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"count": 123,
"next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/ec/luxury-precious-stone/?format=api&page=2",
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{
"id": 1,
"polity": {
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "present",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Before Abdali could set things right, Nadir Shah was assassinated. Ahmad Khan Abdali, however, managed to wrest the Kohinoor, and fled to Kandhar, where he founded his own kingdom, thus becoming Ahmad ‘Shah.’ Abdali then wore the diamond as an armlet alongside the Timur Ruby while assuming the throne of his new-born Durrani dynasty.12 The Durrani Empire had possession of the Kohinoor for approximately seventy years, beginning 1747. The stone passed on from Ahmad Shah to his son, Timur, and then to his successor Shah Zaman. We have already seen the fate of Shah Zaman at the hands of Ashiq Sinwari, and Sinwari in turn being killed by Shah Shuja, younger brother of Shah Zaman. Shah Shuja later sought asylum at the court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3637QMF5\">[Ranjan_Ramani 2018, p. 56]</a> “Under Firozuddin, Bukharan caravans filled with gold sand and silver arrived two to three times a year, while there was a steady stream of commerce from both Kandahar and Meshad. But his successors increased the transit duties to onerous levels. Apart from the normal one in forty duty levied on entering the city, caravans had to pass through five duty collection points in transit, collecting a hefty Rs. 23 per camel”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M94XDPKV\">[Hopkins 2008, p. 154]</a> “Later, the Taliban in Afghanistan also made claims to the stone, for the stone was in their territory for a good seventy years during the Durrani dynasty, and Shah Shuja had to part with it under duress. Iran also has claims on the gem, for the name is Persian, and Nadir Shah took it to Persia”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3637QMF5\">[Ranjan_Ramani 2018, p. 68]</a> \" “The riches of India were the main incentive for the invaders and the big disaster came from a Muslim Afghan, Nadir Shah Durrani, who plundered Delhi Darbar and took away the main treasures of Mughals in 1739. Traditions narrate that 70 camels traveled back to Afghanistan, laden only with the gems and jewels that included Koh-iNoor, Draya-i-Noor, Akbar Shah, the Shah and the world famous Takht-e-Taus (Peacock throne). Unfortunately most of these jewels were divided in such manner that they are lost in the mist of time except for a very few”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TTVUSK67\">[Kanwal 2015, p. 43]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 2,
"polity": {
"id": 134,
"name": "af_ghur_principality",
"long_name": "Ghur Principality",
"start_year": 1025,
"end_year": 1215
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 134,
"name": "af_ghur_principality",
"long_name": "Ghur Principality",
"start_year": 1025,
"end_year": 1215
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Diamonds, turquoise, balas rubies, lapis lazuli.‘Despite the civil unrest of 1199, al-Juzjani paints a picture of vibrant, sophisticated urban life at Firuzkuh in its heyday, with court patronage of poets, respect for religious law and theological debates, and the distribution of largesse at festivals and banquets, including gold and silver vessels, embroidered silks, perfumed leather (which Raverty comments must have been ‘extremely valuable in those days’), precious stone (including pearls and diamonds) and slaves acquired during the ‘holy wars’.22 The treasury reputedly contained 400 camel loads of gold in 800 chests, although al-Juzjani’s numbers need to be treated with a degree of scepticism.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEN89ESZ\">[Thomas_Bennison_Gascoigne 2007, p. 118]</a> ‘By the medieval period, the geography of turquoise and its trade had shifted to West, Central, and South Asia - to the Persianate world, where turquoise was known as firuza. The stone garnered such high esteem there that it became the name of victorious dynasts and of cities and mountains where it was not even to be found. The legendary lost kingdom of Firuzkuh, or Turquoise Mountain, thought to have been near blue-tiled Minaret of Jam in the Hindu Kush of northwestern Afghanistan, was associated with the stone before the Mongols leveled it in the thirteenth century. Although there are no major turquoise deposits in its vicinity, northern Afghanistan being better known for the rich deposits of balas rubies and lapis lazuli from the mines of Badakhshan, the sultans of the Ghurid Empire (c. 1100-1215) founded and envisioned Firuzkuh as a city of turquoise, the center point of network of fortified settlements. The Ghurids built their monumental imperial capital as a display of power and as a treasury to store the spoils of victorious wars in India and Iran.22 The source of inspiration for the now-lost city of Turquoise Mountain could be found in the blue stones mined to the west, outside the city of Nishapur.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGXTUTMV\">[Khazeni 2014, p. 21]</a> ’’' NB Turquoise only. Provenance of other precious stones unclear, likely that some were imported. ‘By the medieval period, the geography of turquoise and its trade had shifted to West, Central, and South Asia - to the Persianate world, where turquoise was known as firuza. The stone garnered such high esteem there that it became the name of victorious dynasts and of cities and mountains where it was not even to be found. The legendary lost kingdom of Firuzkuh, or Turquoise Mountain, thought to have been near blue-tiled Minaret of Jam in the Hindu Kush of northwestern Afghanistan, was associated with the stone before the Mongols leveled it in the thirteenth century. Although there are no major turquoise deposits in its vicinity, northern Afghanistan being better known for the rich deposits of balas rubies and lapis lazuli from the mines of Badakhshan, the sultans of the Ghurid Empire (c. 1100-1215) founded and envisioned Firuzkuh as a city of turquoise, the center point of network of fortified settlements. The Ghurids built their monumental imperial capital as a display of power and as a treasury to store the spoils of victorious wars in India and Iran.22 The source of inspiration for the now-lost city of Turquoise Mountain could be found in the blue stones mined to the west, outside the city of Nishapur.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGXTUTMV\">[Khazeni 2014, p. 21]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 3,
"polity": {
"id": 350,
"name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
"long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
"start_year": -256,
"end_year": -125
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 350,
"name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
"long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
"start_year": -256,
"end_year": -125
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Agate, onyx, pearl. “A large hoard of Indian coins, each stamped with several punch marks, and Indo-Greek drachms of Agathocles was discovered at Ay Khanum but it probably tells us little about the trade between Bactria and the Greek provinces of north-west India, because the hoard was found in the palace treasury, and seems to represent taxes and duties levied in those regions. The same is no doubt true of a mother-of-pearl plaque whose decoration made of incrusted coloured glass is typically Indian in style, and of fragments of agate and onyx used for furniture decoration, which were discovered in the same place, and whose Indian origin is equally indisputable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIB5JTCU\">[Bernard_et_al 1994, p. 121]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 4,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Lapis lazuli, possibly pearls (as they have been depicted on paintings), cornelian, garnet, chalcedony. ‘A lapis lazuli gem was found near the Bezymyannyi (Nameless) city-site in Kobadian. On the lapis a sign had been engraved, consisting of a crescent moon resting on a base, which the authors compare with a symbol found on a copper seal from the Kurkat vault. The sign on the Kobadian gem look likes from coin issues 287, 287A, 288 and 289, which Göbl links with the Hephthalites.299’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 73]</a> ‘The paintings show human figures, some of them wearing brown monastic robes, in canonical terms typical of a Buddha, seated within large coloured haloes. Others, adorned with jewelry, have torsos bare, and may be supporters of the community, conceived as Bodhisattvas. In the opinion of Bivar some figures of supporters can be real people, for example, one of these figure is partly damaged, wearing a dress with roundel decoration, a long necklace of pearls, and a regal crown of gold with three crescents, each surmounted by a central bud, above a diadem decorated with golden pellets. The canonical crowns of the Hephthalite kings are less well known than those of their Sasanian predecessors, but some indication of their identities can be derived by a comparison with the coins.317 Bivar gives a hypothesis that the mural paintings of the 53 m Buddha originate from the reign of the Hephthalite king Khingila, and that he is depicted there.318’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 76]</a> ‘A garnet seal in the Peshawar museum is similar, where a Bactrian inscription Bando is associated with a Hephthalite tamgha; and 3 more seals in the British museum include two garnet seals showing a male bust, and another from the collection of A. Cunningham may be added, showing the bust of a female personage (deity or queen) to whom a genuflecting devotee is offering a flower. Lastly an amethyst seal in the same museum with the frontal busts of crowned male and female couple also belongs to this group.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, pp. 69-70]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 5,
"polity": {
"id": 127,
"name": "af_kushan_emp",
"long_name": "Kushan Empire",
"start_year": 35,
"end_year": 319
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Lapis Lazuli. ‘Additionally, it is also easy to see the attraction of other resources from an imperial perspective in the vicinity of the site – not only its rich agricultural hinterland, but its proximity to precious stones in Badakhshan (famously lapis lazuli) as well as gold. According to Martinez-Sève, the extension of artificial irrigation systems into new areas and foothills in eastern Bactria can be linked to an initiative to increase productive capacity on a regional scale and was perhaps organized by royal officers.88 Royal initiatives and local demographic growth in east Bactria probably contributed to such works (especially in foothills) in a reciprocal fashion’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9PWVBVIJ\">[Morris_Reden 2021, p. 709]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 6,
"polity": {
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Chinese exports to Bengal included gold, silver, satins, silk, blue and white porcelain, copper, iron, vermillion, quicksilver and grass mats. Return cargoes might include muslin, pearls, precious stones, horses, ornate horse saddles, engraved opaque vessels, broad cloths, woollens, cotton velvet, black coarse cotton cloth, sugar, rhinoceros horns, gharuwood, catechu, pepper and areca-nut”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 227]</a> “The merchants of Bengal along with Gujaratis, Arabs and Persians dominated overseas trade. The main items of export from Bengal were rice, wheat, sugar, cotton and silk cloth, aloe-wood and spices like ginger and pepper. On the other hand, Bengal imported gold, silver, copper, lead, precious stones, conch-shells, cowries, opium, salt, carpets, horses, slaves, sandalwood, camphor and many other items”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TEKE6CND\">[Shaikh 2020, p. 230]</a> “Further mentioning to the gold and silver ornaments used by women of Bengal he states, “The ornaments in use were usually earrings of precious stones set in gold, pendants for the neck, bracelets for the wrists and ankles, and rings for the fingers and the toes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GUN6ITVE\">[Shaikh 2016, p. 37]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 7,
"polity": {
"id": 780,
"name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
"long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Tarafdar himself admits that epigraphic records prepared during Deva, Chandra and Varman rule give no indication of trade, which renders impossible the determination of the extent of commercialisation of the contemporary society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 202]</a> “Not a single new commercial centre sprang up in Bengal between the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. and it appears that this region had hardly a place in external trade for at least 500 years.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 206]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 8,
"polity": {
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“One such example is Bengal and in the Murshidabad miniature of the ruling Nawab, Ali Verdi Khan, holds out a turban jewel to his grandson and designated successor, Sirajad Daula, in conscious imitation of the Mughals. Interesting part is that the jewel is identical to that given to Admiral Watson in 1757 by Mir Jaafar, the Nawab who ousted Siraj ad-Daula with British help.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 44]</a> “One such example is Bengal and in the Murshidabad miniature of the ruling Nawab, Ali Verdi Khan, holds out a turban jewel to his grandson and designated successor, Sirajad Daula, in conscious imitation of the Mughals. Interesting part is that the jewel is identical to that given to Admiral Watson in 1757 by Mir Jaafar, the Nawab who ousted Siraj ad-Daula with British help. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 44]</a> \" “The upper class Muslims would put on an ijar (paijama), a chola (closed coat) and a jama (long shirt) with a muslin slash wrapped round the waist. Sometimes they wore a short close vest of fine worked muslin over the jama. Occasionally they put on shirt. A head-dress, either a turban or a topi (cap), formed essential part of their dress. They also had a deman underwear. On ceremonial occasions, the princes and wealthy persons put on gorgeous, richly adorned with diamonds and gems. The princes used, in addition, precious ornaments, necklace, bracelet and earrings of gold and diamond, and weapons like the sword, bow and arrows. Rich people also dressed themselves with ornaments and jewelleries. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 28]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 9,
"polity": {
"id": 619,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I",
"start_year": 701,
"end_year": 1100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 10,
"polity": {
"id": 617,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1400
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 11,
"polity": {
"id": 618,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV",
"start_year": 1401,
"end_year": 1500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 12,
"polity": {
"id": 613,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
"start_year": 100,
"end_year": 500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 13,
"polity": {
"id": 622,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
"start_year": 501,
"end_year": 700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Not mentioned in recent and seemingly comprehensive literature (e.g. Dueppen 2012 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 14,
"polity": {
"id": 470,
"name": "cn_hmong_1",
"long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing",
"start_year": 1701,
"end_year": 1895
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Though scattered across Guizhou, Guizhou, and Anshun, the “Flower Miao” were mainly concentrated in the northwestern Guizhou region and northeastern Yunnan's Zhaotong City during the Ming and Qing dynasties... This disparity stemmed from the Tusi system, prevalent in Yuan, Ming, and early Qing eras. These hereditary rulers, often from other ethnicities, dominated much of Southwest China. By the time the Hmong migrated, existing Tusi systems in Yunnan and Guizhou had already formed powerful political and economic forces. Consequently, the Hmong often found themselves exploited and enslaved within these Tusi regions, relegated to roles like tenant farmers for the Tusi lords... In areas like Xinqu County and Guangshun Prefecture, the Flower Miao, Eastern Miao, Western Miao, and Guyang Miao all suffered under similar burdens, paying rent and performing labor considered comparable to \"commoners,\" pushing them deeper into poverty. By \"commoners,\" we mean the state's registered households and Han Chinese citizens. These Hmong farmers, tilling landlord-owned land like their non-Hmong counterparts, were even worse off than most Han farmers… From 1855-1872, following the lead of Zhang Xiumei and the others, the Hmong in Guizhou and Hunan provinces led a series of rebellions against the Qing dynasty… The Han Chinese landlords, merchants, soldiers, and garrison troops who entered the Hmong areas often used usury to exploit the Hmong peasants… the Hmong peasants were already impoverished. When natural disasters occurred, they were even more miserable. The Hmong epic poems vividly describe this situation.（“花苗”，在遵义、贵阳、安顺地区虽有分布，但明清之际主要集中在黔西北毕节地区和滇东北昭通市地区……由于元明和清初居于土司阶层的多为别的民族，加之云南、贵州不少地区当苗族徙入时，其他民族已经建立了土司制度，形成了较强的政治和经济势力，故苗族在土司地区一般处于被剥削、被奴役的地位。他们多充当土司土目的佃户……新贵县和广顺州一带的“花苗”“东苗”“西苗”“牯羊苗”等，“输租服役，比于良民，故其贫尤甚”。所谓“良民”，即国家的编户齐民和汉族百姓。这些地区的苗民，同他们一样耕种地主土地……比一般汉族农民更为贫困……咸丰五年至同治十一年（1855-1872）……苗族地区，爆发了由张秀眉等人领导的苗族人民起义……在贵州和在湘西一样，进入苗区的汉族地主、奸商、官兵和驻军，掠夺苗族农民的一个主要手段就是放高利贷……苗族农民已穷困不堪，如处水火之中，遇上天灾年荒，就更是饥寒交加，苦楚难言。苗族地区流传的史诗对这种情景有不少生动的记述。）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 116]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 148]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 150]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 261]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 263]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 15,
"polity": {
"id": 471,
"name": "cn_hmong_2",
"long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese",
"start_year": 1895,
"end_year": 1941
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Local Hmong people, Yang Hanxian, who graduated from the Sociology Department of West China University, wrote: \"The Hmong society of Weining in modern times was full of serious ethnic and class contradictions. The Yi ethnic minority landlords, who accounted for a very small number of the population, ruled and oppressed the vast majority of Hmong people... According to Hmong elders in the early 20th century, under the rule of the Yi 'nuo' (landlord),... (the above four classes are all Yi ethnic minorities) and those at the bottom of the society, or called the people under the ground, are the 'Miao (Hmong)'.\" ... In modern times, the feudal landlord system with the nature of slavery still existed in the Wumeng Mountains, and the Hmong tenant farmers were strongly dependent on the Yi ethnic minority landlords. In the Qing Dynasty, historian Zhao Yi served as an official in Shuixi. Based on his own observations, he wrote: \"The relationship between the local officials and the local people is the most severe between master and servant... \"The Hmong people wear clothes that they weave themselves from hemp, coarse hemp and worn cloth. They wear a grass belt around their waists, tie their legs with bandages, and wear straw shoes. The old records say that they \"lack clothes, sleep without beds or bedding, cook without pots and cauldrons, and have no food for the next day at home.\"（当地苗族，华西大学社会学系毕业的杨汉先写道：“近代的威宁苗族社会，充满着严重的民族和阶级的矛盾。占人口极少数的彝族土目地主，统治和压迫着广大的苗族劳苦大众……据二十世纪初期苗族老人说，在彝族’诺’（大地主）的统治下……（上述四等人皆为彝族）而处在最底层的或叫地底下的人，即’苗子’。”近代乌蒙山区还残存着带有奴隶制度性质的封建领主制，苗族佃农的人身强烈地依附于彝族土目地主。清代史学家赵翼在水西为官，以其亲见亲历写道：“凡土官之于土民，其主仆之分最严……”苗族穿的衣服是自己绩麻，粗葛败布自己纺织。腰系草带，腿裹绑带，足登草鞋。旧志说他们“身缺衣覆，寝无床被，炊缺锅釜，家无隔夜之粮。”）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 16,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "jade, tremolite, agate, fluorite “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱，但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好，还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走，仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 155]</a> “In the burial site of the Duke of Jin from the Western Zhou Dynasty in Quwo, Shanxi, a collection of jade ornaments was discovered… This collection includes items like jade circular pendants, pendants with a hairpin design, jade shell ornaments, jade heng ornaments, jade tubes, and a variety of beads and tubes. The materials used for these ornaments range from translucent tremolite jade and local jade materials to red agate, fluorite, and even man-made faience beads. (山西曲沃西周晋侯墓地玉组佩……有玉璜、玉圭形佩、束绢形佩、玉贝、玉珩、玉管和各种珠子、管子，材质包括透闪石玉、地方玉料、红色玛瑙、萤石和人工烧造的费昂斯珠。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 95]</a> ’\" \"Based on current data, it's evident that before the Han Dynasty, most of the jade materials were obtained from local sources. Ancient China had a much wider range of regions where jade was produced compared to today. These areas spanned from Heilongjiang in the north to the Pearl River Basin in the south, and from the Jiaodong Peninsula in the east to Tibet and Xinjiang in the west. Virtually all these places had deposits of jade. Nephrite was the predominant material used for crafting jade items in ancient China. (现有资料表明，汉以前玉材绝大部分是就地取材，我国古代的产玉地，要比现在广得多，北起黑龙江，南至珠江流域，东自胶东半岛，西迄西藏、新疆。几乎都有玉矿分布。软玉是我国古代主要使用的玉器材质。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 239]</a> ‘\" “In the burial site of the Duke of Jin from the Western Zhou Dynasty in Quwo, Shanxi, a collection of jade ornaments was discovered… This collection includes items like jade circular pendants, pendants with a hairpin design, jade shell ornaments, jade heng ornaments, jade tubes, and a variety of beads and tubes. The materials used for these ornaments range from translucent tremolite jade and local jade materials to red agate, fluorite, and even man-made faience beads. (山西曲沃西周晋侯墓地玉组佩……有玉璜、玉圭形佩、束绢形佩、玉贝、玉珩、玉管和各种珠子、管子，材质包括透闪石玉、地方玉料、红色玛瑙、萤石和人工烧造的费昂斯珠。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 95]</a> “In the ancient times when decorations held sacred and powerful meanings, ordinary people hardly had the chance to even glimpse these lavish items. Such ornaments were mainly owned by the noble and ruling classes, as well as those with religious authority… Starting from the Jin Dynasty, a cultural movement among intellectuals in the Jiangnan region began to rise, and decorative items also started showing up in the hands of everyday people… Back in the Western Zhou period, precious stones and jade were exclusively reserved for the elite. (在装饰品神圣化、权力化的上古时代，民间几乎没有一窥豹斑的权利，这些装饰品全部集中在贵族和王权、神权阶层手里……两晋以后，江南的士人文化开始兴起，装饰品也出现在民间……在西周，珠玉只属于权贵。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, pp. 97-98]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 17,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Jade, jadite, agate, sapphires, turquoise, zircon, crystal, spinel, emerald, garnet. “The \"Yu Fu Zhi (Records on Carriages, crowns, and clothing)\" from the Ming Dynasty provides details about the court's accessory regulations. These rules applied to everyone, from the Emperor and Empress down to the Crown Prince, consorts, civil and military officials, and officials' wives. They covered various dress codes and accessories for different occasions. Pearls and jade pendants were commonly worn, with strict guidelines about the materials based on one's rank. The Emperor, for instance, wore white jade pendants, while scholars donned \"Yao jade\" pendants (imitation jade made from glass), following specific rules. Even commoners had restrictions on their jewelry, hairpins, bracelets, which were not permitted to be made of gold, jade, or precious stones; they were limited to silver. Additionally, headpiece rings couldn't be made of gold, jade, agate, coral, or amber. This reveals the strict hierarchy in material usage… Unlike the Tang and Song Dynasties, the Ming era saw a more extensive use of jade items and beads in tomb burials, alongside semi-precious stones like crystal and agate. (明代的《舆服志》详细记载了宫廷的配饰制度，从皇帝皇后到太子嫔妃、从文武百官到官亲命妇，不同场合的不同着装和配饰都有具体而严格的规定，其中都少不了珠玑玉佩，所用材质也严格按照等级区分，从皇帝使用的白玉佩到进士所用的“药玉”佩（仿玉的琉璃）不可僭越，甚至规定了庶人百姓的首饰、钗、镯不得使用金玉、珠翠，只能用银，而巾环（头巾环子）不得使用金玉、玛瑙、珊瑚、琥珀，可见材质的区分仍旧相当严格……与唐宋时期不同的是，除了水晶玛瑙等半宝石，明代墓葬中的玉件玉珠显然更多。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 253]</a> “Item 164: A Ming Dynasty Gold Mounting with Gem-Encrusted Leather Belt. Crafted from two layers of red plain silk with a layer of leather in between, this exquisite piece has twenty gold ornaments adorned with intricate flower motifs. These ornaments are symmetrically arranged, starting from the central sphaṭika at the back and extending to both sides. They include silver and gold ingots, ancient coins, a pair of linked coins, coral, ruyi scepters, rhinoceros horn, precious beads, and more. At the front center, you'll find a rectangular ornament featuring a raised cloud-dragon pattern. Each of these ornaments is embellished with eight to ten red and blue gemstones... This remarkable artifact was unearthed from the coffin of the Wanli Emperor, Zhu Yijun, in Changping, Beijing, in 1958. (164 金托嵌宝革带 明。由两层红素缎中间夹一层皮革制成。其上缀有以花丝镶嵌制成的金饰物共二十块，自后面正中火珠起向左右两侧对称配置，依次为银锭、金锭、古钱、连胜、珊瑚、如意、犀角、宝珠等。前面正中一块为长方形，内饰浮雕式云龙纹。每一饰物上均嵌有红蓝宝石八至十块……1958年北京昌平定陵万历朱翊钧棺内出土。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGRHQWWJ\">[National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration 1996, p. 145]</a> “The most prominent use of jade during the Ming Dynasty was in official attire… This practice is extensively documented in the \"History of the Ming Dynasty: Yu Fu Zhi (Records on Carriages, crowns, and clothing).\"... the empress's ceremonial headdress: established during the third year of the Hongwu reign… This headdress featured a circular jadite ornament… Item 7: Six gold hairpins adorned with intricate filigree work and gemstones… three of them… adorned with 8-12 rubies, sapphires, and turquoise around the corner… the one that features a triangular-shaped head , with 17 stones still intact, including rubies, sapphires, turquoise, and zircon. These hairpins were used by the Princess… Two agate mandarin duck sculptures, with lengths of 3.3 cm and 3.7 cm, heights of 3 cm and 2.7 cm, and thicknesses of 1.3 cm and 1.5 cm. They have slender necks and bodies shaped like ducks gliding on water... In Prince Liangzhuang's coffin, a total of 8 strings, 748 Buddhist prayer beads were found inside a lacquered box on the bed. These beads included crystal, gold-inlaid wooden, and bone beads. There were also other precious gemstone ornaments such as white jade, crystal, amber Buddha heads… precious stone ornaments (include one string made of spinel, one of emerald, one of white jade beads, one of white jade pendants, one of red agate, one of yellow agate), crystal rings, crystal discs, and various other decorative bead strings (include 20 white jade beads and 17 amber beads). Princess Liangzhuang adorned herself with a range of jewelry, including cyan jade ornaments, white jade bars, white agate carvings, red agate cups, crystal rings, and gemstone flowers (crafted from materials like agate, amber, turquoise, garnet, white jade, volcanic glass, and other stones. They were assembled to form floral patterns resembling sunflowers, plums, chrysanthemums, and orchids by combining various components such as flower cores and petals). (明代用玉制度最重要的体现是在官服用玉上……《明史·舆服志》对此有详细记载……皇后冠服：洪武三年定……其冠，圆匡冒以翡翠……7. 金累丝镶宝石玉簪：6件……其中3件……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石，现存8-12颗……等腰三角形簪首……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石、锆石，现存17颗。均为王妃用品……玛瑙鸳鸯2件，身分别长3.3厘米、3.7厘米，高3厘米、2.7厘米，体厚1.3厘米、1.5厘米，缩颈凫游状……梁庄王棺床上漆法器匣内共发现佛珠8串748件，除水晶珠外，还有金嵌木珠、骨珠。此外，这些佛珠的附件中还有白玉、水晶、琥珀佛头……宝石串饰（包括尖晶石1、祖母绿1、白玉珠1、白玉盘肠1、红玛瑙1、黄玛瑙1）、水晶环、水晶饼形饰及其他饰物串珠（白玉珠20颗、琥珀珠17颗）等。梁庄王妃使用的饰物有青玉串饰、白玉条、白玛瑙圆雕榄形饰、红玛瑙杯、水晶环、宝玉花（用玛瑙、琥珀、绿松石、石榴石、白玉、火山玻璃等分别制作成葵花、梅花、菊花、兰花等花蕊、花瓣，再将二者黏接成花形）等。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 5]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 7]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 35]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 38]</a> “The Tiangong Kaiwu (the Exploitation of the Works of Nature) extensively documents the origins of jade and the process of its extraction: “Valuable jade primarily found its way into China from Hotan and the Pamir Mountains”… The procurement of jade was facilitated through various means, including tribute, trade, and even smuggling by merchants. Starting from the early Ming Dynasty, various regions within Xinjiang (which was a part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate during that period)… routinely sent envoys bearing tributes to the Ming court, which included camels, horses, fur products, jade, and more... During the Yongle period, countries in East and Southeast Asia also engaged in a continuous exchange with China through envoys and trade caravans that presented tribute… To illustrate, in the fifteenth year of Yongle (1417), the Kings of Sulu, Xi, and Tong, “accompanied by their entourages totaling over three hundred and forty individuals, paid tribute to the Ming court. Their offerings included precious items like pearls, gemstones, and tortoiseshell.” (《天工开物》较为详尽地记载了玉的出产地和采玉的过程：凡玉入中国，贵重用者尽出于阗葱岭……玉材的来源主要靠进贡、贸易以及商贩的走私等途径。明初以来，新疆各地……经常派遣使臣向明朝进贡驼、马、皮货、玉石等……永乐年间，东亚、东南亚各国也不断遣使和商队来中国入贡……例如永乐十五年（1417），苏禄国王、西王、峒王同时来朝，他们“各率其属及随从头目凡三百四十余人，奉金缕表来朝贡，且献珍珠、宝石、玳瑁等物”。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, pp. 181-183]</a> “The Ming Dingling stands out as the sole excavated imperial tomb dating back to the Ming Dynasty. It showcases an array of exquisitely crafted jewelry, utensils, and articles that combine jade, gold, and gemstones, serving as a splendid representation of the pinnacle of Ming Dynasty palace jade artifacts… (Among the findings were) two crowns… with one of them retaining only its gold and jade ornaments, including a piece of green jade pendant… There were also a total of 110 red stone beads (originally white but painted red), 31 white jade beads, 45 green jade beads, 38 amber beads, and 50 Obsidian beads… Furthermore, 16 jade pins or gold-inlaid jade pins were unearthed from Emperor Wanli's coffin. Most of these came from a jewelry box situated in the northwest corner of the coffin, and a few gold pins were found inserted into Emperor Wanli's hairdo. These pins were typically adorned with gemstones and pearls, with opals being highly prized. (定陵是目前唯一发掘的明代皇帝墓葬，所见众多的玉佩、金玉和宝石结合的首饰、器皿等精巧工致、富丽堂皇，是明代宫廷玉器的代表……冕冠2顶……一顶仅残存有金玉饰件，其中青玉衡1件……残存红石珠（由白色染红）110颗、白玉珠31颗、青玉珠45颗、黄琥珀珠38颗、黑石珠50颗……万历帝棺内出土玉簪或金镶玉、玳瑁簪：16件。主要出于其棺内西北角的首饰匣内，少数金簪插于万历帝发髻上。除个别簪外，大多镶嵌宝石和珍珠，特别是以镶猫眼石为上品。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, pp. 61-63]</a> “The most prominent use of jade during the Ming Dynasty was in official attire… This practice is extensively documented in the \"History of the Ming Dynasty: Yu Fu Zhi (Records on Carriages, crowns, and clothing).\"... the empress's ceremonial headdress: established during the third year of the Hongwu reign… This headdress featured a circular jadite ornament… Item 7: Six gold hairpins adorned with intricate filigree work and gemstones… three of them… adorned with 8-12 rubies, sapphires, and turquoise around the corner… the one that features a triangular-shaped head , with 17 stones still intact, including rubies, sapphires, turquoise, and zircon. These hairpins were used by the Princess… Two agate mandarin duck sculptures, with lengths of 3.3 cm and 3.7 cm, heights of 3 cm and 2.7 cm, and thicknesses of 1.3 cm and 1.5 cm. They have slender necks and bodies shaped like ducks gliding on water... In Prince Liangzhuang's coffin, a total of 8 strings, 748 Buddhist prayer beads were found inside a lacquered box on the bed. These beads included crystal, gold-inlaid wooden, and bone beads. There were also other precious gemstone ornaments such as white jade, crystal, amber Buddha heads… precious stone ornaments (include one string made of pinel, one of emerald, one of white jade beads, one of white jade pendants, one of red agate, one of yellow agate), crystal rings, crystal discs, and various other decorative bead strings (include 20 white jade beads and 17 amber beads). Princess Liangzhuang adorned herself with a range of jewelry, including cyan jade ornaments, white jade bars, white agate carvings, red agate cups, crystal rings, and gemstone flowers (crafted from materials like agate, amber, turquoise, garnet, white jade, volcanic glass, and other stones. They were assembled to form floral patterns resembling sunflowers, plums, chrysanthemums, and orchids by combining various components such as flower cores and petals). (明代用玉制度最重要的体现是在官服用玉上……《明史·舆服志》对此有详细记载……皇后冠服：洪武三年定……其冠，圆匡冒以翡翠……7. 金累丝镶宝石玉簪：6件……其中3件……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石，现存8-12颗……等腰三角形簪首……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石、锆石，现存17颗。均为王妃用品……玛瑙鸳鸯2件，身分别长3.3厘米、3.7厘米，高3厘米、2.7厘米，体厚1.3厘米、1.5厘米，缩颈凫游状……梁庄王棺床上漆法器匣内共发现佛珠8串748件，除水晶珠外，还有金嵌木珠、骨珠。此外，这些佛珠的附件中还有白玉、水晶、琥珀佛头……宝石串饰（包括尖晶石1、祖母绿1、白玉珠1、白玉盘肠1、红玛瑙1、黄玛瑙1）、水晶环、水晶饼形饰及其他饰物串珠（白玉珠20颗、琥珀珠17颗）等。梁庄王妃使用的饰物有青玉串饰、白玉条、白玛瑙圆雕榄形饰、红玛瑙杯、水晶环、宝玉花（用玛瑙、琥珀、绿松石、石榴石、白玉、火山玻璃等分别制作成葵花、梅花、菊花、兰花等花蕊、花瓣，再将二者黏接成花形）等。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 5]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 7]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 35]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 38]</a> “The \"Yu Fu Zhi (Records on Carriages, crowns, and clothing)\" from the Ming Dynasty provides details about the court's accessory regulations. These rules applied to everyone, from the Emperor and Empress down to the Crown Prince, consorts, civil and military officials, and officials' wives. They covered various dress codes and accessories for different occasions. Pearls and jade pendants were commonly worn, with strict guidelines about the materials based on one's rank. The Emperor, for instance, wore white jade pendants, while scholars donned \"Yao jade\" pendants (imitation jade made from glass), following specific rules. Even commoners had restrictions on their jewelry, hairpins, bracelets, which were not permitted to be made of gold, jade, or precious stones; they were limited to silver. Additionally, headpiece rings couldn't be made of gold, jade, agate, coral, or amber. This reveals the strict hierarchy in material usage. (明代的《舆服志》详细记载了宫廷的配饰制度，从皇帝皇后到太子嫔妃、从文武百官到官亲命妇，不同场合的不同着装和配饰都有具体而严格的规定，其中都少不了珠玑玉佩，所用材质也严格按照等级区分，从皇帝使用的白玉佩到进士所用的“药玉”佩（仿玉的琉璃）不可僭越，甚至规定了庶人百姓的首饰、钗、镯不得使用金玉、珠翠，只能用银，而巾环（头巾环子）不得使用金玉、玛瑙、珊瑚、琥珀，可见材质的区分仍旧相当严格。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 253]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 18,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "pearl, jade, jadeite “(Qin Shihuang had been) mining metal-rich ores, smelting bronze,using molten metal to seal the gaps inside the coffins, applying lacquer on the surface (of the coffins), and embellishing them with pearls and jade, while frequently employing jadeite as ornaments. (合采金石，冶铜锢其内，桼涂其外，披以珠玉，饰以翡翠。) ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5DWARNQ\">[Ban 1962]</a> At this time, you (the King of Qing, later became Qin Shihuang) possess the exquisite jade from Kunshan, and the luminous pearl from the Marquis of Sui with Heshibi (Mr. He's jade), your attire sparkles with gemstones as radiant as the full moon. … If only items produced within the state of Qin were to be approved, then this luminous gem would never have decorated the palace; objects crafted from rhinoceros horn or ivory would never have become your cherished possessions... The gold and tin of the south won't be put to use by you, nor will the pigments from Sichuan be chosen as coloring agents. (今陛下致昆山之玉，有随和之宝，垂明月之珠……必秦国之所生然后可，则是夜光之璧不饰朝廷，犀象之器不为玩好，……江南金锡不为用，西蜀丹青不为采。) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54T67REC\">[Sima 1982]</a> ‘\" “(Qin Shihuang had been) mining metal-rich ores, smelting bronze,using molten metal to seal the gaps inside the coffins, applying lacquer on the surface (of the coffins), and embellishing them with pearls and jade, while frequently employing jadeite as ornaments. (合采金石，冶铜锢其内，桼涂其外，披以珠玉，饰以翡翠。) ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5DWARNQ\">[Ban 1962]</a> At this time, you (the King of Qing, later became Qin Shihuang) possess the exquisite jade from Kunshan, and the luminous pearl from the Marquis of Sui with Heshibi (Mr. He's jade), your attire sparkles with gemstones as radiant as the full moon. … If only items produced within the state of Qin were to be approved, then this luminous gem would never have decorated the palace; objects crafted from rhinoceros horn or ivory would never have become your cherished possessions... The gold and tin of the south won't be put to use by you, nor will the pigments from Sichuan be chosen as coloring agents. (今陛下致昆山之玉，有随和之宝，垂明月之珠……必秦国之所生然后可，则是夜光之璧不饰朝廷，犀象之器不为玩好，……江南金锡不为用，西蜀丹青不为采。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54T67REC\">[Sima 1982]</a> “During the Spring and Autumn Period, the state of Qin had a rich collection of excavated materials, including both jade ornaments and beads. However, a sudden gap in archaeological findings related to beads and jade occurs from the Warring States period onwards. The practice of the Qin people abandoning the use of beads and jade emerged after the \"Shang Yang's Reform\"...With the kinship system as its foundation and rituals as its expression, China Central Plain Culture faced rejection, leading to a decline in the popularity of jade items and various accessories to Qin people… The values held by the Qin people brought about significant changes in the decoration norms of the Central Plain, essentially altering the official standards...This approach, characterized by its practical nature in signifying personal identity, endured until the Eastern Han Dynasty...The fading away of this practice is elaborated in Houhanshu (Book of the Later Han), in the chapter of Yufuzhi (the monography about state coaches and court robes): \"In ancient times, both rulers and ministers adorned themselves with jade, thus establishing distinctions of rank; the higher-ups had leather knee covering worn during sacrifices, and this marked the differentiation of status.” (春秋时期，无论是玉饰还是珠子，秦国都有比较丰富的出土资料。但是战国以降，珠玉的考古资料突然中断。秦人抛弃珠玉的做法发生在“商鞅变法”之后……以宗法为载体，以礼仪为形式的中原文化遭到排斥，玉器和各种配饰也随之衰落……秦人的价值观在很大程度上改变了中原的装饰制度，至少是改变了官方的装饰制度……用最简洁功利的形式来标志个人身份，这种制度一直延续到东汉以后。……《后汉书·舆服志》是这样解释它的消失的，“古者君臣佩玉，尊卑有度；上有韍，贵贱有殊。”)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 120]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 142]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 19,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
{
"id": 444,
"name": "mn_zungharian_emp",
"long_name": "Zungharian Empire",
"start_year": 1670,
"end_year": 1757
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Burma; Afghanistan",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Jade, jadeite, agate, crystal, lapis lazuli, turquoise, amber, ruby, sapphire, jasper, rose quartz. “During the Qing Dynasty, beads encompassed a rich array of materials and techniques. These materials ranged from jade, jadeite, agate, crystal, lapis lazuli, turquoise, pearls, coral, tortoiseshell, amber, ivory, gold, and silver to various gemstones, hardwood, glass, and any natural or artificial substances that could be employed… (在清代，珠子涉及的材质和工艺十分丰富，材料有玉、翡翠、玛瑙、水晶、青金石、绿松石、珍珠、珊瑚、玳瑁、琥珀、象牙、金、银、各种宝石、硬木、琉璃等任何可以利用的自然和人工材料……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 263]</a> “During the Qing Dynasty, Xinjiang's Hotan region played a pivotal role in the production of jade materials, becoming the primary source for jade craftsmanship. This dominance, particularly in the mid to late Qing Dynasty, led to the majority of materials used in jade carving originating from Xinjiang's Hotan region… In the early Qing Dynasty, areas rich in jade resources, such as Xinjiang's Hotan and Yarkand, were under the control of the Dzungar Khanate. This posed challenges for the Qing court in acquiring substantial quantities of Hotan jade materials. It wasn't until the 24th year of the Qianlong Emperor's reign (1759) when the Qing military quelled rebellions led by the Dzungar Khanate and Hui people. This victory granted the Qing government control over the extraction and transportation of Hotan jade, marking the beginning of large-scale mining and utilization… In the Qing Dynasty, Burmese jadeite was often referred to as 'yu' or 'jade stone.' It's important to note that names like 'Yunnan jade' or 'Dianyu' did not pertain to jade produced in Yunnan; rather, they referred to Burmese jadeite… Jadeite primarily originates from Burma, with limited supplies found in Japan, Russia, Mexico, and California, USA. Most of China's jadeite was imported from Burma through Yunnan… Local officials in Yunnan consistently labeled jadeite as ' Yunnan jade' from the 11th year of Yongzheng's reign (1733) to the 41st year of Qianlong's reign (1776), spanning 43 years. This practice may have aimed to emphasize the tribute's significance of local goods when presented to the imperial court… During the Qianlong era, jadeite's status transitioned from a mere stone to jade, surpassing Hotan jade in value. It found applications not only in accessories and collectibles but also in palace décor and official attire… China has not yet discovered substantial lapis lazuli deposits. Historically, most lapis lazuli imported into China originated from Afghanistan… During the later years of Qianlong's reign, jade pieces with Islamic-inspired designs became quite popular within the imperial court and were even favored by the emperor. They were commonly referred to as \"Hendustan jade artifacts\" or simply known as \"Western-style\" jade artifacts among the general populace… (新疆和田地区在清代所出产的玉料，占据了当时玉器材料的绝对霸主地位，尤其是清代中期以后，玉雕所用的材料绝大部分来自新疆和田……清代早期，盛产玉材的新疆和田、叶尔羌等地区被准噶尔部占据，清廷只能通过民间走私等途径获得少量的和田玉原料。直至乾隆二十四年（1759），清军粉碎了准噶尔部和回部的叛乱，清政府才控制了和田玉的开采权和运输渠道，开始对和田玉大规模开采和使用……清人称云南翡翠为“玉”、“翠石”、“翡翠石”……可见“云南玉”及“滇玉”等名称，实非云南所产之玉材，而为缅甸翡翠……翡翠主要出产于缅甸，此外，在日本、俄罗斯、墨西哥和美国加州也出产少量翡翠。中国的翡翠大都是从缅甸经云南运进内地的……云南的地方官从雍正十一年（1733）到乾隆四十一年（1776）这43年之中，一直坚持将“翡翠”冠以云南地方名称……可能是地方命官向朝廷纳贡时，为突出土贡的意义而采取的权宜之计……乾隆一朝，翡翠由石升扬为玉，价格超过和田玉。不仅是配饰品和玩赏品，甚至宫廷陈设和官服上的用玉都采用翡翠来制作……中国至今未发现青金石矿床，我国自古以来进口的青金石多数来源于阿富汗……具有伊斯兰风格的玉器在乾隆中晚期已大量进入内廷，得到乾隆的喜爱，将其称为“痕都斯坦玉器”，民间称之为“西番作”玉器……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, pp. 3-4]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 10]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 21]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 24]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 61]</a> “During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, jade used in the imperial court had two main sources. Firstly, it was crafted by artisans at the Imperial Workshop. Secondly, it was presented as tribute by regional officials. Jade items accounted for a significant portion of the precious collectibles… Emperor Qianlong had a great fondness for jade. He frequently collected ancient jade pieces and delved into their names and functions. He also closely monitored the production of jade items in the imperial workshop…In their efforts to please Emperor Qianlong… the officials often included a considerable number of ancient jades, contemporary jade artifacts, and freshly crafted jade items in their tribute offerings. (雍正时期宫廷所用玉器的来源，一是宫廷造办处玉作所琢制，二是地方官员进贡。在珍宝玩赏类贡品中，玉器占有相当的数量……乾隆皇帝酷爱玉器，他经常搜集古玉并考证古玉的名称及功用，关心宫廷玉作的制作情况……臣子们为博得乾隆皇帝的欢心……均在贡品中塞进不少古玉、玉玩和时做玉器。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 41]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 52]</a> “The author, Chang Hui, had served as a county magistrate for four to five years in Suzhou and Songjiang prefectures. Yet even he couldn't afford to buy jade items during this time, indicating the exceptionally high prices of jade during the time. By examining the quantity of jade items presented as tributes by officials and those excavated from Qing Dynasty tombs, it's evident that both the imperial court and the upper class of society had a keen interest in collecting jade items… (作者常慧是一个曾在苏、松二府当了四五年知县的人，尚且买不起玉器，可见当时玉价之高。从当时官吏进贡的玉器数量及从清代墓葬中出土的玉器数量来看，宫廷和社会上层收藏玉器的数量是相当可观的……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, pp. 52-53]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 121]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 127]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 131]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 20,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
{
"id": 444,
"name": "mn_zungharian_emp",
"long_name": "Zungharian Empire",
"start_year": 1670,
"end_year": 1757
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Burma; Afghanistan",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Jade, jadeite, agate, crystal, lapis lazuli, turquoise, amber, ruby, sapphire, jasper, rose quartz. “During the Qing Dynasty, beads encompassed a rich array of materials and techniques. These materials ranged from jade, jadeite, agate, crystal, lapis lazuli, turquoise, pearls, coral, tortoiseshell, amber, ivory, gold, and silver to various gemstones, hardwood, glass, and any natural or artificial substances that could be employed… (在清代，珠子涉及的材质和工艺十分丰富，材料有玉、翡翠、玛瑙、水晶、青金石、绿松石、珍珠、珊瑚、玳瑁、琥珀、象牙、金、银、各种宝石、硬木、琉璃等任何可以利用的自然和人工材料……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 263]</a> “During the Qing Dynasty, Xinjiang's Hotan region played a pivotal role in the production of jade materials, becoming the primary source for jade craftsmanship. This dominance, particularly in the mid to late Qing Dynasty, led to the majority of materials used in jade carving originating from Xinjiang's Hotan region… In the Qing Dynasty, Burmese jadeite was often referred to as 'yu' or 'jade stone.' It's important to note that names like 'Yunnan jade' or 'Dianyu' did not pertain to jade produced in Yunnan; rather, they referred to Burmese jadeite… Jadeite primarily originates from Burma, with limited supplies found in Japan, Russia, Mexico, and California, USA. Most of China's jadeite was imported from Burma through Yunnan… This practice may have aimed to emphasize the tribute's significance of local goods when presented to the imperial court… During the Qianlong era, jadeite's status transitioned from a mere stone to jade, surpassing Hotan jade in value. It found applications not only in accessories and collectibles but also in palace décor and official attire… China has not yet discovered substantial lapis lazuli deposits. Historically, most lapis lazuli imported into China originated from Afghanistan… During the later years of Qianlong's reign, jade pieces with Islamic-inspired designs became quite popular within the imperial court and were even favored by the emperor. They were commonly referred to as \"Hendustan jade artifacts\" or simply known as \"Western-style\" jade artifacts among the general populace… This trend of Islamic-influenced jade craftsmanship, especially the pieces brought from the West as tributes (referred to as \"Hendustan jade artifacts\"), continued into the Jiaqing period and remained influential. (新疆和田地区在清代所出产的玉料，占据了当时玉器材料的绝对霸主地位，尤其是清代中期以后，玉雕所用的材料绝大部分来自新疆和田……清人称云南翡翠为“玉”、“翠石”、“翡翠石”……可见“云南玉”及“滇玉”等名称，实非云南所产之玉材，而为缅甸翡翠……翡翠主要出产于缅甸，此外，在日本、俄罗斯、墨西哥和美国加州也出产少量翡翠。中国的翡翠大都是从缅甸经云南运进内地的……可能是地方命官向朝廷纳贡时，为突出土贡的意义而采取的权宜之计……乾隆一朝，翡翠由石升扬为玉，价格超过和田玉。不仅是配饰品和玩赏品，甚至宫廷陈设和官服上的用玉都采用翡翠来制作……中国至今未发现青金石矿床，我国自古以来进口的青金石多数来源于阿富汗……具有伊斯兰风格的玉器在乾隆中晚期已大量进入内廷，得到乾隆的喜爱，将其称为“痕都斯坦玉器”，民间称之为“西番作”玉器……在乾隆时期盛极一时，从西方进贡来的伊斯兰玉器（即“痕都斯坦玉器”）之风，在嘉庆时期仍有余风延续。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, pp. 3-4]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 10]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 21]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 24]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 61]</a> “Jadeite held a special place of admiration within the imperial court, where both the Emperor and the concubines treasured it dearly. They adorned themselves with various jadeite accessories like hairpins, ornaments, pendants, rings, bracelets, and more. Empress Dowager Cixi… had an impressive collection of jadeite items throughout her residence in the Changchun Palace. It was a common sight to find an array of jadeite artifacts and ornaments there… (翡翠在内廷受到皇帝和后宫的珍爱，他们的扳指、翎管、扁方、簪、坠、戒、镯等很多都是用翡翠制作的，慈禧太后……居住的长春宫里随处可见各种翡翠玉器用品……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 26]</a> “Damba Dorji… who received significant favor during his lifetime, had a burial exceeding his social status. Some of the accompanying items might have been bestowed by the emperor. A total of 43 items were excavated from his tomb, including 28 accessories made from materials like gold, silver, jade, and jadeite… (These items included) a white jade fish-dragon pendant… two jade snuff bottles… two jadeite finger rings… an agate turtle and a lanbitashi court bead… In Li Hongbin's tomb in Jiujang, Jiangxi Province, who served as the Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi during the Daoguang era, jade items were also found as part of the burial. These items included a jadeite goose-shaped pendant, jadeite finger rings, jadeite earrings, crystal court beads, crystal eyeglasses, and agate necklaces, reflecting the use of jade items by the upper class of society during the late Qing Dynasty. (丹巴多尔济……生前备受恩眷，死后葬式也逾常规，墓内随葬物品中有些可能是皇帝赏赐之物。墓中出土的随葬品计43件，其中配饰品类为28件，质地多为金、银、玉、翠等……白玉鱼龙连环佩……青玉鼻烟壶2件……翡翠扳指2件……花玛瑙小龟、兰碧玺朝珠等……李鸿滨为道光年间两广总督，在江西省九江市的李鸿滨墓出土的随葬玉器主要有翡翠鹅形佩、翡翠扳指、翡翠耳坠和水晶朝珠、水晶眼镜、玛瑙串饰，反映了清代后期社会上层人士使用玉器的情况……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 121]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 127]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZKN2A8M\">[Zhou 2014, p. 131]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 21,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "jade, agate, crystal, turquoise. “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> “Artifacts numbering 3,845, including items crafted from jade, stone, agate, crystal, turquoise, peacock stone, and coal jade, were excavated from tombs dating back to the Spring and Autumn Period to the early to mid-Warring States Period in Shan County, Henan Province, China. (河南陕县东周墓（春秋至战国早中期）出土包括玉、石、玛瑙、水晶、绿松石、孔雀石和煤玉等制品共3845件。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 227]</a> Note: Shan County in Henan was located within the territorial boundaries of the Warring States Wei state. “In ancient times, during China's New Stone Age, the forebears often used locally sourced materials to create jade artefacts… However, things changed significantly during the Spring and Autumn Period and especially the Warring States Period. During this time, there was a notable increase in the import of Hetian jade from the Central Plains and the southern regions…In the Warring States Period… the materials used in crafting jade artefacts expanded substantially. Besides traditional jade, materials like agate, chalcedony, turquoise, crystal, amethyst, soapstone, and others were also considered within the broader category of jade materials and were utilised in creating these artefacts. Moreover, even luminescent fluorite found its way into the production of jade items. (我国新石器时代的先民们制作玉器的原料多系就地取材……到了春秋特别是战国时代，运销中原及南方地区的和田玉数量大幅增加……战国时期……大大拓宽玉器的材料，玛瑙、石髓、绿松石、水晶、紫晶、滑石等，也被作为广义的玉材，应用于玉器制作中。另外，能发光的萤石也用来制作玉器。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 22]</a> “Jade crafting during the Warring States period enjoyed a rich variety of materials. At that time, Xinjiang's Kunlun jade, with Hetian jade as its representative, saw extensive mining and distribution into the Central Plains and southern regions of China. It emerged as the primary source of jade materials during this period. (战国玉器的材质是很丰富的。当时以和田玉为代表的新疆昆仑玉被大量开采，并进入中原和南方各地，成为战国玉料的主流。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 219]</a> \"Based on current data, it's evident that before the Han Dynasty, most of the jade materials were obtained from local sources. Ancient China had a much wider range of regions where jade was produced compared to today. These areas spanned from Heilongjiang in the north to the Pearl River Basin in the south, and from the Jiaodong Peninsula in the east to Tibet and Xinjiang in the west. Virtually all these places had deposits of jade. Nephrite was the predominant material used for crafting jade items in ancient China. (现有资料表明，汉以前玉材绝大部分是就地取材，我国古代的产玉地，要比现在广得多，北起黑龙江，南至珠江流域，东自胶东半岛，西迄西藏、新疆。几乎都有玉矿分布。软玉是我国古代主要使用的玉器材质。)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 239]</a> “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> Note: The precious stone referred to in the quote belonged to the Wei Royal Family and were excavated from Guwei Village in Huixian. “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> “Throughout the Warring States era, most capital cities of the states maintained dedicated jade manufacturing hubs, solidifying jade artefacts as highly valued possessions held by royal households and the social elite. (战国时期，各国都邑大多设有制玉中心，玉器成为王室重器和权贵们欣赏享用的珍贵器物。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 219]</a> Note: The precious stones referred to in the first quote belonged to the Wei Royal Family and were excavated from Guwei Village in Huixian. “Throughout the Warring States era, most capital cities of the states maintained dedicated jade manufacturing hubs, solidifying jade artefacts as highly valued possessions held by royal households and the social elite. (战国时期，各国都邑大多设有制玉中心，玉器成为王室重器和权贵们欣赏享用的珍贵器物。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 219]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 22,
"polity": {
"id": 268,
"name": "cn_yuan_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Yuan",
"start_year": 1271,
"end_year": 1368
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Chrysoprase, jade, agate. “The Gansu Museum has a Yuan Dynasty official hat with a melon-shaped bead made of Chrysoprase. The bead is the same as the one shown in a portrait of the Emperor Wenzong of Yuan. (甘肃博物馆藏有一顶元代官帽，穿系有这种绿玉髓的瓜棱珠，与元文宗画像所示相同。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z6SAERV\">[Zhu 2010, p. 248]</a> “The Yuan Dynasty chronicles in \"Nancun Chuogenglu\" paint a vivid picture of the grand jade objects and large jade decorations used by the Yuan court. For instance, the Da Ming Hall had \"a carved jade wine table, eight feet long and seven feet two inches wide, a jade urn, a jade-strung chime, and a giant sheng. Jade shengs and konghou harps stood before it.”... the Emperor Renzong of Yuan established a system of consumption, under which only officials of the third rank or higher were allowed to use jade tea and wine vessels… The gentry and commoners could only turn to chasing agate products, which were especially popular among the wealthy in the Jiangnan region. (元人笔记《南村辍耕录》记录了元廷使用大型玉器和殿堂装饰玉的面貌，如大明殿内“雕象酒卓一，长八尺，阔七尺二寸。玉瓮一，玉编磬一，巨笙一。玉笙、玉箜篌备列于前”……元仁宗订下服用制度，只有三品以上的权贵才能使用玉质茶酒器……士大夫和寻常百姓只能转而追逐玛瑙制品，特别在江南地区受到有钱人的追捧。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASXREDJE\">[Zhang_et_al 0, p. 489]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASXREDJE\">[Zhang_et_al 0, p. 532]</a> “Even though there is no record of jade collecting among common people in the official historical records, the popularity of folk jade collecting can be seen from the illustrations in the \"Ancient Jade Diagram\" edited by Yuan calligrapher and painter Zhu Derun. (民间收藏玉器的情况虽不见于史载，但从元书画家朱德润编辑《古玉图》的图录看，民间收藏玉器之风相当盛行。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ASXREDJE\">[Zhang_et_al 0, p. 490]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 23,
"polity": {
"id": 435,
"name": "co_neguanje",
"long_name": "Neguanje",
"start_year": 250,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 435,
"name": "co_neguanje",
"long_name": "Neguanje",
"start_year": 250,
"end_year": 1050
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“En los sitios de habitación, en sitios ceremoniales y en muchos escondrijos se han hallado miles de cuentas de collar muy finamente pulidas, de cornalina, ágata, cuarzo u otras piedras de colores y texturas llamativas. Hay cuentas tubulares o esféricas, botones, discos, pendientes en forma de Y, en forma de proyectil o en las más variadas formas de animales.” RA Translation: “In dwellings, in ceremonial sites and in many hiding places, thousands of very finely polished necklace beads, made of carnelian, agate, quartz or other stones of striking colours and textures, have been found. There are tubular or spherical beads, buttons, discs, Y-shaped earrings, projectile-shaped or in the most varied animal shapes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, p. 168]</a> “En la región de Cerro Azul, en el alto río Sevilla, en una ciudad de gran extensión, excavé un sitio ceremonial cuya área central contenía un depósito de más de un metro de espesor, de cuentas de collar en todas las fases de manufactura, desde el trozo de materia prima hasta el artefacto perfectamente terminado. Había cuentas de gran tamaño, hasta de 20 centímetros de largo, lo que sugiere el uso simbólico de estos objetos; de todos modos se trataba de un sitio de ofrendas puesto que el estrato superior del depósito estaba sellado por una gruesa capa de barro cocido que servía de piso28.” RA Translation: “In the region of Cerro Azul, on the upper Seville River, in a large city, I excavated a ceremonial site whose central area contained a deposit more than a metre thick, of necklace beads in all phases of manufacture, from the pieces of raw material to the perfectly finished artefact. There were large beads, up to 20 centimetres long, suggesting the symbolic use of these objects; in any case, it was a site of offerings since the upper layer of the deposit was sealed by a thick layer of baked clay that served as a floor28.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, p. 168]</a> “This building was also excavated by Alden Mason (1931: 90-93, site XXIX), finding a stone lined tomb with numerous grave goods, among them a great quantity of axeheads and carnelian beads found within the tomb's soil. In addition, seven pottery vessels containing varying quantities of winged stone pendants, beads, gold and copper bracelets, and two limestone matrices used for beating gold were recovered. Two curved “walls” or rows of upright slabs placed diagonally were also found. According to Alden Mason (1931: 91), a sterile layer of soil was found 150 centimeters below the surface, which apparently coincides with the plaza level.19 The amount and quality of the grave goods, as well as the type of tomb and its location indicate that this was a high status or elite burial. The upper layer of soil was also laced with carnelian beads, as were the caps of the grave and the areas surrounding the slabs, intentionally placed throughout the terrace when it was built up (Mason 1931: 93).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, pp. 165-166]</a> “Una categoría muy especial del arte lapidario son las tallas de nefrita translúcida, verdosa o grisosa, muy parecida al jade, que representan figuras humanas muy estilizadas, murciélagos en vuelo, o adornos en forma de barra o placa horizontal29.” RA Translation: “A very special category of lapidary art are carvings made of translucent, greenish or greyish nephrite, very similar to jade, which represent highly stylized human figures, bats in flight, or ornaments in the form of a horizontal bar or plate29.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, pp. 168-169]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 24,
"polity": {
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Lapis lazuli. “Techniques in enamelled and gilded glass were highly developed in 6th-/12th-century Syria, particularly in the Raqqa region. The decorative repertoire was wide, including gilded and enamelled cups for courtly settings, striped, marvered and moulded glass bottles and jars for perfume and kohl, and a variety of glass vessels mounted with precious or semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli. Recently excavated in Hama, is an Ayyubid ewer that is embedded with lapis lazuli beads; it is now part of the collection at the National Museum of Damascus”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 25,
"polity": {
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Ruby; topaz; onyx; carnelian; quartz; steatite; agate; igneous stones such as granite and diorite. “A reference in a Hebrew sonnet by R. Ya’akov Sasportas (ca. 1610-1698; Oran, Tlemçen, Hamburg, London, Amsterdam) to various precious stones - “rubies, topazes from Kush” - figured Kush as a supply site for exotic and precious (the two here intertwine) raw materials”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UKUA5W4V\">[Schorsch 2004, p. 127]</a> “More important commodities than iron [in relation to the role of Kushites in Africa] were the hard igneous stones, quarried to meet Egyptian demands, from between Aswan and Shellal (granite) and at Toshka (diorite) in Lower Nubia. Further semi-precious stones were recorded in Egyptian texts until the Ptolemaic period and also mentioned by Classical authors”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 35]</a> “[Referring to beads and pendant finds from graves in the Meroitic cemetery at Berber] The recovered beads…and pendants…are made of…stone (carnelian, quartz)… […] The 63 stone beads and pendants are made mainly of carnelian. There are tiny, highly polished carnelian beads drilled from one end…as well as wedge-shaped pendants made of carnelian and steatite…stone beads are present at many Meroitic sites…Teardrop pendants with globular bases are made of carnelian, white quartz, and black stone…They are among the most characteristic features of the Meroitic assemblages. […] A small number of beads were made of stone, usually carnelian and red agate, and their shapes are well represented at other Meroitic sites in many parts of Nubia. These include tiny beads, long cylinders, and wedge-shaped beads, as well as teardrop and “poppy” pendants”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 32]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 34]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 41]</a> Ruby; topaz; onyx; igneous stones such as granite and diorite. “A reference in a Hebrew sonnet by R. Ya’akov Sasportas (ca. 1610-1698; Oran, Tlemçen, Hamburg, London, Amsterdam) to various precious stones - “rubies, topazes from Kush” - figured Kush as a supply site for exotic and precious (the two here intertwine) raw materials”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UKUA5W4V\">[Schorsch 2004, p. 127]</a> “More important commodities than iron [in relation to the role of Kushites in Africa] were the hard igneous stones, quarried to meet Egyptian demands, from between Aswan and Shellal (granite) and at Toshka (diorite) in Lower Nubia…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 35]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 26,
"polity": {
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Emerald, other gemstones. “Emerald was a local speciality of Egypt, the production of which was a state monopoly.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 10]</a> “In the fifteenth century gemstones were added to the saddle’s ornament.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 16]</a> “Emerald was a local speciality of Egypt, the production of which was a state monopoly.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 10]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 27,
"polity": {
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Lapis Lazuli. “Ram amulets in faience, lapis lazuli, and gold also appear in the Saite Dynasty XXIV”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VEA9KDQN\">[Lobban 2021, p. 357]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 28,
"polity": {
"id": 647,
"name": "er_medri_bahri",
"long_name": "Medri Bahri",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1889
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "‘‘‘ Based on the literature consulted, Eritrean history appears to be especially obscure. No information could be found on the topic of trade or consumption habits in Eritrea in any era before the late 19th century. List which kinds.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 29,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Diamonds; pearls. “[Referring to the heyday of the Spanish Empire] …later ambassadors, like Girolamo Soranzo [a Venetian ambassador, 1608-1611], were dazzled by…the pearls and diamonds at Lisbon”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 6]</a> “The most highly prized of the imports from America…included…pearls…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z7F2369G\">[Elliott 1963, p. 180]</a> “[Referring in the previous paragraph to the rate of industrial production in the C17] …the diamond industry became established in Antwerp”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8WWEAV4N\">[Darby 1994, p. 23]</a> “The Spanish colonized…Zacatecas in 1540 during the Mixtón War. They also established…diamond mines…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HB92BP7S\">[Manjapra 2020, p. 32]</a> “[Referring to the church supporting religious art in Counter-Reformation Spain] Sor Jerónima [a Spanish Catholic nun, 1555-1630]…support[ed]…the Franciscan movement by commissioning a magnificent wooden [polychrome] sculpture [1616-1617] of the Immaculate Conception for the Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo. The Duchess of the Infantado, Ana de Mendoza, donated “precious stones and pearls”, and others gave money to richly adorn the sculpture. Although some theologians bemoaned the practice of adorning sculpted virgins with extravagant jewelry and clothing…it was common practice in early modern Spain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EH86VU3A\">[Owens 2017, p. 26]</a> Diamonds; pearls. “The most highly prized of the imports from America…included…pearls…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z7F2369G\">[Elliott 1963, p. 180]</a> Precious stones; pearls. “[Referring to the church supporting religious art in Counter-Reformation Spain] Sor Jerónima [a Spanish Catholic nun, 1555-1630]…support[ed]…the Franciscan movement by commissioning a magnificent wooden [polychrome] sculpture [1616-1617] of the Immaculate Conception for the Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo. The Duchess of the Infantado, Ana de Mendoza, donated “precious stones and pearls”…to richly adorn the sculpture”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EH86VU3A\">[Owens 2017, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 30,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1800,
"year_to": 1875,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly label almost any of the goods that circulated in this polity at this time as notably luxurious. However, given that Harar was a major trade centre in the nineteenth century, importing and exporting a broad range of items from across the Indian Ocean and East Africa, it seems reasonable to infer that precious stones were traded there. “Fitawrari Tackle Hawariyat was nine year old when he entered Harar with Menelik’s army that defeated Amir Abdullah’s small army at Chelenque battle[ in 1987]. He had been living at Addis Ababa just before he left and came to Harar which he described as follows: ‘[…] The shops and stores are stuffed with various types of goods imported from abroad. […]’ As the boy stated the shops and stores were stuffed with goods and merchandises imported from abroad, i.e. Yemen, Arabia, India, China, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 31,
"polity": {
"id": 58,
"name": "fm_truk_2",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk",
"start_year": 1886,
"end_year": 1948
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearlshell. “[Referring to the acquisition of pearlshell for fishing lures by islanders from the Caroline Islands in the C20] In his study of tuna fishing amongst the Satawal islanders of the central Caroline Islands, Robert Gillett (1987: 11-14) reports that: […] …Pearl shell does not occur naturally on Satawal and must be imported…New Guinea pearl shell…was not quite as highly prized [inferred as referring here to the C20 and earlier] as that from Truk due to its colour…the Truk variety was ‘like a rainbow’, with red, yellow, and orange mixed with gold…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZ5WCPT3\">[Rainbird 2004, pp. 196-197]</a> Pearlshell. “[Referring to the acquisition of pearlshell for fishing lures by Satawal islanders from the central Caroline Islands in the C20]…Pearl shell does not occur naturally on Satawal and must be imported…New Guinea pearl shell…was not quite as highly prized [inferred as referring here to the C20 and earlier] as that from Truk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZ5WCPT3\">[Rainbird 2004, p. 197]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 32,
"polity": {
"id": 461,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon",
"start_year": 1660,
"end_year": 1815
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The luxury industry was driven by aristocratic demand. It extended to a whole range of items, not just clothing. The great spent fortunes on renovations to townhouses and rural chateaux, filling them with furniture, tapestries, paintings, clocks, porcelain, and jewellery that we today see in museums.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 358]</a> “Miniature replicas of the Santa casa, some no bigger than a thumb nail, were made of every conceivable type of material. These garnished the dwellings of rich and poor alike all over Europe, or were worn as jewelry. The description of the one owned by the very rich princess, Mlle de Guise, occupies several pages of the inventory of her household effects, because of the many precious stones encrusted on it. More interesting than the gold and rubies on the house itself, however, were the miniature cooking utensils, the andirons, the bed, the lamp-all made of gold and silver-that furnished the house. These chefs d'oeuvre of the silver and gold craft made it possible for the princess and her ladies in waiting to experience not ecstasy about the Virgin, but instead a playful wonderment prompted by the smallness, the beauty and the preciousness of these everyday household objects in miniature.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VDT9XDR7\">[Ranum 1991, pp. 209-210]</a> . “The luxury industry was driven by aristocratic demand. It extended to a whole range of items, not just clothing. The great spent fortunes on renovations to townhouses and rural chateaux, filling them with furniture, tapestries, paintings, clocks, porcelain, and jewellery that we today see in museums.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 358]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 33,
"polity": {
"id": 458,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian",
"start_year": 1150,
"end_year": 1328
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Provence",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“As well as well as demand for better housing, better food and drink and better clothing, there was also in every capital city a prodigious demand for conspicuous display articles such as gold and silver plate, bronze and enamel from the Meuse valley, the Rhineland and Limoges, pearls from the Persian Gulf, or Diamonds, rubies and other gems from India. Most of these were sold to Royal or noble customers by goldsmiths, who made up the most of the precious objects to their customers' requirements in their own workshops in the capital cities themselves. Paris, as the largest and wealthiest court city of Europe from at least the mid thirteenth century onwards, naturally had the largest and most prestigious group of goldsmiths. From documents we know that, as with many other types of business, they clustered together, principally on the Grand Pont which was then built up with houses. The Parisian goldsmiths were already established there in the 1250s [...]. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 119]</a> “International trade, especially in luxury goods, flourished in a few places: Champagne, Flanders and the Mediterranean towns. The six annual fairs of Champagne, centred around Troyes, were supported by the count of Champagne and major religious establishments in the area, attracting major clientèle from as far afield as Scotland, Spain, Italy, Morocco, Constantiople, Sudan, Armenia and Palestine. Here, high-quality cloth was brought down from the low countries and Flanders and exchanged for exotic products from the south, such as spices, silks and damasks.[...] Far to the south, up to a month’s travel away on roads subject to tolls and rendered hazardous by bandits, towns on the Mediterranean coast acted as hubs for luxury long-distance trade in goods such as precious metals, silk, cloth of gold and jewels as well as consumables like spices, oil, rice, wine and sugar. All these commodities were highly desirable to the élites of the north and merchants were prepared to take major risks to realise great rewards. Dominant amongst these cities were Marseilles and Montpellier, both outside France’s borders: Aigues-Mortes was conceived as a Capetian-controlled trading port to rival them.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 282]</a> “More expensive than any of the eastern ‘spices’ imported from outside Europe, or even than the silk fabrics and raw silk imported from the East, were the pearls and precious stones which followed some of the same routes, although their high value made them more appropriate than silk for carriage over long distances by road. The Pisan merchant’s notebook of 1279 noted pearls at Lajazzo in three sizes. Small pearls under 12 carats were sold by the ounce, those between 12 carats and 24 carats were sold in strings of 36, and large pearls over 24 carats were also bought in strings of 36. The small pearls ended up sewn not only on secular garments (see p. 121 - 3), but also on to episcopal mitres. The large pearls were used in jewelry, from crowns downwards [...] they originally came from pearl fisheries in the Persian Gulf and off the coasts of Ceylon and the nearest point of south India. European and Muslim travellers like Marco Polo, Oderic of Pordenone and Ibn Battutah were sufficiently impressed to describe the fisheries. Western Europeans were therefor not ignorant of the origin of their pearls.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, pp. 317-318]</a> “Far to the south, up to a month’s travel away on roads subject to tolls and rendered hazardous by bandits, towns on the Mediterranean coast acted as hubs for luxury long-distance trade in goods such as precious metals, silk, cloth of gold and jewels as well as consumables like spices, oil, rice, wine and sugar. All these commodities were highly desirable to the élites of the north and merchants were prepared to take major risks to realise great rewards. Dominant amongst these cities were Marseilles and Montpellier, both outside France’s borders: Aigues-Mortes was conceived as a Capetian-controlled trading port to rival them.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 282]</a> “When his grandson, Philip IV, succeeded in having Boniface VIII canonize Louis IX, he did not rebuild St-Denis yet again, but he did reshuffle the tombs of the seven centuries of kings to give pride of place to St Louis, so that he could use the sanctity of his grandfather to enhance the ‘religion’ of kingship with which he was trying to surround himself in his new palace.[...] Here was work for generations of masons and sculptors. The shrines, furthermore, provided a market for gold and jewels which the London and Paris goldsmiths sold to their respective kings for their adornment. It is difficult in the twenty-first century to envisage the richness of these royal shrines, since the reformation of England and the Revolution of France stripped them of their gems. The nearest thing to survive is that of Saint Mark, treated like an ancestor by the Venetian Republic. The most vulgarly gem-encrusted Pala d’Oro enables us to picture the reliquary-tombs these kings built for their ancestors and their own prestige.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 75]</a> “Against a backdrop of slow inflation during the course of the thirteenth century, prices and wages remained, it seems, broadly stable in areas where traditional subsistence economy prevailed. In contrast, those places depending primarily on the new long-distance trading economy experienced at times a far greater prosperity, but also far more volatile and disruptive economic conditions as the prices of coth, grain, wine and dairy products tended to fluctuate. The economic context of the outbreak of violence by the pastoureaux in 1252 (p. 273) was a scarcity of grain for bread.” ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 283]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 34,
"polity": {
"id": 304,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Merovingian",
"start_year": 481,
"end_year": 543
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "A~P",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Garnet, potentially diamond, amethyst, ‘hyacinth stone’, beryl, bloodstone, carnelian, sardonyx, emeralds and lapis lazuli. “These studies show that, until the end of the fifth century, the market was dominated by stones mined in southern Asia and sent to the Mediterranean via the Indian Ocean maritime route (Pion et al., Reference Pion, Gratuze, Périn, Thomas, Effros and Moreira 2020, with references). The import of South Asian garnets ceased at the end of the sixth century, when Bohemian and Portuguese gems appeared for the first time on the scene. Studies of early medieval garnets focus on the Merovingian world, and the current reconstruction of the route followed by garnets identifies Alexandria and Marseille as the two major hubs that controlled their circulation in the Mediterranean area (Pion et al., Reference Pion, Gratuze, Périn, Thomas, Effros and Moreira 2020: 849). Egypt, with the port of Alexandria, was certainly the point of entry for Asian goods directed to the Mediterranean. Marseille, the main emporium on the French coast, is proposed as the place where garnets arrived from Alexandria with two intermediate stops, one at Carthage and one in Sardinia, and as the exclusive point of departure for the entire distribution network of garnets in Europe (Pion et al., Reference Pion, Gratuze, Périn, Thomas, Effros and Moreira 2020: 859, fig. 36.17). This overlooks the other sea route that connected Alexandria to Marseille, calling in Sicily and then running along the Italian peninsula (Pieri, Reference Pieri, Rivet and Sciallano2002). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VWQ8UUMR\">[Boschetti_Gratuze_Schibille 2023]</a> “Jewellery inset with garnets is emblematic of the status of the elites that emerged in Europe during the Migration period between the fifth and seventh century ad (Arrhenius, Reference Arrhenius 1985; Calligaro et al., Reference Calligaro, Périn, Vallet and Poirot 2007; Calligaro & Périn, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2013, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2019; Hamerow, Reference Hamerow, Hilgner, Greiff and Quast 2017; Hilgner, Reference Hilgner, Eilbrach, Heinrich-Tamáska, Niemeyer, Reich and Voß 2018).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VWQ8UUMR\">[Boschetti_Gratuze_Schibille 2023]</a> “Characteristically, aristocratic grave-goods, however, swords with gold-and-garnet cloisonné decorations for their scabbard, kidney-shaped buckle-plates, cloisonné purse fittings, horse-bits, and so on, such as are found with Childeric at Tournai [...].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 220]</a> “Jewellery inset with garnets is emblematic of the status of the elites that emerged in Europe during the Migration period between the fifth and seventh century ad (Arrhenius, Reference Arrhenius 1985; Calligaro et al., Reference Calligaro, Périn, Vallet and Poirot 2007; Calligaro & Périn, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2013, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2019; Hamerow, Reference Hamerow, Hilgner, Greiff and Quast 2017; Hilgner, Reference Hilgner, Eilbrach, Heinrich-Tamáska, Niemeyer, Reich and Voß 2018). The success of garnet jewellery in early medieval Europe is closely connected to the diffusion of cloisonné. In this goldsmithing technique, strips or threads are soldered to a metallic plate to create cells, the so-called ‘cloisons’ that are inset with thin plaques of precious materials (Arrhenius, Reference Arrhenius 1985). Red garnet is the preferred material of medieval cloisonné, but it was frequently flanked by coloured glass, at least since the early sixth century (Calligaro et al., Reference Calligaro, Périn, Vallet and Poirot 2007).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VWQ8UUMR\">[Boschetti_Gratuze_Schibille 2023]</a> “In the two generations after Childeric these swords, and their scabbards, were often decorated with gold-foil and gold-and-garnet cloisonné work: that is, thin shaped sections of garnet held in place by cells or cloisons of gold. This technique originated much further east and was in Childeric’s day and international aristocratic fashion, but it became naturalized in the sixth century, and was used extensively in Francia [...]” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 35,
"polity": {
"id": 306,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
"start_year": 543,
"end_year": 687
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Garnet, diamond, amethyst, potentially ‘hyacinth stone’, beryl, bloodstone, carnelian, sardonyx, emeralds and lapis lazuli. “Another important part of the project, which helps to understand the luxury of the Merovingian court, has been the analysis of the garnets inserted in the jewellery. Thomas Calligaro, research scientist at the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (Paris), has been able to identify five different proveniences for these stones, indicating that they had been imported not only from Portugal and Bohemia, but also from two sites in India, and one in Sri Lanka.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6RZQVDU\">[Desrosiers_Rast-Eicher 2012, pp. 1-2]</a> “It composed Aregonde’s coat. This is the only example that matches the Roman taste, but here in silk rather than wool. In the queen’s grave, silk dyed with madder was also found as supplementary triple weft for a large tablet-woven band decorated with diamonds, [...].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6RZQVDU\">[Desrosiers_Rast-Eicher 2012, p. 3]</a> Garnet and amethyst - foreign, Diamond - unclear, based on the literature consulted. “Another important part of the project, which helps to understand the luxury of the Merovingian court, has been the analysis of the garnets inserted in the jewellery. Thomas Calligaro, research scientist at the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (Paris), has been able to identify five different proveniences for these stones, indicating that they had been imported not only from Portugal and Bohemia, but also from two sites in India, and one in Sri Lanka.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6RZQVDU\">[Desrosiers_Rast-Eicher 2012, pp. 1-2]</a> “Jewellery inset with garnets is emblematic of the status of the elites that emerged in Europe during the Migration period between the fifth and seventh century ad (Arrhenius, Reference Arrhenius 1985; Calligaro et al., Reference Calligaro, Périn, Vallet and Poirot 2007; Calligaro & Périn, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2013, Reference Calligaro and Périn 2019; Hamerow, Reference Hamerow, Hilgner, Greiff and Quast 2017; Hilgner, Reference Hilgner, Eilbrach, Heinrich-Tamáska, Niemeyer, Reich and Voß 2018). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VWQ8UUMR\">[Boschetti_Gratuze_Schibille 2023]</a> The following quote suggests that amethyst was not always accessible to non-elites. “On the other hand, a statistical analysis of the finds from southern Germany shows that between the second third of the sixth and the second third of the seventh century many other exotic objects – cowries, amethysts, brooches with red-garnet cloisonné, and even ivory rings –have also been found in graves that cannot be ranked as belonging to individuals of a high social or economic status. The inflow of imports also reached the ‘middle class’ which must be taken into account when thinking about the possible distribution mechanisms. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRDPUGMF\">[Sarti_et_al 2019, p. 28]</a> “ On the other hand, a statistical analysis of the finds from southern Germany shows that between the second third of the sixth and the second third of the seventh century many other exotic objects – cowries, amethysts, brooches with red-garnet cloisonné, and even ivory rings –have also been found in graves that cannot be ranked as belonging to individuals of a high social or economic status. The inflow of imports also reached the ‘middle class’ which must be taken into account when thinking about the possible distribution mechanisms. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRDPUGMF\">[Sarti_et_al 2019, p. 28]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 36,
"polity": {
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Throughout the nineteenth century, jewelry was as essential to the fashionable Victorian woman as shawls, fabrics, cloaks, and scarves. The ornaments worn were generally made of precious or semi-precious stones and precious metals, many of which could be found in the Near East. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIARVGW9\">[Chaudhuri_Chaudhuri_Strobel 1992, p. 236]</a> “George III’s coronation had cost £70,000, which seemed unlikely to be sufficient to cover the new King’s extravagant tastes. The same correspondent reported that the two royal robemakers were visiting Brighton to discuss proposals for the peers’ robes which ‘together with the vests are to be of the richest & purist [sic] Virgin white Satin’, and that £18,000 had been provided for a new setting for the royal crown.14 The crown was to be the most brilliant ever made. As was customary, the frame was adorned for the occasion with gems hired from the royal jewellers, Rundell, Bridge and Rundell, for a fee of £6,500 per annum. No fewer than 12,532 diamonds were used in the setting, twice as many jewels as ever used in a royal crown before or since, and George was so delighted with the result that he tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade Parliament to buy them for him, and kept them for two years before agreeing to their return.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGSQZBAD\">[Smith 1999, p. 245]</a> “Adam Smith saw the enormity of this passion: landlords gave up their estates to gratify their passion for selfish possession of ‘a pair of diamond buckles’. Great proprietors ‘to gratify their childish vanity’ sold their land and relinquished their feudal privileges in return for ‘trinkets and baubles, fitter to be the play-things of children than the serious pursuits of men.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMJC6WXA\">[Berg 2005, p. 157]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 37,
"polity": {
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "High-value precious stone, type not specified in literature. “[The following quote inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Jakut (bejakut), a precious stone. [Example of how might be used in a sentence] Jakut ti dikena indu nya maioh rerga iya. The precious stones which that woman wears cost a great deal”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 63]</a> Note that Iban society at this time was relatively egalitarian, suggesting that luxury goods were available to many. Moreover, what little existed in terms of leadership roles was not accessible to women—which is significant given the example found in the literature consulted of women wearing precious stones. ’Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U8X7Q5P\">[Davison_Sutlive_Sutlive 1991, p. 159]</a> “[The following quote inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Jakut (bejakut), a precious stone. [Example of how might be used in a sentence] Jakut ti dikena indu nya maioh rerga iya. The precious stones which that woman wears cost a great deal”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 63]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 38,
"polity": {
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "High-value precious stone, type not specified in literature; semi-precious quartz crystal, considered of high-value by manang or witch-doctors/‘doctors of magic’. “[The following quote inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Jakut (bejakut), a precious stone. [Example of how might be used in a sentence] Jakut ti dikena indu nya maioh rerga iya. The precious stones which that woman wears cost a great deal”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 63]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the quotes to the practices and ‘performances’ of manang] The manang always possesses a lupong, or medicine-box…filled with charms…[of various types including] fragments of quartz. These medicinal charms are either inherited, or have been revealed by the spirits in dreams to their owners. One important and necessary charm is the Batu Ilau (“stone of light”) - a bit of quartz crystal which every manang possesses. […] [Referring to manang visiting ‘sick’ community members] The manang…produces his Batu Ilau (“stone of light”), and gravely looks into it to diagnose the character of the disease, and to see where the soul is, and to discover what is the proper ceremony necessary for the case in question. […] Though the manang depends upon his power over […] spirits to cure diseases, still he calls to his aid his numerous charms, which he claims to have received from the spirits. These valued treasures are carried in his lupong, or medicine-chest. […] [Referring to various charms belonging to an Iban manang named Dasu including a]…Batu ilau, or sparkling stone, also called batu kras, or the hard stone. A six-sided crystal, two inches long and three-quarters of an inch thick. One end appeared to have been formerly stuck into some sort of handle, as it was covered with malau, or lac. This is the indispensable sight-stone to be looked into for a view of that which is future, or distant, or otherwise invisible to the ordinary eyes. It is specially used by manangs for discovering where the soul of the sick man, wandering away from the body, is concealing itself, or for detecting the particular demon who is causing the illness”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 165-166]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 183-184]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 190]</a> Semi-precious quartz crystal, considered of high-value by manang or witch-doctors/‘doctors of magic’. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the quotes to the practices of manang] The manang always possesses a lupong, or medicine-box…filled with charms…[of various types including] fragments of quartz [inferred as locally acquired]…One important and necessary charm is the Batu Ilau (“stone of light”) - a bit of quartz crystal which every manang possesses. […] [Referring to various charms belonging to an Iban manang named Dasu including a]…Batu ilau, or sparkling stone, also called batu kras, or the hard stone. A six-sided crystal, two inches long and three-quarters of an inch thick [inferred as locally acquired]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 165]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 190]</a> Inferred present on basis manang considered of elite and not common status. Semi-precious quartz crystal, considered of high-value by manang or witch-doctors/‘doctors of magic’. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the quotes to the practices and ‘performances’ of manang] The manang always possesses a lupong, or medicine-box…filled with charms…[of various types including] fragments of quartz…One important and necessary charm is the Batu Ilau (“stone of light”) - a bit of quartz crystal which every manang possesses. […] [Referring to manang visiting ‘sick’ community members] The manang…produces his Batu Ilau (“stone of light”), and gravely looks into it to diagnose the character of the disease, and to see where the soul is, and to discover what is the proper ceremony necessary for the case in question. […] Though the manang depends upon his power over […] spirits to cure diseases, still he calls to his aid his numerous charms, which he claims to have received from the spirits. These valued treasures are carried in his lupong, or medicine-chest. […] [Referring to various charms belonging to an Iban manang named Dasu including a]…Batu ilau, or sparkling stone, also called batu kras, or the hard stone. A six-sided crystal, two inches long and three-quarters of an inch thick…This is the indispensable sight-stone to be looked into for a view of that which is future, or distant, or otherwise invisible to the ordinary eyes. It is specially used by manangs for discovering where the soul of the sick man, wandering away from the body, is concealing itself, or for detecting the particular demon who is causing the illness”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 165-166]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 183-184]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 190]</a> High-value precious stone, type not specified in literature. “[The following quote inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication] Jakut (bejakut), a precious stone. [Example of how might be used in a sentence] Jakut ti dikena indu nya maioh rerga iya. The precious stones which that woman wears cost a great deal”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 63]</a> Note that leadersh ’In every Iban long-house there are two offices of great importance--one secular and the other ritual. They are the positions of tuai rumah and tuai burong. In most long-houses they are held by different individuals, but it is perfectly permissible for one man to hold both offices, and in some communities this does happen. Neither position is ever held by a woman.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WM8K7K24\">[Freeman 1955, p. 46]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 39,
"polity": {
"id": 51,
"name": "id_mataram_k",
"long_name": "Mataram Sultanate",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1755
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Inferred from similar polities in the region. “Gemstones form an important aspect of kingship in many parts of Southeast Asia and elsewhere across the world. Precious materials like gold, silver and gems were commonly used as royal regalia to increase the status and charisma of their wearers. In addition to being symbols of sovereignty and power, jewels could also sometimes take on sakti (magical) and divine powers in pre-modern Southeast Asian kingdoms. [...] For example, the eight jewels crafted specially to decorate the shirt of the king was, according to Van Diemen, not only very costly; as they were fashioned in the Achenese style, it was also impossible for the Dutch to sell them to other kings. For instance, the king of Mataram preferred table-shaped diamonds whilst the king of Siam fancied pointed ones”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTX3QZ7D\">[Feener 2011, pp. 143-145]</a> “For example, the eight jewels crafted specially to decorate the shirt of the king was, according to Van Diemen, not only very costly; as they were fashioned in the Achenese style, it was also impossible for the Dutch to sell them to other kings. For instance, the king of Mataram preferred table-shaped diamonds whilst the king of Siam fancied pointed ones”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTX3QZ7D\">[Feener 2011, p. 145]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 40,
"polity": {
"id": 111,
"name": "in_achik_1",
"long_name": "Early A'chik",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "One of the sources consulted briefly mentions that the Achik sought ornaments decorated with semi-precious stones, but without providing details. Stones, semi-precious or outright precious, in their raw state or as part of ornaments, are not mentioned by other sources consulted in lists of goods the Achik considered valuable. “Ornaments of brass and semi-precious stones” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXW48QHM\">[Langstieh_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 91]</a> ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a> “Apart from necessities, conventional and ceremonial goods, certain luxury items such as ornaments, clothing and accessories like headdresses were also displayed at the frontier markets.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 717]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 41,
"polity": {
"id": 112,
"name": "in_achik_2",
"long_name": "Late A'chik",
"start_year": 1867,
"end_year": 1956
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "One of the sources consulted briefly mentions that the Achik sought ornaments decorated with semi-precious stones, but without providing details. Stones, semi-precious or outright precious, in their raw state or as part of ornaments, are not mentioned by other sources consulted in lists of goods the Achik considered valuable. “Ornaments of brass and semi-precious stones” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXW48QHM\">[Langstieh_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 91]</a> ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a> “Apart from necessities, conventional and ceremonial goods, certain luxury items such as ornaments, clothing and accessories like headdresses were also displayed at the frontier markets.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 717]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 42,
"polity": {
"id": 397,
"name": "in_chola_emp",
"long_name": "Chola Empire",
"start_year": 849,
"end_year": 1280
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Affluent merchants. “Epigraphic evidence indicate that the Chola monarchs and their family members, nobles, bureaucrats and affluent merchants spent lot of money on the making of gold, diamond and pearls ornaments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54GRJCJK\">[Bhoopnathi 2020, p. 172]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 43,
"polity": {
"id": 698,
"name": "in_cholas_1",
"long_name": "Early Cholas",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The imports to South India [from the Mediterranean], several of which are known from the Periplus, consisted of coin, topaz, coral, thin clothing and figured linens, antimony, copper, tin and lead, wine, realgar and orpiment and also wheat, the last mentioned probably for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, pp. 187-188]</a> “The Roman contact was an important factor in the external trade of the Tamil country from about the times of Augustus (27 Bc to AD 14), although a considerable antiquity has been assigned to the commerce between the Tamil country and the west. It perhaps started as a mere ‘trickle’ or sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and other ‘oriental’ exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other assorted articles for well over two centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 179]</a> “luxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 44,
"polity": {
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The diamonds of Deccan was in high demand as it could scratch ruby jade and sapphires from Ceylon. The pearls of Tuticorin and Ceylon and corals of the Persian Gulf were consumed highly in China”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UD5686JC\">[Waghmare 2021, p. 1696]</a> “Amir Khusrau— a poet at the court of Alauddin Khilji, who ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296—also mentions a precious stone in his work Khazainul Futu: ‘[While] every diamond sparkled brightly, it seemed as if it was a drop fallen from the sun. As to the other stones, their lustre eludes description just as water escapes out of a small vessel.’ The diamond Khusrau refers to may or may not have been the Kohinoor—he does not give a name.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3637QMF5\">[Ranjan_Ramani 2018, p. 53]</a> “ On the morning of the feast all the elephants are adorned with silk, gold and precious stones. There are sixteen of these elephants which no one rides, but they are reserved to be ridden by the Sultan himself, and over them are carried sixteen parasols of silk embroidered with jewels, each one with a shaft of pure gold. The Sultan himself rides on one of these elephants and in front of him there is carried aloft the ghashiya, that is his saddle-cover, which is adorned with the most precious jewels. In front of him walk his slaves and his mamluks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V4ZC4PQD\">[Kumar 2009, p. 70]</a> “The need for new luxuries of life made the ruling elite depend on numerous artisans and craftsmen skilled in their areas of specialization, who migrated from other countries. Urban craftsmen, who provided these new goods with the help of new technological devices, came to India” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9NXWIMZW\">[Rizvi 2021, p. 162]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 45,
"polity": {
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“Another flourishing industry of Gupta period was of jewellery making. During this period, ornaments were studded with precious and semi-precious stones. The work of cutting diamonds and polishing diamonds was also done. Contemporary statuary and literature testify to the wide use of jewellery by the people of the time. Amarkosha, BrihastSamhita and work of Kalidasa refer to diamonds, pearls, corals and precious stones that indicate the existence of small industrial units of these articles.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KNT8Z2RH\">[Samel 2018, p. 257]</a> “In the Gupta period diamonds, pearls, other precious stones, corals and conch-shells were also largely used and worked up as ornaments. Varāmahira, in the Bṛihatsamhitā has dealt exhaustively with the quality, quantity and prices of the different classes of diamonds, pearls and rubies. The Amarakośa refers to emerald, ruby, pearl and pearl oyster, conch-shell, coral, and small and big shell. There is ample references to precious stone in our literature.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, pp. 105-106]</a> “Ears of men and women were adorned with various kinds of earrings called Krṇabhūṣaṇa, Karṇpūra, Kuṇḍala and Manikuṇḍala. These earrings were made of different kinds of precious stones and metals like gold, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 184]</a> “Nūpurs or anklets were worn on foot. These made a tinkling sound when the wearer moved. These were occasionally set with precious stones and gems.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 153]</a> “The royal ladies, their host of attendants, courtesans, and women in ordinary circumstances, all used to decorate their persons according to the means of their disposal. […] Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments. […] The ornaments were manufactured to decorate the different parts of the body. […] Moreover, our inscriptions and our great poet Kālidāsa give us many references to jewellery, of which we mention only a few. The Mandasor inscription of Kumāragupta and Bandhuvarman refers to women wearing necklaces (hāra). The Mālia copper plate of Dharsena II relates the hair ornaments of subdued Kings. We have also numerous coins depicting the King or Queen wearing jewellery. We thus see that the manufacture of jewellery was most flourishing at the time.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a> “For partition mats or curtains or rolled up curtains of grass and leaves were used in the royal apartments. Floors were also decorated/designed with different kinds of stones as Kalidasa mentions in Uttarmégha (i) that floors of the palaces of Alkāpurī were studded with precious stones.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 153]</a> “The royal ladies, their host of attendants, courtesans, and women in ordinary circumstances, all used to decorate their parsons according to the means of their disposal. […] Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a> “Though the elite class, as is clear from the contemporary Literature, used ornaments of gold and precious stones, however flowers were the ornaments of the poorer section and for ladies living in hermitage. Young women struck flowers of Kéśara (crocus Sativas), Kuṇḍa (Jasminium-Multiflorum) and Mandra (Jasminum-multiflorum) in their hair.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 188]</a> “Not only the ladies but also the rich men also used different kinds of ornaments on their parsons. Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments. Perhaps ordinary beads were used by the women of the poorer section of the society, as these are even used today by the aboriginal women of India.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 46,
"polity": {
"id": 792,
"name": "in_kanva_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty",
"start_year": -75,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. Most information is based on a few ancient coins, on accounts of the history of the geographical area, and on the Puranas, an ancient account of the Hindu religion that is more useful for genealogical information than for political history. According to the Puranas, the Kanva dynasty had four kings…who ruled for a total of only forty-five years…the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India…” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB\">[Middleton 2015, p. 486]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 47,
"polity": {
"id": 396,
"name": "in_pala_emp",
"long_name": "Pala Empire",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 1174
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 396,
"name": "in_pala_emp",
"long_name": "Pala Empire",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 1174
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "Pearls, diamonds, lapis-lazuli, emeralds, rubies and sapphires. ‘Bengal is then \"the gift of the Ganges\" to as much as, if not a greater degree than \"Egypt is the gift of the Nile.\" In no place in the world is there a richer variety of foliage, plants, and herbs valuable to man's livelihood and pleasure, and nowhere else a greater rainfall. There were, as well, valuable forest and deposits of coal, iron, gold, and diamonds. Bountiful living, active trade both east and west, and security from invasion nurtured a succession of India'searliest and most brilliant dynasts: Mauryas, Andhras, Guptas, Palas, and Senas, all of them builders of empires extending far beyond their original holdings.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N8QIT4DS\">[Marcus 1967, pp. 240-241]</a> ‘Jewellery also provided occupation to a considerable group of metal workers as it was the fashion of the rich to use gold and silver ornaments made of pearls and many other precious stones. The Deopara inscription of Vijayasena mentions \"flowers made of precious stones, necklaces, ear rings, anklets, garlands and golden bracelets \"worn by the wives of the servants of kings and the jewellery worn by the temple girls. The Naihati Copper Plate of Vallalasena refers to necklaces of pearls worn by ladies of royal blood. The Ramacharita mentions ')eweled anklet-bells\", \"charming ornaments set with diamonds, lapis-lazuli, pearls, emeralds, rubies and sapphires\"22. According to Tabaqat - I - Nasiri \"golden and silver dishes\" were used in the palaces of Lakshamanasena.23’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F7Z6IED7\">[Ghosh 2014, pp. 21-22]</a> ‘Jewellery also provided occupation to a considerable group of metal workers as itwas the fashion of the rich to use gold and silver ornaments made of pearls and many other precious stones. The Deopara inscription of Vijayasena mentions \"flowers made of precious stones, necklaces, ear rings, anklets, garlands and golden bracelets \"worn by the wives of the servants of kings and the jewellery worn by the temple girls. The Naihati Copper Plate of Vallalasena refers to necklaces of pearls worn by ladies of royal blood. The Ramacharita mentions ')eweled anklet-bells\", \"charming ornaments set with diamonds, lapis-lazuli, pearls, emeralds, rubies and sapphires\"22. According to Tabaqat - I - Nasiri \"golden and silver dishes\" were used in the palaces of Lakshamanasena.23’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F7Z6IED7\">[Ghosh 2014, pp. 21-22]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 48,
"polity": {
"id": 702,
"name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
"long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
"start_year": 300,
"end_year": 890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“In Pallava times (575-900 AD) Mamallapuram had been expanded from a minor fishing village called Talacayanam to become the foremost center of port interrelationships along the Coromandel coast. […] This protected and splendidly constructed port was intended to attract foreign merchants. So successful was the Pallava port that a contemporary manuscript noted that Mamallapuram ‘looks prosperous with the number of ships laden with gems, that bear riches, elephants, and other wealth’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E8DS4TUP\">[Hall 1978, p. 83]</a> “Women wore bangles made of stone. A number of kinds of necklaces made of precious stones are depicted in the sculptures.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GPDHN4PD\">[Singh 0, p. 660]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 49,
"polity": {
"id": 700,
"name": "in_pandya_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Pandyas",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "“The imports to South India [from the Mediterranean], several of which are known from the Periplus, consisted of coin, topaz, coral, thin clothing and figured linens, antimony, copper, tin and lead, wine, realgar and orpiment and also wheat, the last mentioned probably for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, pp. 187-188]</a> “The Roman contact was an important factor in the external trade of the Tamil country from about the times of Augustus (27 Bc to AD 14), although a considerable antiquity has been assigned to the commerce between the Tamil country and the west. It perhaps started as a mere ‘trickle’ or sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and other ‘oriental’ exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other assorted articles for well over two centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 179]</a> “luxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 50,
"polity": {
"id": 627,
"name": "in_pandya_emp_3",
"long_name": "Pandya Empire",
"start_year": 1216,
"end_year": 1323
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_stone",
"comment": "’’’ “The jewelers were also skilled enough to make jewels with precious stones and pearls.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P8VMZE76\">[Thangapandian 2014, p. 240]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}