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"count": 123,
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"results": [
{
"id": 51,
"polity": {
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
},
{
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Agate, Red jasper, carnelian, onyx. \"[The] Periplus [of the Erythrean Sea] refers to a large number of items shipped by the Romans from the west coast of India to the west were raw or in unfinished state. One can identify the following categories among them: bulk items like ebony, teak, blackwood, sandalwood, bamboo, tusks of ivory, and iron: easily transportable merchandise including aromatics such as spikenard, bedellium, costus, lycium and saffron; items treasured for their medicinal value such as long pepper, malabathrum and cinnabar; dyes such as indigo and lac; semi-precious stones like agate, red jasper, carnelian and onyx; and perhaps once in a while an exotic bird such as the peacock. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 107]</a> “The western Deccan is a rich source of semi-precious stones such as agate, carnelian, red jasper and onyx. Rajpipla mines near Broach are famous for agate and carnelian. The Godavari basin provided the mineral wealth and various forms of silica and its compounds. So it was also famous for precious stones and other such articles. Periplus states that carnelian was brought to Broach in great quantities from Paithan, situated on the north bank of the river Godavari.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 110]</a> “The art of jewellers seems to have been in advanced condition. The Gathasaptasati while referring to the possibility of a stone getting injury in the hands of an untrained artisan emphasizes indirectly the importance of the proper training of a jeweller. The suvarnakaras and manikaras were workers in precious and semi-precious stones like agate, camelian, red-jasper and onyx.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 94]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 52,
"polity": {
"id": 793,
"name": "bd_sena_dyn",
"long_name": "Sena Dynasty",
"start_year": 1095,
"end_year": 1245
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Inferred from use of precious stone in creation of statuary; likely used for other luxury goods as well. “General Features of the Pala and Sena Sculptures. Generally speaking, the sculptures of the Pala and Sena epochs are carved out of black-stone (kashti-pathar), either fine or coarse-grained [outlined as being black steatite in Zimmer and Campbell 1990: 110]. The metal images are, however, case in brass or in octo-alloy (ashta-dhatu). One or two images of gold and silver have also come down to us, and wood carvings also are not unknown”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, p. 535]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 53,
"polity": {
"id": 385,
"name": "in_sunga_emp",
"long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire",
"start_year": -187,
"end_year": -65
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The importance of trade during the third phase, which began in about 200 B.C.E., is seen in the reference to Ujjain as Ozene, a site noted for its trade with Rome, in the PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHRAEAN SEA. During the centuries to the middle of the first millennium C.E., Ujjain reveals SUNGA, KUSHAN, and GUPTA periods of occupation. An extremely rich material culture has been unearthed, including beads from a wide range of precious or semiprecious stones, glass, bone, and ivory; ivory combs; many animal figurines; and coins.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JBEBEPPM\">[Higham 2004, p. 361]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 54,
"polity": {
"id": 704,
"name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur",
"start_year": 1532,
"end_year": 1676
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The specialty of these paintings is that the main figure is always painted at the center of the painting. Since Tanjore paintings are mainly done on solid wood planks (now-a-days they are using plywood). To make Tanjore paintings traditionally they have used rubies, real diamonds, and other precious stones” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V5C8DZ4T\">[Popuri_Srivastava 2020, p. 1828]</a> “The king, a well-formed man, 28 years old, was dressed in a long coat of white fine muslin and on his head also likewise a turban, on which stood a toeraaij [turra, turban jewel] wrought with gold, encrusted with many precious stones as a sign of his regal highness, with a staff [sceptre?] in the right hand, and a bunch of golden chains and coral strings around the neck, and rings around the arms” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4F42273I\">[Bes 2016, p. 1816]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 55,
"polity": {
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
},
{
"id": 542,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy",
"long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period",
"start_year": 1873,
"end_year": 1920
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Afghanistan",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Amber, diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls. “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat”“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a> “The regions lying west of Iran were important traditional markets for Iranian goods and during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century Iran's trade with Turkish Anatolia and Mesopotamia was still very considerable. Iran exported to the Ottoman Empire Indian indigo, Kashmir shawls, silk, gold cloth, printed and flowered Isfahani cloth, coarse printed cloth, cotton, lambskins, tobacco, saffron, gum ammoniac, cochineal and rhubarb. Most of these goods found their way to Istanbul and many must have been re-exported to various European countries. These goods were paid for in velvet, tabbies (coarse watered silk), French and Venetian woollens and other European cloth, lace and gold thread, cloth from Aleppo and Damascus, glassware (including painted glass), mirrors, iron, steel, hardware, opium, wood for dyeing, vermilion, white lead, coral, amber and jewels […]. Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts […]. The annual value of Afghan exports into Iran was approximately 40 lakhs of rupees. As the annual value of Iranian exports into Afghanistan was only 30 lakhs of rupees, Iran was compelled to export specie into Afghanistan to the value of 10 lakhs. Besides specie, she exported raw silk from Gilan, silk products of Yazd and Ktshdn, embroidered satins, velvets and brocades, lace, gold thread and Isfahdni gold cloth, silk handkerchiefs, products made of Kirmin wool, some European cloth, a coarse cotton cloth (of which the best came from Isfahan), diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, hardware, saffron, and-most curious of all-Masulipatam chintz which was brought from the Coromandel to Bushire and from thence into Afghanistan. In return, Iran imported from Afghanistan Kashmir shawls, carpets of Herat, coarse Multan chintz, Indian brocades, muslins and other cotton goods, drugs, rhubarb, indigo and the fine horses of the countryside around Herat” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, pp. 78-79]</a> “The next day, the sword was brought from Ardabil and girded on the new ruler. The crown was placed on his head and on each arm he wore an arm-band in which were set the famous gems, the Darya-yiNur and Taj-i Mah. Surviving portraits of Agha Muhammad show him wearing a high, ovoid crown, the lower part encrusted with pearls and precious stones” (Hambly 1991: 129)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M4IAWTLA\">[Melville_et_al 1991]</a> “Elizabeth’s well-observed account of her visit is full of informative detail about the resources and status of elite Qajar women. Received in a room dazzling with mirror encrusted walls, she describes the equally opulent dress and ornaments of the Shah’s wife and her attendants: Nothing could exceed the splendor, the magnificence, the dazzling richness and brilliance of the scene. The slave girls were blazing in diamonds and rubies, brocades and spangles. Their dresses, originally of the richest stuffs, were so closely embroidered with pearls and precious stones that little else could be seen. Their hair hung loose, and their heads were ornamented in various ways with jewels. The Queen sat on a crimson velvet cloth which was richly embroidered with pearls, and reclined against a large square cushion of the same material, with this difference only, that the pearls here were so close together as to leave almost no portion of the velvet visible. Her own dress was most magnificent. The precious stones alone cost, independent of setting, about £150,000” ( Scarce 2007: 458) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U8H846H8\">[Scarce 2007]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 56,
"polity": {
"id": 374,
"name": "ir_safavid_emp",
"long_name": "Safavid Empire",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1722
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 374,
"name": "ir_safavid_emp",
"long_name": "Safavid Empire",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1722
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearls; turquoise; amber. “Among the goods for India were runds (madder), used as a red dye, mostly grown around Ardabll but procurable in Isfahan, costing 10 shahis a man and carried overland in quantities into India via Qandahar; saltpetre, which although obtained at Lar was a royal monopoly and its export prohibited; pearls fished off Bahrain, of which the best were supposed to be reserved for the shah and were better than any to be found elsewhere in the world; rosewater worth 6j shahis for 1^ gallons and other essences, besides silk and textiles already mentioned […] There were bezoar stones from Kirman, turquoises, a royal monopoly, from Khurasan, civet, opium which was better than that grown in India, and all kinds of nuts and fruits such as walnuts, pistachios, almonds, prunes, raisins and dates” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 448]</a> “Apart from these staple items, tin and iron were required and a wide variety of luxuries such as furs, jewels, watches, glassware, cutlery, amber for beads, coral, porcelain, ivory, falcons, exotic animals and fashionable bric-a-brac <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 484]</a> (The author is discussing imports into Iran).",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 57,
"polity": {
"id": 191,
"name": "it_papal_state_2",
"long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1378,
"end_year": 1527
},
"year_from": 1413,
"year_to": 1526,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 236,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II",
"start_year": 1348,
"end_year": 1412
},
{
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Ruby; diamond; various gems.“With highly specialized goods, such as gems, gold and silverware and antiquities, elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] By the mid-sixteenth century there was a veritable explosion of lotteries, particularly in major cities such as Genoa, Venice, and Rome. To prevent fraud Roman legislation made it obligatory to show the public the jewels […] that might be won. […] When he took out a loan from di Segni, the Roman printer Paolo Graziani used the following items (that actually belonged to someone else) as pledges: […] two rubies and a diamond <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 85]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 91]</a> NB Inferring Mamluk Egypt as middleman between India and Italy. “These riverbed or “alluvial” diamonds are found in various parts of the world, but until the 1600s India was by far the most important, if not the only, source of diamonds for the Mediterranean and European worlds.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QGXS752H\">[Ogden 2018, p. 23]</a> “With highly specialized goods, such as gems […] elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] Yet by the mid-sixteenth century, buying the jewels […] that had been deposited in these new institutions was already being recommended as a safe form of investment for those who wanted to preserve a noble lifestyle. […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] jewellers […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-99]</a> “A typical studio in this era might contain the following: […] various gems and other natural stones […] Such objects would be displayed in the studio in cabinets and organized in a way that was orderly and harmonious to the owner” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QVN7J7JF\">[McCray 2016, p. 220]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 58,
"polity": {
"id": 192,
"name": "it_papal_state_3",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
"start_year": 1527,
"end_year": 1648
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 175,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
"start_year": 1517,
"end_year": 1683
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Ruby; diamond; various gems. “With highly specialized goods, such as gems […] By the mid-sixteenth century there was a veritable explosion of lotteries, particularly in major cities such as Genoa, Venice, and Rome. To prevent fraud Roman legislation made it obligatory to show the public the jewels […] that might be won. […] When he took out a loan from di Segni, the Roman printer Paolo Graziani used the following items (that actually belonged to someone else) as pledges: […] two rubies and a diamond <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 85]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, p. 91]</a> “These riverbed or “alluvial” diamonds are found in various parts of the world, but until the 1600s India was by far the most important, if not the only, source of diamonds for the Mediterranean and European worlds.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QGXS752H\">[Ogden 2018, p. 23]</a> “European countries were importing raw materials and goods produced within the Ottoman Empire itself, as well as Asian goods which had to pass through Istanbul, Bursa, Aleppo, and other Ottoman hubs. Some of the most prominent imports, at least during the earlier period, included grains and spices, but also dyes” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 38]</a> “With highly specialized goods, such as gems […] elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] Yet by the mid-sixteenth century, buying the jewels […] that had been deposited in these new institutions was already being recommended as a safe form of investment for those who wanted to preserve a noble lifestyle. […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] jewellers […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-99]</a> “A typical studio in this era might contain the following: […] various gems and other natural stones […] Such objects would be displayed in the studio in cabinets and organized in a way that was orderly and harmonious to the owner” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QVN7J7JF\">[McCray 2016, p. 220]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 59,
"polity": {
"id": 193,
"name": "it_papal_state_4",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1809
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 176,
"name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3",
"long_name": "Ottoman Empire III",
"start_year": 1683,
"end_year": 1839
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Diamond; Ruby; Sapphire; Pearl.“Pope Clement XI's 1701 edict […] prohibited the export of […] gems from the Papal States and ended in 1798 with the invasion of French troops” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQZKFBXV\">[Roworth 2001, pp. 136-137]</a> “In Rome, in the Villa Borghese, Hester Lynch Piozzi, who travelled in Italy in 1784-5 with her new Italian husband, admired the vases, ‘the tables!, the walls! […] all agate, poryphory, onyx, or verd antique!’ and stated: ‘ the enormous riches contained in every chamber actually takes away my breath and leaves me stunned.’ […] one gentleman observing how pretty she was, another replied he could not see her face for the dazzling lustre of innumerable diamonds. […] as they moved from place to place, among the sights that commanded the view were the jewel-encrusted surfaces of liturgical spaces. […] here […] is an account of an object inside the sixth cupboard […] an ornament for a horse, or a gold necklace enamelled in various colours composed of 25 settings, 9 of which are set with brilliant diamond […] another 11 of the said Settings have square cut ruby, and in the chief setting there are about 4 rubies; the other 4 setting then are set with a square cut Turkish Sapphire. […] there were also baroque pearls.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UANTU28A\">[Pointon 2009, p. 249]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UANTU28A\">[Pointon 2009, p. 256]</a> “here […] is an account of an object inside the sixth cupboard […] an ornament for a horse, or a gold necklace enamelled in various colours composed of 25 settings, 9 of which are set with brilliant diamond […] another 11 of the said Settings have square cut ruby, and in the chief setting there are about 4 rubies; the other 4 setting then are set with a square cut Turkish Sapphire. […] there were also baroque pearls.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UANTU28A\">[Pointon 2009, p. 256]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 60,
"polity": {
"id": 545,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
"start_year": 1564,
"end_year": 1797
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearl; gems “Innkeepers in Venice were also known to auction off any lost-and-found items, along with goods left as collateral for loans. Through these means, families of artisans, shopkeepers, and the like might acquire […] pearls […] Regardless of the ways by which less-wealthy members of society were able to procure luxury goods, the fact that they possessed these items at all divulges an awareness of the expanding material world of the early modern period, and a desire to take part in these changes despite monetary constraints” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 67]</a> “To emphasize the untouchable holiness of sacred objects and to compete for attention with the rich white, black, scarlet, and vermillion robes of the noble participants, the canons and scuole grandi members carried ever larger, more gilded and bejewelled reliquaries, which eventually required four or more men to support them” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5DMDWGKP\">[Muir 1979, p. 40]</a> “There were repeated and apparently futile attempts on the part of the government to limit the amounts the nobles might expend on wedding banquets and pearl necklaces for their daughters […] To emphasize the untouchable holiness of sacred objects and to compete for attention with the rich white, black, scarlet, and vermillion robes of the noble participants, the canons and scuole grandi members carried ever larger, more gilded and bejewelled reliquaries, which eventually required four or more men to support them” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5DMDWGKP\">[Muir 1979, pp. 33-40]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 61,
"polity": {
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 270,
"name": "kr_joseon",
"long_name": "Joseon Dynasty",
"start_year": 1392,
"end_year": 1567
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Agate. “Excavations in 1997 and 2000 revealed finds from the 14th to the 17th century […] The main feature of the site, however, is the large amount of traded goods that have been unearthed, for example an agate stone belt ornament, which is supposed to be of Korean or perhaps Southeast Asian origin” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JP96S42F\">[Seyock 2006, p. 133]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 62,
"polity": {
"id": 43,
"name": "kh_khmer_k",
"long_name": "Khmer Kingdom",
"start_year": 1432,
"end_year": 1594
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "A contemporary account by a foreign traveller mentions the trade in “red pearls”. “Sixteenth and seventeenth century Cambodia lacks solid documentation, as remaining Cambodia-generated chronicle accounts of that era are idealised storylines rather than being rooted in verifiable and otherwise substantiated historical events. Thus Western, Chinese, and Japanese sources provide the initial proven and externally verifiable historical records and Western observations of contemporary Cambodia. […] The following traveller’s account Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (1512–1513) provides details: ‘[…] The land of Camboja produces much good quality rice, meat, fish, and local wines. And this country has gold from the Battambang [western Cambodia] area and Laos [in the north]); it produces lacquer, many elephants [for regional military and labor purposes], tusks, dried fish, and rice. Trade goods in Camboja (include) fine white Bengalla [northern Bay of Bengal] cloth, a little pepper, cloves, cinnabar, mercury, liquid storax, and red pearls. […]’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3DFKWHTD\">[Hall_Smith 2018, pp. 12-13]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 63,
"polity": {
"id": 432,
"name": "ma_saadi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Saadi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1554,
"end_year": 1659
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Likely used in jewellery. “The Jews of Fez who engaged in trades specialized in occupations that were either forbidden to the Muslim population, such as money-lending, or disdained by them, such as metalwork. They became jewellers, goldsmiths, minters of coins, arms manufacturers, and makers of special varieties of gold and silver braid.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8JGEBBVM\">[García-Arenal 2009]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 64,
"polity": {
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“[Referring to the role of officials during the later part of the Mali Empire] The santigui (master of the treasury) was a kind of finance minister…With the diversification of sources of revenue, he took charge of deposits of gold and other riches such as ivory, copper and precious stones…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 161]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 65,
"polity": {
"id": 242,
"name": "ml_songhai_2",
"long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
"start_year": 1493,
"end_year": 1591
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "North Africa",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“For nearly a thousand years, camel caravans plied the trackless sands of the western Sahara, a barren landscape where arid conditions and searing sun conspire against crops, trees, and even desert grasses. Travelling from well to well, merchants transported the products of West Africa - gold, ivory, salt and slaves- - to the northern reaches of the continent, where they would exchange them for glass, ceramics and precious stones brought to North Africa from the wider Mediterranean world.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FG7KCJE7\">[Insole 2000, p. 48]</a> “Travelling from well to well, merchants transported the products of West Africa - gold, ivory, salt and slaves- - to the northern reaches of the continent, where they would exchange them for glass, ceramics and precious stones brought to North Africa from the wider Mediterranean world.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FG7KCJE7\">[Insole 2000, p. 48]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 66,
"polity": {
"id": 444,
"name": "mn_zungharian_emp",
"long_name": "Zungharian Empire",
"start_year": 1670,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "‘\"gemstones, jade. “In 1695, a delegation from Zunghar Mongolia arrived in Moscow with a wealth of gifts. These included a silver water jug, silk brocade, two silver goblets, exquisitely crafted small boxes, saddles, cutlery, silk fabric, gold, eleven porcelain bowls, gemstones, and more. The gemstones alone were valued at an impressive 300 to 1000 rubles. In return, the Tsar presented Galdan with gifts such as fabric worth 300 rubles, a lynx ivory worth 100 rubles, fox fur worth 750 rubles, and double-sided mirrors. The total value of all the gifts exceeded one thousand rubles. (1695年，准噶尔蒙古使团携带大量礼物（包括银质水罐、锦缎、两个银杯、精致小箱子、马鞍子、餐具、绸缎、黄金、11只瓷碗、宝石等）到达莫斯科，其中仅宝石的价值就高达300至1000卢布，而沙皇赠给噶尔丹的礼物包括价值300卢布的呢料、价值100卢布的猞猁牙骨、价值750卢布的狐狸皮以及双面镜子等，所有礼物的价值达千余卢布。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTCSPQD5\">[Wang 2021, pp. 161-172]</a> “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环，叫“绥克”，“金银为之，以坠耳。饰以珠，男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”，“缎布为之，制与内地微异，结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的，除了自制外，还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到：有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目，这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内，至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UMVK3EK\">[Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233]</a> “Tabak: A plate similar to those used on the central plain, used for serving food and soup. It is made of red copper, although some are made of wood. They come in different depths and sizes, with the more valuable ones being made of jade. There is a royal poem about the jade plate that goes: The jade plate has a diameter of two feet and a circumference of six feet and five inches. It can hold up to one stone of water, and its natural color is uncarved and bluish. Adorned with the beauty of Qionghua marshes, its radiance remains untouched by human hands. The finest jade comes from Kunlun, and on the auspicious day of Jiazi, it is presented to the emperor as a special guest. It is carried to the Jade Pool of the Queen Mother in the West, accompanied by ceremonial vessels. The utensils used during that time are still preserved, symbolizing eternal prosperity in the far west. Before the dawn of three thousand years, where do they originate from now, without a trace? Zunghar, lost and fallen in this world, has been seized by Amursana. The royal army has gone deep to pacify the rebellious ugliness, and the captured objects were taken away by fleeing enemies. However, I possess their abandoned precious artifacts, displayed on the right side of Yuan Ying's great hall… (塔巴克 形同内地之盘，盛食及羹，以红铜为之，亦有用木者。深浅大小不等，其贵重之盘则以玉为之。御制玉盘谣：玉盘博径得二尺，围六尺有五寸益。虚中盛水受一石，素质不雕其色碧。旁达孚尹琼华泽，葆光抚不留手迹。群玉之精出昆仑，吉日甲子天子宾。于西王母瑶池津，行觞介绍簠簋樽。尔时所御器今存，作镇西极永好完。未入震旦三千年，问今何来不胫偶。准噶尔亡沦世守，阿睦撒纳兹窃取。王师深入靖孽丑，于将获之联猭走。弃其重器为我有，元英大吕陈座右……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T36UEE9F\">[Fu 0]</a> Note: The large jade plate once belonged to Amursana. It was captured as a war prize by the Qing army and later brought to the Qing Palace. The Forbidden City also houses another similar large jade plate, which Amursana was unable to take with him while fleeing. It was hidden in the ground and later discovered by farmers during their cultivation. ‘\" “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环，叫“绥克”，“金银为之，以坠耳。饰以珠，男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”，“缎布为之，制与内地微异，结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的，除了自制外，还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到：有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目，这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内，至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UMVK3EK\">[Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 67,
"polity": {
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "turquoise; greenstone. “These lands were prized by the Aztecs as sources of cacao, cotton, precious stones, jaguar pelts, and exquisite feathers. [...] The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “According to the Codex Mendoza… [...] Distant provinces delivered luxurious raw materials and manufactured goods such as turquoise mosaics, strings of finished greenstones, colorful feathers, gold adornments, fine lip plugs, and jaguar pelts in their tribute payments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 42-43]</a> “Tribute paid to Aztec overlords included many types and considerable quantities of fully or partially manufactured goods: textiles (some elaborately decorated), feathered warrior costumes and shields, fine greenstone beads, turquoise mosaics, gold ornaments, lip plugs, copper bells and axes, bowls, smoking tubes, paper, and wooden carrying frames (Berdan and Anawalt, 1992, vol. 3).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 57-58]</a> “In addition to being an administrative and religious center, Teotihuacan held a weekly market and both obsidian and ceramics were produced in the town (Spence 1985).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXA6MQIP\">[Nichols 2016, p. 35]</a> “These lands were prized by the Aztecs as sources of cacao, cotton, precious stones, jaguar pelts, and exquisite feathers. [...] The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “More specifically, materials that did not originate in the provinces paying them in tribute included amber for Xoconochco and turquoise and greenstones for Tochpan (Berdan and Anawalt, 1992). [...] In this case, the rulers of the southern Gulf Coast reciprocated with precious greenstones, turquoise mosaic shields, seashells, tortoise shell cups, jaguar skins, and a multitude of glorious feathers (Sahagún, 1950–82, book 9: 17–19). [...] A recent study sourcing turquoise has led to a rethinking of long-assumed trade patterns involving those precious and important stones(Thibodeauetal.,2018).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 73-82]</a> “Some goods were luxuries (such as greenstones and feathers delivered to the Teotihuacan tlatoani) and could have been transformed by palace artisans into fine adornments or given directly as political gifts.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 37]</a> “In addition to human sacrificial ceremonies, the delivery of tributes from near and far was featured: vast amounts of gold, precious feathers and stones, clothing and adornments, cacao, and all manner of foods. These goods were managed by the royal treasurer, and “Especially everything the priests requested for the cult to the gods and for the present ceremonies was provided” (Durán, 1994:336). These were impositions made by a ruler but for primarily religious purposes (although, admittedly, the tlatoani himself reaped rewards of power, stature, and godly favor). [...] Some of these materials likely were provided by rulers from their tribute coffers. [...]Gold, feathers, and precious stone adornments were produced by palace artisans, at least in Tenochtitlan, and all of these materials appear on the Codex Mendoza tribute tally (Sahagún 1950-82, book 8: 91).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “Some goods were luxuries (such as greenstones and feathers delivered to the Teotihuacan tlatoani) and could have been transformed by palace artisans into fine adornments or given directly as political gifts. [...] Some goods were redistributed or regifted, these acts often reinforcing social and political hierarchies. For instance, in Cuauhtitlan around 1420, the ruler distributed undesignated tribute annually, probably to nobles to assure their loyalty.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 37]</a> “In addition to human sacrificial ceremonies, the delivery of tributes from near and far was featured: vast amounts of gold, precious feathers and stones, clothing and adornments, cacao, and all manner of foods. These goods were managed by the royal treasurer, and “Especially everything the priests requested for the cult to the gods and for the present ceremonies was provided” (Durán, 1994:336). [...] Murals decorated walls, stone monoliths were transformed into sacred sculptures by skilled artisans, and godly idols housed in temple shrines were divinely adorned with cloth, gold, shells, feathers, and fine stone artistry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “Different crafts demanded different degrees of economic investment, usually in raw materials – the feather worker, lapidary, and gold worker produced “luxury” objects of materials defined as precious, expensive, and exotic; utilitarian artisans such as basket and sandal makers worked in less expensive and more broadly accessible raw materials.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 26-27]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 68,
"polity": {
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
},
{
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Gulf of Mexico; Central America",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The first archeological evidence of Mixteca-Puebla influences in the Valley of Oaxaca came from Monte Albán, where, as has already been noted, period V was originally defined in conjunction with burials. […] The most spectacular discovery of twentieth-century Mesoamerican archeology was Tomb 7 at Monte Albán. In it were found silver objects with a total weight of 325 grams, including a vessel (the largest silver object known from pre-Columbian Mexico), bracelets, tweezers, plaques, rings, and bells. […] Carved bones, turquoise mosaics, and objects carved of precious stone added to the already rich array of status items.” […] “The relación of the sierra Zapotee town of Teocuicuilco describes the fiesta of its patron deity. The fiesta was held every 260 days (260 days corresponded to the cycle of the ritual calendar). All residents came to the ceremony and brought offerings of quails, brightly colored feathers, and precious green stones which were given to the priests.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, pp. 97-98]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 159]</a> “Metals, precious stones, animal skins, fish, quetzal feathers, and tropical fruits were included among the items brought into the Valley.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 137]</a> “Precious metals such as gold, silver, and copper as well as some precious stones like alabaster were found in restricted locations in the mountains as well as in deposits in some coastal rivers. Other resources were found only in regions well beyond Oaxaca, such as obsidian from the Basin of Mexico and the Gulf coast, and jade from Central America.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> “The position of prince carried with it the right to exact tribute and obtain services from the subject population. Most of the relaciones indicate that commoners gave tribute to their prince, although few indicate specifically what was given. […] Other towns paid to their princes such things as gold dust, jewelry or gold, precious stones, feathers, jaguar skins, and cotton clothing as well as fowl, maize, chilies, beans, and animals of the hunt, such as rabbits and deer.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 140]</a> “Lesser nobles paid tribute to the ruling house in goods, including such exotics as gold, jade, and cotton textiles. […] Noble identity was embodied in a variety of practices and dispositions that set them apart from commoners (Spores 1984:64–80; Terraciano 2001:134–7; J. Zeitlin 2005:57–67). The nobility embodied political and ritual authority as well as a distinctive style and elegance. Nobles were attired in fine garments of cotton, feathered headdresses, and animal skins and were adorned with jewelry fashioned from precious stones and metals like gold, silver, jade, pearls, and alabaster. They wore ornamental plugs in their ears and lips. Unlike commoners, nobles routinely feasted on turkey and deer and drank cacao and pulque. […] They had preferential access to a wide array of prestige goods such as gold, silver, copper, ornamental shell, turquoise, quetzal feathers, and elaborate polychrome pottery often obtained through long-distance exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, pp. 48-49]</a> “Other relaciones pertaining to Zapotec-speaking towns supplement these accounts. Elites in Teocuicuilco wore brightly decorated, woven cotton or feathered mantles and shirts as well as lip plugs, earrings, brightly colored feather headdresses, and gold and precious-stone bead necklaces; the common estate wore plain maguey-fiber clothing devoid of ornamentation. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 143]</a> “By at least the Late Postclassic in the Basin of Mexico, luxury goods were produced in both workshops and households, and those households were incorporated into broader residential originations. These urban residential \"guilds\" regulated membership, controlled quality in production, provided training, and involved their membership specific religious activities (Sahagùn 1950-1982 book 9). They included, most notably, the featherworkers, fine Iapidaries, and metalworkers (of gold and silver). In Oaxaca, where such artisanship attained a remarkable level of sophistication, luxury artisans were members of the nobility.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/45IS8SR8\">[Berdan_et_al 2003, pp. 100-103]</a> “The relación of the sierra Zapotee town of Teocuicuilco describes the fiesta of its patron deity. The fiesta was held every 260 days (260 days corresponded to the cycle of the ritual calendar). All residents came to the ceremony and brought offerings of quails, brightly colored feathers, and precious green stones which were given to the priests.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 159]</a> “Social valuables made from exotic materials and requiring special skills to manufacture – such as shell and greenstone ornaments, copper bells, polychrome pottery, painted codices, elegant cotton textiles, and feather capes – were made by specialists attached to the elite or by nobles themselves. Copper axes and cacao were used as a form of currency, although primarily by the nobility.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> The following quote refers to findings in Residence A and B, which are considered as commoner households “Many items were imported from afar, including obsidian as well as a limited number of groundstone and copper artifacts (see Figure 6). The relatively high amount of obsidian imported to Tututepec is especially notable, given that the Mixtec capital is hundreds of kilometers from the nearest obsidian sources. A comparative analysis of the relative quantity of obsidian artifacts at the TAP residences demonstrates that they consumed far more obsidian than households in the Mixteca Alta, both at regional capitals such as Teposcolula (Yucundaa) and rural communities like Nicayuhu (see Table 3). At the TAP residences, over 96 percent of the chipped stone was obsidian, with the remainder consisting primarily of chert—the reverse pattern is typical at Postclassic sites in the Mixteca Alta. Obsidian frequencies at Tututepec are not quite as high but, rather, more similar to the proportion found at Aztec Yautepec, located much closer to obsidian sources in highland Mexico. X-ray fluorescence combined with a visual analysis indicates that Pachuca and Pico de Orizaba comprised over 95 percent of the obsidian from the TAP residences (Levine et al. in press). The obsidian data demonstrate Tututepec’s participation in highland–lowland trade networks and reveal that commoners too enjoyed access to valuable imports.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7UJPVP\">[Levine 2011, p. 32]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 69,
"polity": {
"id": 659,
"name": "ni_allada_k",
"long_name": "Allada",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1724
},
"year_from": 1651,
"year_to": 1724,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "NB The information we have found seems to apply to the period following the rise of the trade in enslaved people; the year “1650” has been chosen as a very rough approximation to mark the shift from the era before the rise of the slave trade to the era that followed. “Grandes dames, like their men, wore \"precious stones and golden ornaments\" in their hair […] Semiprecious stones: agates, amber, garnets, bloodstones, and carnelians are mentioned. Amber came in the form of beads, bracelets, necklaces, and rings. Popular beads called rangoes or arrangoes may have been carnelians imported from India, or glass imitatations” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 22]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 70,
"polity": {
"id": 660,
"name": "ni_igodomingodo",
"long_name": "Igodomingodo",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1450
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\">[Bondarenko_Roese 2001, pp. 185-186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 71,
"polity": {
"id": 612,
"name": "ni_nok_1",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -1500,
"end_year": -901
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 72,
"polity": {
"id": 615,
"name": "ni_nok_2",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -900,
"end_year": 0
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 73,
"polity": {
"id": 668,
"name": "ni_nri_k",
"long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì",
"start_year": 1043,
"end_year": 1911
},
"year_from": 1651,
"year_to": 1911,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Grandes dames, like their men, wore \"precious stones and golden ornaments\" in their hair […] Semiprecious stones: agates, amber, garnets, bloodstones, and carnelians are mentioned. Amber came in the form of beads, bracelets, necklaces, and rings. Popular beads called rangoes or arrangoes may have been carnelians imported from India, or glass imitatations” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 22]</a> NB The information we have found seems to apply to the period following the rise of the trade in enslaved people; the year “1650” has been chosen as a rough approximation to mark the shift from the era before the rise of the slave trade to the era that followed, based on the fact that “[i]n the late seventeenth century, there was a rise in the relative importance of slaves from sources from north of the Equator, as opposed to from Angola. […] The Bight of Benin, where Anecho became a Portuguese base in 1645, and Whydah an English one in 1672, was of particular importance for slave exports from West Africa.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NMC66GR7\">[Black 2015, p. 49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 74,
"polity": {
"id": 663,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
"long_name": "Oyo",
"start_year": 1300,
"end_year": 1535
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "\"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PK7F26DP\">[Ogundiran 2005, pp. 151-152]</a> Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliest period of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 33]</a> Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 75,
"polity": {
"id": 661,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́",
"start_year": 1601,
"end_year": 1835
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 661,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_2",
"long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́",
"start_year": 1601,
"end_year": 1835
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The city of Oyo seems to have been a minor centre for the manufacture of jasper beads. At any rate, the bead-makers of modern IlQrin assert that their ancestors were refugees from Oyo Ile, and jasper beads (though no direct evidence of their manufacture) have been found at Oyo Ile” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 205]</a> “Beads, especially of red chalcedony/jasper/carnelian stone and the blue dichroic glass, were established by the ninth to eleventh century as the index for high- status positions in Yorubaland. The importance of these beads to the production and reproduction of the Yoruba sociopolitical structure made necessary the local and regional control of these objects of political” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/57IPD2M5\">[Ogundiran 2002, p. 455]</a> “The IlQrin bead-makers import their jasper from the Upper Volta area” […] “The jasper beads which Benin was selling to European traders in the seventeenth century may have come from Oyo” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 205]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 218]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 76,
"polity": {
"id": 662,
"name": "ni_whydah_k",
"long_name": "Whydah",
"start_year": 1671,
"end_year": 1727
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quote broadly refers to elites in West Africa at this time. “Grandes dames, like their men, wore \"precious stones and golden ornaments\" in their hair […] Semiprecious stones: agates, amber, garnets, bloodstones, and carnelians are mentioned. Amber came in the form of beads, bracelets, necklaces, and rings. Popular beads called rangoes or arrangoes may have been carnelians imported from India, or glass imitatations” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 22]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 77,
"polity": {
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Turquoise; emeralds. “Although the imperial troops managed to scatter their enemies and take quantities of precious stones and valuable Spondylus shell, they were unable to defeat the local people in battle, and every attempt to convince them to accept Inca superiority came to nothing.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 137]</a> “As the colonists transformed themselves into conquistadores, they registered the quick profits at Coaque that came as battle plunder: “15,000 gold pesos and 500 silver marks, and many emerald stones . . . and different kinds of cloth, and many supplies, sufficient to sustain the Spaniards for three or four years.”29” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 202]</a> “Although these southlands were poor in agricultural resources, they had camelid herds; rich silver and copper mines; and abundant sources of pigments, turquoise, and other minerals.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 117]</a> “He gave them rich gifts produced by his artisans—precious gems, gold, and silver, as well as garments made of the finest cloth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 112-113]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 78,
"polity": {
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearls, agate, amethyst, beryl, carnelian, chalcedony, garnet, jasper, malchite, onyx, quartz, crystal, coral, limestone, amber, and steatite. ‘Stray beads of necklaces are of several shapes, material and design. Of the metal beads we have those of gold, silver, and bronze or copper and of the beads of semi-precious stones we have those of agate, amethyst, beryl, carnelian, chalcedony, garnet, jasper, lapis lazuli, malchite, onyx, quartz, crystal, coral, limestone, amber, and steatite. Besides these there are beads of bone, shell, glass, faience, and terracotta. Beads of semi-precious stones, bone, ivory, and metals, have been found from Jamalgarhi,228 Brahmanabad,229, Charsadda, Bala Hissar, Mirziarat,230 Mirpur Khas,231 Sahri Bahlol,232 Yasin,233 Shorkot,234 Bimran,235 and Taxila236 etc. Generally speaking the shapes of beads apart from spacers and terminals are spherical, oblate, ovoid, barrel, half barrel, hemispherical, scaraboid or plano-convex, oval, discoid, lenticular, cylindrical, bicone, tubular, cube, leech, and animal shaped. They are facetted, gadrooned, collared, and decorated. The favourite shapes however were spherical, cylindrical, barrel, and disc. The faceting appears to be a common mode of decorating the beads during this period. Most of the agate employed for manufacturing beads found in the ruins of the Indo-Greek cities are of black or dark brown colour with white or red markings and the carnelian used in Taxila and elsewhere is not red agate as supposed by Beck.237 It is a different stone altogether with a different refractive Index. The beads of quartz are of two types milky quartz and clear quartz. Some of these seem to have been glazed too. The amethyst if of purple variety belonging to the quartz family. Lapis lazuli does not appear to have been readily available and therefore could not come into use in India on an extensive scale till the 1st century B.C. or the 1st century A.D. The specimen of lapis lazuli bead found at Dharmarajika Stupa also came from later levels. Topaz appears to have been known to Indians of this period as a bead of this stone has been found at Taxila.238 Malchite beads are not very common and so it is the case with coral beads. Decorated beads have been found at Taxila and other places, among which the etched beads of carnelian and agate from Brahmanabad and Taxila are important.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JSHXUANZ\">[Chandra 1979, p. 55]</a> ‘The semi-precious stones set in the Indo-Greek jewellery were carnelian, chalcedony, agate, onyx, garnet, jasper, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, turquoise, black marble and white felspar. Besides these paste was also used in filling the cloisons which looked almost like stones. These pastes were previously prepared. Some of these pastes are of white colour and some are of the colour of turquoise. Then there is a paste of carnelian colour also.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JSHXUANZ\">[Chandra 1979, pp. 100-101]</a> Inferred from information on a similar polity (the Greek kingdom in Bactria). ‘We have an image of more ‘pure’ consumption in palatial and court contexts under the Greek Kingdoms through the palace excavated at Ai Khanum, which was certainly the seat of the king and court of east Bactria under the Graeco-Bactrians when the inner circle was not on campaign. [...] Presuming that certain items discovered in Ai Khanum’s treasury (which had survived the city’s looting post-abandonment) were intended for use in the palace, we can assume that consumption in this space included the accumulation and use of everything from imported prestige furniture (such as a throne inlaid with agate and rock crystal), art objects, incense, apparently precious foodstuffs like olive oil (presumably not a native product of Bactria) and cinnamon, to intellectual materials like philosophical and dramatic texts.22’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 164]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 79,
"polity": {
"id": 117,
"name": "pk_kachi_enl",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic",
"start_year": -7500,
"end_year": -5500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 117,
"name": "pk_kachi_enl",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic",
"start_year": -7500,
"end_year": -5500
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "agate; carnelian; lapis lazuli; turquoise; coloured cherts; jasper; serpentine; steatite. “The evidence for trade/exchange is primarily artifacts made from raw materials with restricted sources, such as marine shell, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, colored cherts and jaspers, serpentine, steatite, and copper.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, p. 344]</a> “Bangles of red or black fired terra-cotta, shell, or copper and specific bead shapes of clay and agate may reflect differentiation through the use of different raw materials (Kenoyer, 1991a).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, p. 348]</a> “A number of fireplaces and working surfaces of hard clay or brick paving, used for industrial activities, were found at Mehrgarh. Objects made at the site included bone, stone, and flint tools, pots and unfired clay figurines, and beads and other ornaments of shell, steatite, and ivory, and probably leather goods, woven textiles, and baskets. Several crucibles containing copper slag bear witness to the beginning of metallurgy, though only a small ingot, a bead, and a ring in copper survive. It is possible that Mehrgarh was providing a regional focus for industry and trade, where many communities met seasonally to engage in exchange and social activities such as arranging and celebrating marriages.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 61]</a> “From the earliest period of settlement at Mehrgarh in the seventh millennium, far-reaching trade networks had given the village’s inhabitants access to the products of other regions, such as seashells from the Makran coast, turquoise from Kyzyl Kum in Central Asia, and lapis lazuli probably from Badakshan in Afghanistan.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 165]</a> “The people of the Indo-Iranian borderlands and Indus Basin had gained access to lapis by trade, probably along the route that led from the Kachi plain through the Bolan pass to Quetta and Mundigak, where it joined the major trade route to southern Turkmenia and Afghanistan. This route had linked the people of the Indo-Iranian borderlands with the farming communities of Afghanistan, Turkmenia, and the South Caspian since at least the seventh millennium BCE, and it was the route by which turquoise from Kyzyl Kum reached South Asia.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 167]</a> Bangles of red or black fired terra-cotta, shell, or copper and specific bead shapes of clay and agate may reflect differentiation through the use of different raw materials (Kenoyer, 1991a).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, p. 348]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 80,
"polity": {
"id": 118,
"name": "pk_kachi_lnl",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic",
"start_year": -5500,
"end_year": -4000
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 118,
"name": "pk_kachi_lnl",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic",
"start_year": -5500,
"end_year": -4000
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "White steatite beads; marine shell beads; marine shell pendants; marine shell bangles; limestone; jaspers; serpentine; lapis lazuli; turquoise; agate; carnelian; coloured cherts; faience. “The production of white steatite beads in the final phase of the aceramic Neolithic marks the beginning of a local craft tradition which will lead to the production of glazed white steatite beads in the course of Period III at Mehrgarh, in the last part of the 5th millennium BC.16” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PMT57KTS\">[Jarrige 2006, pp. 148-149]</a> “During the Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic at Mehrgarh beads were made from both locally available and exotic raw materials and in a relatively limited range of shapes and sizes (24). The vast majority of the beads were made in short or long cylindrical shapes, though there are some other varieties (fig. 4). Most of the beads were made from relatively soft raw materials; shell, limestone, steatite, serpentine, lapis lazuli and even turquoise. There are some examples of hard carnelian beads in the Neolithic, but they all appear to have been short biconical shapes that can be perforated by chipping rather than drilling. Later, during the Chalcolithic period (4200 B.C. Period III) there is evidence for the use of hard stone drills and the production of longer bead shapes in agate and carnelian. A very important development during this same period is the firing of steatite to produce white steatite beads (25) and also probably the intentional heating of agate to produce deeper red-orange carnelian.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W9HFWQ8D\">[Kenoyer 1991, pp. 88-90]</a> “The evidence for trade/exchange is primarily artifacts made from raw materials with restricted sources, such as marine shell, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, colored cherts and jaspers, serpentine, steatite, and copper. During the Regionalization Era, there was an increase in the import of raw materials from distant sources. Sites such as Mehrgarh become central-place settlements, where raw materials (copper, shell, agate, chert) were processed for local and regional consumption (especially beginning in Mehrgarh, Period III). These centers also began producing specialized ceramics for exchange to the hinterlands (Jarrige and Audouze, 1980; Jarrige, 1981, 1985; Wright, 1989b).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, pp. 343-345]</a> “The shell artifacts from period I (aceramic neolithic and earliest ceramic neolithic) include principally ornaments that can be grouped on the basis of morphological features into the following categories: beads, pendants, and bangles. Almost all of these ornaments have been manufactured from marine shell species, the nearest source of which is the Arabian Sea some 500 km to the south. [...] In Period II, the total number of shell artifacts drops considerably (Table 1), but this is probably due to the fewer number of burials that have been excavated and to the absence of Spondylus disc bead necklaces from these burials. So far, most burials from Period II have had very few grave goods and no examples of disc bead necklaces. This may represent a significant change in socio-ritual traditions, but the discovery of one burial with a Dentalium bead necklace indicates that some tradition of including shell Shell Trade and Working ornaments still persisted. Until more burials are discovered from Period II, it is difficult to come to any firm conclusions. Other types of ornaments still occur including cylinder and tabular beads (Fig. 1: 19), a Pinctada pendant, and perforated examples of Polinices tumidus and Erosaria ocellata. The similarity in styles of tabular beads could indicate continued contact with the trade/exchange network of Period I or the reuse of older beads. One note of caution is necessary regarding the presence of Polinices tumidus and Erosaria ocellata pendants during this period. These artifacts are all from disturbed surface contexts, and since . These ornaments are commonly used by the local inhabitants of this region today, it is quite possible that some of them are modern and not from the sixth or fifth millennium B.C. The Polinices pendants from Periods III to VI are also all from similar surface deposits, and to my knowledge, no examples have yet been discovered in good stratigraphic contexts.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AQDCI7US\">[Kenoyer 1995, pp. 566-569]</a> “By around 4300 BCE (Togau phase), the number of settlements known in Baluchistan and in the adjacent lowlands had greatly increased, and often they were larger than earlier sites. These settlements included Periano Ghundai in the Zhob Valley, Mundigak in the Kandahar region, Faiz Mohammad in the Quetta Valley, Togau in the Sarawan region, and Sheri Khan Tarakai in the Bannu Basin. Occupation also continued at Mehrgarh (period III) and other existing settlements. Pottery, which had developed rapidly, was of fine quality, and many vessels were shaped on a wheel, allowing a degree of mass production, though others were handmade. Often the pots were painted with abstract or geometric designs. The widely distributed Togau ware vessels were decorated with stylized figures of caprids, birds, and other animals; somewhat similarly decorated wares were also being produced in contemporary Iran and Turkmenia. The geometric patterns are reminiscent of those created in later woven fabric and carpets, suggesting that there was also a flourishing textile industry: A spindle whorl found at Sheri Khan Tarakai supports this. Mehrgarh had become a center of craft production by the early fourth millennium: There workshops turned out large quantities of fine pottery, beads of lapis lazuli, turquoise, shell, and carnelian, shell bangles, and bone and stone tools, including tiny drills made of phtanite (a hard green chert containing traces of iron oxide) for perforating beads. A deep deposit of debris at the site included the remains of circular kilns, ash, and pottery wasters. A range of industrial activities has also been found at other sites of the period. The development of kilns used to fire pottery at high temperatures gave the people of Baluchistan advanced pyrotechnological skills, which they also employed in other industrial activities. The majority of beads at Mehrgarh were made of steatite in a variety of shapes but standardized in size. They were converted to a white color by heating, and faint traces on their surface show that they were coated with a copper-based glaze, creating a type of faience: This would have required a controlled kiln temperature of around 1000 degrees Centigrade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, pp. 62-63]</a> “From the earliest period of settlement at Mehrgarh in the seventh millennium, far-reaching trade networks had given the village’s inhabitants access to the products of other regions, such as seashells from the Makran coast, turquoise from Kyzyl Kum in Central Asia, and lapis lazuli probably from Badakshan in Afghanistan. By the fifth millennium, lapis and turquoise were also reaching Susiana and Mesopotamia at the western end of the Iranian plateau, showing that trading networks operated right across these regions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 165]</a> “The diversification of the shapes and the miniaturization of the beads in the upper levels, as well as the occurrence of techniques of transformation of black steatite into white steatite by a heating process reveal an increasing level of craft specialization. The production of white steatite beads in the final phase of the aceramic Neolithic marks the beginning of a local craft tradition which will lead to the production of glazed white steatite beads in the course of Period III at Mehrgarh, in the last part of the 5th millennium BC.16” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PMT57KTS\">[Jarrige 2006, pp. 148-149]</a> “The evidence for trade/exchange is primarily artifacts made from raw materials with restricted sources, such as marine shell, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, colored cherts and jaspers, serpentine, steatite, and copper. During the Regionalization Era, there was an increase in the import of raw materials from distant sources. Sites such as Mehrgarh become central-place settlements, where raw materials (copper, shell, agate, chert) were processed for local and regional consumption (especially beginning in Mehrgarh, Period III).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, p. 344]</a> “The absence of manufacturing waste in Period I deposits suggests that these ornaments were being manufactured in regions nearer the coast. So far, however, no contemporaneous shell-working sites have been discovered either in western mountain regions or along the Makran or Sindh coasts. [...] Other types of ornaments still occur including cylinder and tabular beads (Fig. 1: 19), a Pinctada pendant, and perforated examples of Polinices tumidus and Erosaria ocellata. The similarity in styles of tabular beads could indicate continued contact with the trade/exchange network of Period I or the reuse of older beads. [...] A few examples of wide Turbinella pyrum bangles have been recovered (24 to 27 mm in width), this indicating their continued use, but there is still no manufacturing waste that would show that they were manufactured at the site itself. We do, however, have evidence for the manufacture of a new and intriguing artifact made from the columella of a small Strombus shell (species not determinable) (Fig. 1: 15 17 and Fig. 12). Some of the columella are only partly chipped, this providing the first concrete evidence for the manufacture of marine shell artifacts at the site itself. [...] I have had the opportunity to examine identical perforated columellae that are purported to have been collected from prehistoric sites in Afghanistan (private bead collection). These columellae were considerably more ground on the exterior and appear to have been used as ornaments. If these beads are indeed from Afghanistan, then the presence of partially made beads from Mehrgarh would indicate that some of the finished beads were being traded to the western highlands. [...] Furthermore, on the basis of ceramic comparisons and the discovery of certain shell species at many of these sites, Tosi has reconstructed the possible access and trade/exchange routes between the Gulf of Oman and the inland regions (Tosi 1976: Fig. \"1). The important species common to the Gulf of Oman are Engina mendicaria and Polinices tumidus, and the coastal and inter-site routes follow the major river valleys and plateaus. The site of Mehrgarh can now be linked to this vast interaction network on the basis of similarities in ceramic styles, the presence of lapis lazuli and turquoise, and now specific types of shell artifacts. [...] Similarities between Mehrgarh and the Balochistan sites, in terms of ornament styles and shell species, indicates that the major source of shell was from the western portion of the Makran coast probably coming via the western highland interaction network (Fig. 2).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AQDCI7US\">[Kenoyer 1995, pp. 568-574]</a> “The presence of status objects throughout the Indus region indicates a strong socioritual system of beliefs that demanded the acquisition and use of such items. A sufficient supply would have been ensured by economic networks and the spread of specialized artisans and technologies to major sites; there is no evidence for acquisition by force. More important, the acquisition of exotic goods must be seen in the same way as the accumulation of grain or livestock surplus--in an increasing status differentiation between those who have and those who have not.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C29II8FU\">[Kenoyer 1991, p. 345]</a> “It is unlikely that we will ever be able to understand the socio-economic processes by which the disc bead necklaces were produced in Balochistan during the neolithic period, but we can be certain that the long strings of disc beads found in the burials at Mehrgarh had considerable socioeconomic and possibly even ritual value. The other types of beads and pendants were all made individually using various processes of chipping, drilling, grinding, and polishing. The types of beads being used at the site are fairly standard and indicate a well-developed manufacturing tradition. So far, however, there is no evidence for their manufacture at the site during Period I.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AQDCI7US\">[Kenoyer 1995, p. 568]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 81,
"polity": {
"id": 123,
"name": "pk_kachi_post_urban",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period",
"start_year": -1800,
"end_year": -1300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 123,
"name": "pk_kachi_post_urban",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period",
"start_year": -1800,
"end_year": -1300
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Instead of high-quality flint brought in from the Rohri Hills in Sindh, stone tools were now made of local stone such as jasper and agate.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 94]</a> “One important discovery at Harappa was a small pot filled with beads that can be securely dated between 1900-1700 BC. This small pot of beads had 133 beads, pendants and other objects, including important varieties of colored faience and stone eye beads that belong to the Late Harappan Period (Figure 10). One new type of stone bead is black and white banded agate that was not commonly used during the Harappan period, and may be derived from a source to the east in the Ganga-Vindhya regions (Kenoyer 1998). This raw material with its distinctive banding was used to create single (Figure 10 and 11a, b) and double eye beads (Figure 10 and 11c) with white lines and black background.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7TDE262Z\">[Kenoyer 2014, pp. 14-15]</a> “This period also saw a marked decrease in the use of imported materials, such as marine shells, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, in the northern and eastern Harappan regions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 99]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 82,
"polity": {
"id": 121,
"name": "pk_kachi_urban_1",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I",
"start_year": -2500,
"end_year": -2100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 121,
"name": "pk_kachi_urban_1",
"long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I",
"start_year": -2500,
"end_year": -2100
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "turquoise; artificially coloured stone eye beads; black and white banded agate; truncated sphere weights; jasper; agate; shell. “Instead of high-quality flint brought in from the Rohri Hills in Sindh, stone tools were now made of local stone such as jasper and agate. [...] Other typical Mature Harappan material, such as stone weights, inscribed seals, and even beads, disappeared. [...] This period also saw a marked decrease in the use of imported materials, such as marine shells, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, in the northern and eastern Harappan regions. [...] [I]n Gujarat stone blades were now made of local agate, chalcedony, and jasper. Cubical weights were no longer commonly used, although in Gujarat weights of a different form, a truncated sphere, were still in use.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, pp. 94-99]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 194]</a> “Imported goods, such as lapis and turquoise and even marine shells, became scarce in Indus sites in the north and east. [...] The wide distribution of Rohri flint was replaced by the exploitation of local stone sources: For example, in Gujarat stone blades were now made of local agate, chalcedony, and jasper. Cubical weights were no longer commonly used, although in Gujarat weights of a different form, a truncated sphere, were still in use.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQJ2CDW6\">[McIntosh 2008, p. 194]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 83,
"polity": {
"id": 133,
"name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid",
"long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period",
"start_year": 854,
"end_year": 1193
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Emerald; possibly other precious stones. “Far more important for the Muslim Arabs was Sind’s role as a passway of the India trade at large. This role it acquired in the seventh century - when Syrian merchants are first noted off Debal…When Debal was conquered, trade between Muslims and the merchants of Sind took off without delay. Sindi, and more generally Arab merchants (on the coast the Azdis of Oman) formed the commercial intermediary between Sind and the rest of India, Kabul, the Himalayas, Gujaray, Malabar, Sri Lanka and beyond, the Malay Peninsula, the Archipelago, and China. Through the same networks of trade, Sind also received its own import articles, such as [...] emerald from Egypt. [...] At Multan the gold idol of the temple and the treasures of gold and jewels found in the fort were all carried away and jammed into ‘a building, ten by eight cubits in dimension, into which whatever was deposited was cast through a window, opening in its roof, (and) from this al-Multan was called “the frontier of the house of gold” ( farj bayt adh-dhahab)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AI7QEPE7\">[Wink 1991, pp. 173-174]</a> “…an old treasure trove hidden by ancient kings was discovered. Two hundred and thirty mans of gold were obtained from it as well as forty jars filled with gold dust” [footnote: “Chach-Namah, pp.182-184. The total weight of these jars was thirteen thousand two hundred monds weight of gold. This is the only instance in which Muhammad bin Qasim found his way to one of those accumulated hoards of gold and precious stones”]. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8DZ7RPZ8\">[Islam 1990, p. 36]</a> “Sindi, and more generally Arab merchants (on the coast the Azdis of Oman) formed the commercial intermediary between Sind and the rest of India, Kabul, the Himalayas, Gujaray, Malabar, Sri Lanka and beyond, the Malay Peninsula, the Archipelago, and China. Through the same networks of trade, Sind also received its own import articles, such as [...] emerald from Egypt”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AI7QEPE7\">[Wink 1991, p. 173]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 84,
"polity": {
"id": 708,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1495,
"end_year": 1579
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearls; diamonds; rubies; emeralds; mother of pearl. “By the end of Manuel’s reign [1521 CE] Lisbon had new suburbs that spilled out beyond its walls towards the north and west and had far outgrown its old Medieval perimeter. The commercial district (cidade baixa) was particularly vibrant, with busy, crowded streets and houses up to four or five storeys high. Besides traditional Portuguese and European commodities the shops here offered a rich variety of imports from Asia and Africa. As a contemporary verse boasted, anyone coming to Portugal could now find there an astonishing range of luxuries. They included gold, pearls and precious stones, spices, drugs and gums, porcelain and diamonds, and exotic wild beasts from elephants and lions to talking parrots.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 148]</a> “In order to gain an idea of the international quality of such goods, let us join that lisboeta as he inspected the cargoes being unloaded on the wharves of Lisbon in the 1550s… From Macao, already there were arriving in Lisbon… gold, mother of pearl…” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 124-127]</a> “The nerve centre for the India operations was right under the monarch’s nose, in the India House. It was set up on the ground floor of the palace and was in charge of the administration and management of trade throughout the empire. It weighed cargoes, logged deliveries and kept ledgers. Ships had their own storage rooms there. Góis described the Casa da Índia as an ‘emporium of aromas, pearls, rubies, emeralds and other gems that year after year are brought from India.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/URZAQIM6\">[Hatton 2018, p. 55]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 85,
"polity": {
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Diamond; topaz; emerald; amethyst; coral. “As the gold boom neared its peak at the end of the 1720s news began to reach Lisbon of the sensational discovery in Brazil of rich diamond deposits. At the time Europe’s main source of diamonds was in southern India where Madras, controlled by the English EIC, had now superseded Goa as the principal point of outlet for the gems. The Madras diamond trade was handled by a small group of specialist gem merchants – until the sudden appearance of Brazilian diamonds shattered their hitherto secure and comfortable near-monopoly. Neither the volume nor value of diamonds reaching Europe from Brazil in the first half of the eighteenth century can be established with any certainty. However, John Gore, a well-placed English diamond-dealer who came to play a key role in the Brazilian diamond trade as the Portuguese crown’s expert adviser, claimed some 300,000 carats worth five million cruzados were imported into Lisbon in each of 1732 and 1733. This amounted to four times the value of diamonds imported to Europe at the time from India. Clearly, the Brazilian diamond trade provided another significant new income flow to the Portuguese crown, though a lesser one than that generated by gold. In the course of the eighteenth century the crown’s income from diamonds amounted to probably about 10 per cent of what it gained from gold.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, pp. 254-255]</a> “By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings:… Into the category of miscellaneous, numbering some forty-four items, would fall topazes, amethysts, gold, silver, and diamonds.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 128-129]</a> “Establishment of the company marked the culmination of various proposals for similar enterprises, not the least of which was the New Christian scheme of 1673. D. Pedro II had himself recommended founding such a company to the viceroy of India in 1685, suggestingthat it be modeled after those of England and Holland. This new firm, the Indian Commercial Company, which was formed for an initial term of twelve years, was granted a monopoly on the sale of cloth, cochineal, coral, emeralds, gold, and silver to Portugal.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC4T982R\">[Hanson 1981, p. 212]</a> “As the gold boom neared its peak at the end of the 1720s news began to reach Lisbon of the sensational discovery in Brazil of rich diamond deposits.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009, p. 254]</a> By the end of the eighteenth century, no less than 125 different products from Brazil were being unloaded in Lisbon. These may be roughly classified under the following headings:… Into the category of miscellaneous, numbering some forty-four items, would fall topazes, amethysts, gold, silver, and diamonds.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SWIK4JIU\">[Russell-Wood 1998, pp. 128-129]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 86,
"polity": {
"id": 694,
"name": "rw_bugesera_k",
"long_name": "Bugesera",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1799
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and precious stones do not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 87,
"polity": {
"id": 692,
"name": "rw_gisaka_k",
"long_name": "Gisaka",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and precious stones do not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 88,
"polity": {
"id": 691,
"name": "rw_mubari_k",
"long_name": "Mubari",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1896
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and precious stones do not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 89,
"polity": {
"id": 689,
"name": "rw_ndorwa_k",
"long_name": "Ndorwa",
"start_year": 1700,
"end_year": 1800
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and precious stones do not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 90,
"polity": {
"id": 687,
"name": "Early Niynginya",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The following quotes mention the main articles of exchange in the region at this time, and precious stones do not appear to have been included. “Tribute was paid to these courts in the form of labour or in kind (cattle, baskets of provisions, special products such as salt, honey or weapons). The ruling aristocracy could thus extend its influence by redistribution, for there was little luxury (clothing was of skins or bark; local vegetation was used for the construction of residences).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ETKPKNZ2\">[Ogot_et_al 1992, p. 825]</a> “And what Rwandans at the central court sought most from the west were butega (Kitembo : bute 'a)16 , a braceletanklet made of raphia fibers woven into a highly distinctive pattern. Because these were small, light, and relatively easy to transport, and because of their assured demand throughout the year in Rwanda, butega bracelets were used as a form of currency, at least insofar as they provided standards of value (and to a lesser degree as a medium of exchange, as well).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIJS3E2S\">[Newbury 1980, p. 13]</a> “However, if cattle were the nerve of an economy of social exchanges in the ancient mountain states of the Nkore-Rwanda Burundi group, other resources depended on more commercial logics; this was particularly the case on the peripheries. Certainly, the region was familiar with short-distance seasonal barter ing of food and cattle products, as a function of complementarity between ecological sectors. Some food products won greater renown: palm oil from the shores of Lake Tanganyika (in Burundi and Buvira), dried bananas from Buganda, coffee from Bunyoro and Buhaya, dried fish from Burundi and Bujiji or from Lakes Edward and George, and, of course, livestock (goats, bull calves, and sterile cows) and butter from Rwanda and Burundi. Let us add tobacco from northern Rwanda and Nkore. But three products gave rise to truly regional trade: salt, iron, and jewelry.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCVWDRI\">[Chrétien 2006, p. 191]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 91,
"polity": {
"id": 633,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_1",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura I",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 70
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 633,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_1",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura I",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 70
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “The two major site categories identified during six years of field survey in Anurādhapura’s hinterland were Buddhist monasteries and small-sized ceramic scatters. These sites presented deep occupation sequences at monasteries as opposed to shallow ephemeral traces at ceramic scatter sites. Artefacts such as coins, precious and semi-precious stones, fine ware ceramics, as well as monumental architecture and, as stated previously, writing, were restricted to monastic sites, and these sites appear to have acted as both religious and secular administrators with jurisdiction over large temporalities in the hinterland.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\">[Coningham_et_al 2017, p. 31]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 92,
"polity": {
"id": 635,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_2",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura II",
"start_year": 70,
"end_year": 428
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 635,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_2",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura II",
"start_year": 70,
"end_year": 428
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “The two major site categories identified during six years of field survey in Anurādhapura’s hinterland were Buddhist monasteries and small-sized ceramic scatters. These sites presented deep occupation sequences at monasteries as opposed to shallow ephemeral traces at ceramic scatter sites. Artefacts such as coins, precious and semi-precious stones, fine ware ceramics, as well as monumental architecture and, as stated previously, writing, were restricted to monastic sites, and these sites appear to have acted as both religious and secular administrators with jurisdiction over large temporalities in the hinterland. This pattern reached its climax in the early medieval period when the most dominant form of Buddhist patronage in the hinterland was through immunity grants, recorded in inscriptions on stone pillars, rather than the direct construction or mainten- ance of religious structures.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\">[Coningham_et_al 2017, p. 31]</a> NB The following two quotes from Sastri (1993) are taken from contemporary accounts by foreign visitors to the polity. “Left and right from it there are as many as 100 small islands, distant from one another* ten, twenty, or even 200 It; but all subject to the large island. Most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds ; there is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl, an island which would form a square of about ten li. The king employs men to watch and protect it, and requires three out of every ten such pearls, which the collectors find.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 68]</a> “In the treasuries of the monkish communities there are many precious stones” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 69]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 93,
"polity": {
"id": 631,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_3",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura III",
"start_year": 428,
"end_year": 614
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 631,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_3",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura III",
"start_year": 428,
"end_year": 614
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “The two major site categories identified during six years of field survey in Anurādhapura’s hinterland were Buddhist monasteries and small-sized ceramic scatters. These sites presented deep occupation sequences at monasteries as opposed to shallow ephemeral traces at ceramic scatter sites. Artefacts such as coins, precious and semi-precious stones, fine ware ceramics, as well as monumental architecture and, as stated previously, writing, were restricted to monastic sites, and these sites appear to have acted as both religious and secular administrators with jurisdiction over large temporalities in the hinterland. This pattern reached its climax in the early medieval period when the most dominant form of Buddhist patronage in the hinterland was through immunity grants, recorded in inscriptions on stone pillars, rather than the direct construction or mainten- ance of religious structures.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\">[Coningham_et_al 2017, p. 31]</a> NB The following two quotes from Sastri (1993) are taken from contemporary accounts by foreign visitors to the polity. “Left and right from it there are as many as 100 small islands, distant from one another* ten, twenty, or even 200 It; but all subject to the large island. Most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds ; there is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl, an island which would form a square of about ten li. The king employs men to watch and protect it, and requires three out of every ten such pearls, which the collectors find.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 68]</a> “In the treasuries of the monkish communities there are many precious stones” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 69]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 94,
"polity": {
"id": 629,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_4",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura IV",
"start_year": 614,
"end_year": 1017
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 629,
"name": "sl_anuradhapura_4",
"long_name": "Anurādhapura IV",
"start_year": 614,
"end_year": 1017
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “The two major site categories identified during six years of field survey in Anurādhapura’s hinterland were Buddhist monasteries and small-sized ceramic scatters. These sites presented deep occupation sequences at monasteries as opposed to shallow ephemeral traces at ceramic scatter sites. Artefacts such as coins, precious and semi-precious stones, fine ware ceramics, as well as monumental architecture and, as stated previously, writing, were restricted to monastic sites, and these sites appear to have acted as both religious and secular administrators with jurisdiction over large temporalities in the hinterland. This pattern reached its climax in the early medieval period when the most dominant form of Buddhist patronage in the hinterland was through immunity grants, recorded in inscriptions on stone pillars, rather than the direct construction or mainten- ance of religious structures. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DCQMW8E3\">[Coningham_et_al 2017, p. 31]</a> NB The following two quotes from Sastri (1993) are taken from contemporary accounts by foreign visitors to the polity. “In the island of Ceylon there are two kings. It is big and extensive. Aloes, gold, precious stones are found on it and in the sea which bathes it, the pearl and shank are found. The latter is a big shell used as a trumpet into which one blows. It is preserved like a precious stone” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 123]</a> “All the women of Ceylon have necklaces of precious stones of divers colours, and they have likewise bracelets on their hands and khalākhail (anklets) on their feet. The Sultan's women make networks out of these gems for their head. I saw on the forehead of the white elephant seven of these gems, each bigger than a hen's egg. I have also seen near the Sultan Airy Shakrauty (Arya Cakravarti) a bowl of rubies of the size of the palm of the hand and containing the oil of aloes. When I expressed my surprise at this bowl, the Sultan said to me; \" We have even larger articles made of the same material.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 272]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 95,
"polity": {
"id": 628,
"name": "sl_dambadeniya",
"long_name": "Dambadaneiya",
"start_year": 1232,
"end_year": 1293
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 630,
"name": "sl_polonnaruva",
"long_name": "Polonnaruwa",
"start_year": 1070,
"end_year": 1255
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “[Marco Polo] tells us of the topaz, the amethyst, and the emerald, of the sapphires of Ceylon” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 32]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 96,
"polity": {
"id": 634,
"name": "sl_jaffa_k",
"long_name": "Jaffna",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1591
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 630,
"name": "sl_polonnaruva",
"long_name": "Polonnaruwa",
"start_year": 1070,
"end_year": 1255
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> The following quote derives from a contemporary account written by a foreign visitor to Sri Lanka. “The admirable gems called the bahramān (rubies or carbuncles) are to be seen only in this town. Among them, some are taken from the bay, and these are the most precious inthe eyes of the natives; others are taken out of the earth. We find gems in all places in the island of Sflan. In this land, the entire soil is private property. When a person buys a piece of land, he digs it for gems. He comes across white and ramified stones, and inside these stones gems lie hidden. The owner sends them to the lapidaries who strike them till they separate the gems from the stone hiding them. The gems are red (rubies), yellow (topazes), and blue (sapphires) or ntlam as they call it. The custom of the people is to reserve for the Sultan all precious stones of the value of a hundred fanams or more; the Sultan pays the price and takes them,for himself. Stones of a lower value are retained by those who find them. A hundred fanams are equal to six gold pieces.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 272]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 97,
"polity": {
"id": 630,
"name": "sl_polonnaruva",
"long_name": "Polonnaruwa",
"start_year": 1070,
"end_year": 1255
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 630,
"name": "sl_polonnaruva",
"long_name": "Polonnaruwa",
"start_year": 1070,
"end_year": 1255
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“There is more information in foreign publications about the gems of Ceylon than in the local records. Many of these documents had noted that no other country in the world possessed such a wide variety of precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DIXQVS4Q\">[Sudharmawathei 2017, p. 193]</a> “[Marco Polo] tells us of the topaz, the amethyst, and the emerald, of the sapphires of Ceylon” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z4P9ZFZ7\">[SASTRI 1939, p. 32]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 98,
"polity": {
"id": 638,
"name": "so_tunni_sultanate",
"long_name": "Tunni Sultanate",
"start_year": 800,
"end_year": 1200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "‘‘‘ The Tunni Sultanate appears to be an especially obscure polity, with barely information easily available on it anywhere in the relevant literature. List which kinds.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 99,
"polity": {
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 44,
"name": "th_ayutthaya",
"long_name": "Ayutthaya",
"start_year": 1593,
"end_year": 1767
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "‘’’ In 1621, the Dutch merchant Van Neijenrode reported that the city of Ayutthaya surpassed “any place in the Indies (except for China) in terms of populace, elephants, gold, gemstones, shipping, commerce, trade and fertility.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> ‘’Van Neijenrode noticed that the well-off invested heavily in their personal appearance…They have large holes in their ears, through which they insert their major ornament, gold bars about as long as a finger, round as the hole they have in their earlobes, artistically shaped and set with gems such as diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds; and their hands are ornamented with costly rings, of both gemstones and fine gold, and gold bracelets encircle their arms.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> “In 1621, the Dutch merchant Van Neijenrode reported that the city of Ayutthaya surpassed “any place in the Indies (except for China) in terms of populace, elephants, gold, gemstones, shipping, commerce, trade and fertility.” ‘’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> “European visitors noted that the great nobles lived in splendid houses and were surrounded by hordes of retainers, but seemed to possess almost no movable property. Diamonds were popular because they were easy to hide.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9NZXSU7Z\">[Baker,_Phongpaichit 2014, p. 17]</a> ‘’The main royal treasury was sited immediately behind the hall used for audience and residence in the palace, and some European visitors were invited to visit. Count Forbin, who was impressed by nothing else in Siam, waxed lyrical about ‘this heap of gold, silver and precious stones of immense value” which constituted “all the riches of the royal treasure, which are truly worthy of a great king, and enough to make one in love with his court.’ Gervaise recorded that the king had “eight or ten warehouses … that are of unimaginable wealth,” piled “to the roof” with jewels, metals, exotic goods, and “great lumps of gold-dust.’ ‘’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a> ‘’ Van Neijenrode noticed that the well-off invested heavily in their personal appearance…They have large holes in their ears, through which they insert their major ornament, gold bars about as long as a finger, round as the hole they have in their earlobes, artistically shaped and set with gems such as diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds; and their hands are ornamented with costly rings, of both gemstones and fine gold, and gold bracelets encircle their arms.’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IGUABSUR\">[Baker_Phongpaichit 2017]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 100,
"polity": {
"id": 462,
"name": "tj_sarasm",
"long_name": "Sarazm",
"start_year": -3500,
"end_year": -2000
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Carnelian, lazurite, turquoise. “In burial 1, where a child of five or six years old was interred, over two hundred lazurite beads were found near the neck and chest cavity” (Isakov 1994: 6). “The triple burial yielded a unique set of artifacts… There was also an enormous collection of carnelian, lazurite, turquoise and chalk beads (in numbers ranging from thirty to one thousand) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NWVCFNW7\">[Isakov 1994, p. 6]</a> \"Le cas le plus spectaculaire étant celui du lapis-lazuli dont les principales mines se trouvent dans la haute vallée de la Kokcha, en Afghanistan et à 500 km à vol d'oiseau au sud-est de Sarazm\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8IW9JJFF\">[Besenval_and_Isakov 1989]</a> (Roughly translated: The raw material of lazurite/lapis-lazuli was likely sourced from Afghanistan, over 500 km away from Sarazm). \"Three lines of evidence appear to support this picture of Sarazm as a centre of manufacturing and commerce: the availability of raw materials, evidence for on-site production, and the abundance of finished products on the site. Gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian and even tin have been cited as potential commodities (Besenval 1987, 445; Besenval and Isakov 1989, 18). [...] However there are problems with interpreting Sarazm as a commercial centre…In addition, the quantity of debitage from lapis lazuli is insufficient to support a claim for significant stone-working industries. Moreover, the lapis beads were recovered from a burial which may predate the establishment of the site (Hiebert 2002), which is more than 500 km away from the nearest lapis source (Besenval and Isakov 1989, n. 71)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K2CZVEJ5\">[Zych,_L 2006, pp. 116-117]</a> (This quote suggests that the production of lazurite/lapis-lazuli beads at Sarazm has been posited by earlier authors, although it is questioned by the current author). “The triple burial yielded a unique set of artifacts…The complex included artifacts of bronze (a mirror with a handle),gold (forty-nine pierced beads), and silver (twenty-four pierced beads); two clay statuettes; three stone mace heads; and a bone piercer. There was also an enormous collection of carnelian, lazurite, turquoise and chalk beads (in numbers ranging from thirty to one thousand). Two bracelets fashioned of seashells are indications of the women’s high status.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NWVCFNW7\">[Isakov 1994, p. 6]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}