,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy",
"long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period",
"start_year": 1873,
"end_year": 1920
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Afghanistan; East India Company",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a> “The value of Iran's trade with India was 26 lakhs of rupees, made up of a very varied list of commodities. Sugar, indigo, muslins and piece goods were imported into Iran from the Bengal Presidency; from the Madras Presidency came the famous Masulipatam chintz, piece goods and indigo; from the Malabar coast came wood for shipbuilding, coir rope for rigging, black pepper, ginger, turmeric and cardamoms. Bombay supplied articles of European manufacture, arms, china ware, sugar, sugar candy, camphor, rice, coffee and dates. Surat supplied gold cloth, coarse piece goods, coarse chintz, cotton cloth, cotton thread, handkerchiefs and indigo. From Sind came coarse chintz, leather, oil and cotton. From Java (and possibly China) there was imported, via India, sugar and spices” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, p. 80]</a> “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […].The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 46,
"polity": {
"id": 374,
"name": "ir_safavid_emp",
"long_name": "Safavid Empire",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1722
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 374,
"name": "ir_safavid_emp",
"long_name": "Safavid Empire",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1722
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“Among the goods for India were runds (madder), used as a red dye, mostly grown around Ardabll but procurable in Isfahan, costing 10 shahis a man and carried overland in quantities into India via Qandahar; saltpetre, which although obtained at Lar was a royal monopoly and its export prohibited; pearls fished off Bahrain, of which the best were supposed to be reserved for the shah and were better than any to be found elsewhere in the world; rosewater worth 6j shahis for 1^ gallons and other essences, besides silk and textiles already mentioned […]. The main commodities received from the East Indian islands and Ceylon were spices. It was thought that 100 tons of pepper were sold annually at 30—36 shahls a man, 10 tons of cloves from 90—100 shahls a man, and a small quantity of mace, nutmeg and cinnamon. Chinese goods imported included \"all sorts of China ware [which] are heere both in greate esteeme and use which beinge sorted of all sizes, pryces and fashions will vend heere at least 100 tonns per annum\", ginger, camphor and China roots. Logwood from Pegu in Siam or Cochin on the Indian coast was used in dyeing, some 5,000 mans being sold at 3 2 and 20 shahls a man respectively” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 449]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 47,
"polity": {
"id": 191,
"name": "it_papal_state_2",
"long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1378,
"end_year": 1527
},
"year_from": 1413,
"year_to": 1526,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 236,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II",
"start_year": 1348,
"end_year": 1412
},
{
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“A substantial percentage of the government revenues from the taxes imposed on both the importation and sale of basic and luxury goods. […] The spice trade featured prominently in these records, reflecting perhaps the ease with which items such as cinnamon, ginger, and pepper could be carried and the high level of demand for such products.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 75]</a> “The difficulties of harvesting pepper in India are mentioned frequently in texts from the ninth to fifteenth centuries […] The actual price of spices in European markets fluctuated but was consistently quite high, the result of voracious demand encouraged by an elaborate and authoritative tradition about their exotic origins […] India […] Genoese ships trading with Syria and Egypt in 1376 and 1377 carried spices of which 50 percent by value consisted of pepper, 24.5 percent ginger […] Pepper is expensive in Europe because India is far away and also because of the markup to benefit middlemen (the Arabs in particular)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7S8CA7IC\">[Freedman 2005, pp. 1212-1220]</a> “it was not simply the lower classes who bargained. Purchasers of spices […] were just as if not more likely to negotiate […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] spice shops […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 99]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 48,
"polity": {
"id": 192,
"name": "it_papal_state_3",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
"start_year": 1527,
"end_year": 1648
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 175,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
"start_year": 1517,
"end_year": 1683
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“A substantial percentage of the government revenues from the taxes imposed on both the importation and sale of basic and luxury goods. […] The spice trade featured prominently in these records, reflecting perhaps the ease with which items such as cinnamon, ginger, and pepper could be carried and the high level of demand for such products.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 75]</a> “spices have been for a long time the undisputable protagonist of the trade between the Western maritime powers and “the Indies” […] Huge quantities of precious spices poured into Europe both through the overland route which moved the merchandise to Levantine port cities and by means of re-export from the capitals of the European maritime nations. Initially Venice enjoyed the monopoly over peppers and Asian spices, later it was paralleled by Lisbon which became an equally important centre of these luxuries re-export into Europe, and finally Amsterdam entered the trade and was the only nation able to obtain a monopoly over the fine spices of the Moluccan islands. […] merchandise of which ships were full of “determined the financial fortunes of the companies, which until the late eighteenth century depended overwhelmingly on the revenue generated by the sale at auction of Asian goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FWHF22NQ\">[Cillia 2021, p. 11]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FWHF22NQ\">[Cillia 2021, p. 47]</a> “European countries were importing raw materials and goods produced within the Ottoman Empire itself, as well as Asian goods which had to pass through Istanbul, Bursa, Aleppo, and other Ottoman hubs. Some of the most prominent imports, at least during the earlier period, included grains and spices, but also dyes” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 38]</a> “it was not simply the lower classes who bargained. Purchasers of spices […] were just as if not more likely to negotiate […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] spice shops […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 99]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 49,
"polity": {
"id": 193,
"name": "it_papal_state_4",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1809
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“The most important works published in the country that did most to adopt Italian innovations, France, were the Cuisinier francais of Francois de la Varenne (1651), Le Cuisinier of Pierre de Lune (1656), L'Art de bien traiter (1674), and Massialot's Le Cuisinier royal et bourgeois (1691). […] consigning of the 'choleric' spices such as pepper, but also the favoured ginger and saffron, to the rubbish bin of defunct medieval culture […] Piero Camporesi describes the dominant aesthetic that emerged as a 'mixed repertoire of tastes orchestrated upon variety and on the play of flavours that meet and chance upon each other but are not blended', in which the delicate and the sensitive took precedence. Thus, the 'violent flavours' (sapori violenti) of the hot spices were rejected together with bingeing on highly flavoured potpourris. The more esoteric spices used to exoticize such concoctions also fell out of use: grains of paradise, long pepper, and galangal. The seventeenth century recommended the consumption of 'fine', delicate spices that lingered on the palate, in particular enlarging the repertoire of dessert recipes for sugared pastries and intricate confectionery.[…] Spices lost their privileged phenomenological status in the European canon, both medicinal and hedonistic, following the revelation that there was nothing marvellous, God-given, or paradisiacal about them. […] Once spices were demystified, demand for them slumped. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QC3NF836\">[journalArticle_NO_TITLE_PROVIDED_IN_ZOTERO]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 50,
"polity": {
"id": 545,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
"start_year": 1564,
"end_year": 1797
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 175,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
"start_year": 1517,
"end_year": 1683
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_spices_incense_and_dyes",
"comment": "“European countries were importing raw materials and goods produced within the Ottoman Empire itself [..] Some of the most prominent imports, at least during the earlier period, included […] dyes […] and other luxury items” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 38]</a> “European diners had already come in contact with Muslim dietary habits during the Middle Ages, and as with Jews, […] Spices, too, were considered a delicious new way to aid digestion and display one’s wealth. […] The ability to spend money on ‘luxury’ or non-staple foods was a way to mark the differentiation between social classes, and the access one had to exotic foods differed between rural and urban-dwellers (Grieco 1999: 304). Whether by genuine curiosity or a desire to display fortune and erudition, exotic foods were sought out by wealthy Europeans and Ottomans.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, pp. 62-63]</a> “European diners had already come in contact with Muslim dietary habits during the Middle Ages, and as with Jews, […] Spices, too, were considered a delicious new way to aid digestion and display one’s wealth. […] The ability to spend money on ‘luxury’ or non-staple foods was a way to mark the differentiation between social classes, and the access one had to exotic foods differed between rural and urban-dwellers. Whether by genuine curiosity or a desire to display fortune and erudition, exotic foods were sought out by wealthy Europeans and Ottomans.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, pp. 62-63]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}