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{
"id": 51,
"polity": {
"id": 111,
"name": "in_achik_1",
"long_name": "Early A'chik",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Precious metals in their raw form are not mentioned by the sources consulted as something that was accessible to the Achik either locally or through frontier markets. It seems that instead the Achik sought metal weapons, tools, and ornaments instead. The literature consulted makes no mention of local smithing traditions. ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a> “A distinctive ornament such as the jaksil, procured from the frontier markets was valued and esteemed among the people. The jaksil consisted of thick metal, elbow rings, made of iron or brass or even silver.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 719]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 52,
"polity": {
"id": 112,
"name": "in_achik_2",
"long_name": "Late A'chik",
"start_year": 1867,
"end_year": 1956
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Precious metals in their raw form are not mentioned by the sources consulted as something that was accessible to the Achik either locally or through frontier markets. It seems that instead the Achik sought metal weapons, tools, and ornaments instead. The literature consulted makes no mention of local smithing traditions. ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a> “A distinctive ornament such as the jaksil, procured from the frontier markets was valued and esteemed among the people. The jaksil consisted of thick metal, elbow rings, made of iron or brass or even silver.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 719]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 53,
"polity": {
"id": 397,
"name": "in_chola_emp",
"long_name": "Chola Empire",
"start_year": 849,
"end_year": 1280
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“That this port was considered a pattinam is indicated in the name of twelve prosperous local families who were identified as pattinavan-kudi and who were said to have made their living through the marketing of woven goods and by venturing on the sea. That these twelve families agreed to conduct a seven day festival in honor of Rajaraja out of their earnings not only shows the wealth available to these merchants-the twelve families contributed three-fourths kalafjun of gold per head-but also may have been intended as a symbol of their loyalty to Rajaraja […].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E8DS4TUP\">[Hall 1978, p. 89]</a> “Through […] trade the royal treasury was filled with gold and the royal family encouraged this trade by being the greatest consumers of luxury items.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 323]</a> “Epigraphic evidence indicate that the Chola monarchs and their family members, nobles, bureaucrats and affluent merchants spent lot of money on the making of gold, diamond and pearls ornaments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54GRJCJK\">[Bhoopnathi 2020, p. 172]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 54,
"polity": {
"id": 698,
"name": "in_cholas_1",
"long_name": "Early Cholas",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
},
{
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“The imports to South India [from the Mediterranean], several of which are known from the Periplus, consisted of coin, topaz, coral, thin clothing and figured linens, antimony, copper, tin and lead, wine, realgar and orpiment and also wheat, the last mentioned probably for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports. […] Tamilakam had access to the gold from Karnataka, i.e. Raichur-Bellary plateau which is presumably the region referred to as the northern hills (-aiujamalai) in the Tamil texts. The gold mines in Karnataka have provided evidence of ancient workings. Gold articles and jewellery figure prominently among gilts conferred by chieftains on bards- and are generally found to be associated with the ruling and urban elite. Goldsmiths and traders in gold (pansi’y-kullan and pon-Tuhiipai) are mentioned in Namnai and in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. […] [L]uxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, pp. 187-190]</a> “The Roman contact was an important factor in the external trade of the Tamil country from about the times of Augustus (27 Bc to AD 14), although a considerable antiquity has been assigned to the commerce between the Tamil country and the west. It perhaps started as a mere ‘trickle’ or sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and other ‘oriental’ exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other assorted articles for well over two centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 179]</a> “luxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 55,
"polity": {
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“If we accept this argument, it would mean that the trade balances between the ports and the hinterland were largely settled in gold and copper (mainly the latter) which could be struck at the inland mints regardless of their relationship with silver. It would still leave out of account the mono-metallic minting of silver (i.e. bullion silver brought inland from the coasts to be minted directly into silver”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IXNW7PAF\">[Haider 1998, p. 245]</a> “In turn, the structure of each of these systems was oriented towards domestic concerns. This created a large amount of variability. Silver was by far the dominant precious metal in the north of India and the Deccan. Gold was mined in southern India and therefore occupied a prominent role in this region’s monetary systems both before and during the period of our study. Local sources could not meet the level of demand and gold was frequently imported. Nonetheless, foreign gold coins did not circulate as money in Indian kingdoms. Rather, gold was imported to be melted down and restruck. Copper was in great demand all along India’s west coast because it was the basis of low-value coinage in the Delhi, Gujarat and Bahmanid Sultanates. In contrast, in Bengal there was no demand at all for copper for monetary purposes prior to 1538 because cowries served the function that copper coins otherwise would have.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9G8TX845\">[Deyell_Serel_Campbell 2019, p. 68]</a> “An important source of the supply of precious metals to India was the Levantine trade, which passed eastern commodities to Europe in exchange for gold and silver since Roman times.Egypt, a prominent entrepot in the Levantine circuit, was a major centre for such exchanges.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IXNW7PAF\">[Haider 1998, p. 237]</a> “While the gold and silver, of the Deccan, could conceivably be a reason for Alauddin Khalji's mints uttering more gold and silver, this could not be the reason for higher output of billion and copper. Moreover, the acquisition of precious metals alone cannot justify the high currency output. If the argument about gold and silver it would presume that the Yadavas had large stores of gold and silver, and yet they coined no gold or silver coinage of any appreciable magnitude. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6AI7CBCJ\">[Moosvi 1989, p. 214]</a> “Modern researches, based on the elite consumption of foreign products, have shown that there was an outflow of both gold and silver from India to import horses and Levantine textiles. But there can be little doubt that India's overall trade balances were favourable enough to strike the attention of contemporary”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IXNW7PAF\">[Haider 1998, p. 239]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 56,
"polity": {
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “The Amarakośa, however, gives a comprehensive list of metals, including gold, silver, copper, iron, brass, lead and on. The art of metal working was fully developed at that time, for it was one of the 64 arts (Kalās) listed in the Kāmasūtra. Bṛihatsaṃhitā also refers to the workers in gold, silver and base metals. […] The jewellers used scales and touch-stones for weighing and testing the quality and quantity of the stones and metals. Gold was also tested in fire. The alloying of different kinds of metal was also known. Among other metals, gold was largely used for jewellery and currency. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 102]</a> “The ornaments were manufactured to decorate the different parts of the body. From the Bhitā excavation we have a few specimens of such ornaments, including one gold ring, one hallow bead, two miniature gold beads joint together, a flat wheel of gold with axle and spokes and a disc of gold embossed with human face. Moreover, our inscriptions and our great poet Kālidāsa give us many references to jewellery, of which we mention only a few. The Mandasor inscription of Kumāragupta and Bandhuvarman refers to women wearing necklaces (hāra). The Mālia copper plate of Dharsena II relates the hair ornaments of subdued Kings. We have also numerous coins depicting the King or Queen wearing jewellery. We thus see that the manufacture of jewellery was most flourishing at the time.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a> “[But] the most important source of gold was in the south-western portion of the pargana, close to the Mayurbhanj border. Here the numerous trap grinding and crushing stones litter the jungle south of the village of Kundrukochha, and, at about 97 feet depth in an ancient mine-shaft. One stone hand hammer and a broken chisel of the ancient workers have been found. Moreover, there are remains of numerous furnaces for melting the different kinds of metals. The only definite evidence of the date of the working of these mines is provided by the Kushāṇa-type coins, found in a buried clay urn with fragments of bones at Rekha mines; from this it is clear that the working must date at least from this period onwards. […] The Kushana empire started to break up with the death of Vāsudeva about A.D. 220 and any influence that the Kushāṇa s may have had over eastern India disappeared by the middle of the third century. […] and these mines may have been worked under Chandragupta I or his famous son Samudragupta. Moreover, coins of the third to fifth century A.D. found near Roamgarh further strengthen the assumption. Thus, there is no reason to disbelieve that at least from the late Kushāṇa period onwards these mines were exhaustively worked. This is also supported by the evidence of the Amarakośa which refers to wrought and unwrought gold and iron, iron bars and mines. Moreover, we have also numerous references to mines in the Bṛihatsaṃhitā. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, pp. 99-100]</a> “The royal ladies, their host of attendants, courtesans, and women in ordinary circumstances, all used to decorate their parsons according to the means of their disposal. […] Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments. […] The ornaments were manufactured to decorate the different parts of the body. From the Bhitā excavation we have a few specimens of such ornaments, including one gold ring, one hallow bead, two miniature gold beads joint together, a flat wheel of gold with axle and spokes and a disc of gold embossed with human face. Moreover, our inscriptions and our great poet Kālidāsa give us many references to jewellery, of which we mention only a few. The Mandasor inscription of Kumāragupta and Bandhuvarman refers to women wearing necklaces (hāra). The Mālia copper plate of Dharsena II relates the hair ornaments of subdued Kings. We have also numerous coins depicting the King or Queen wearing jewellery. We thus see that the manufacture of jewellery was most flourishing at the time.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a> “Regarding the vessels used for foods and drinks, it is found that bowls, plates, dishes and cups used, were made of precious metals. A superb silver cup and ladle were excavated at Rupur that reflect the high quantity of craftsmanship. Luxurious gold and silver plates were in common use as table wares for the Kings. A 'Silver dish' with scene of revelry is also kept in the Cleveland Museum of art.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 153]</a> “The royal ladies, their host of attendants, courtesans, and women in ordinary circumstances, all used to decorate their parsons according to the means of their disposal. […] Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a> “In some of these sources the king is shown surrounded by hundreds of servants, courtiers and bejewelled dancer. “Thus ostentation (display of wealth) was a key note to the flamboyant life at court. Indian Monarchs adorned themselves in a lavish display of finery from the royal store rooms, where gold and silver were sometimes hoarded in tons and diamond and rubies by pounds. The Ajanta paintings express the picture of pompous lives of kings and their nobles. Wine and intoxicants of various kinds were used in profusion, gold and silver dishes were used in the upper strata.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, pp. 150-151]</a> “Though the elite class, as is clear from the contemporary Literature, used ornaments of gold and precious stones, however flowers were the ornaments of the poorer section and for ladies living in hermitage. Young women struck flowers of Kéśara (crocus Sativas), Kuṇḍa (Jasminium-Multiflorum) and Mandra (Jasminum-multiflorum) in their hair.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 188]</a> “Not only the ladies but also the rich men also used different kinds of ornaments on their parsons. Gold, silver and precious stones were the chief materials for these ornaments. Perhaps ordinary beads were used by the women of the poorer section of the society, as these are even used today by the aboriginal women of India. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 103]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 57,
"polity": {
"id": 703,
"name": "in_kalabhra_dyn",
"long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty",
"start_year": 200,
"end_year": 600
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Copper, gold. “The Kalabhras who ruled in the far South including Kerala and South Mysore, minted and circulated a large quantity of copper coins from about 250 A.D. to the middle of the sixth century A.D. On early issues of the tribe we have the figures of tiger, elephant, horse and the fish. In rare specimens a seated Jain Muni or a swastika sign or the short sword or the symbol of Manjusri are seen. The Prakrit inscription on the other side of the coin in Brahmi script reads invariably Acuvikanta Kalabhra.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z4TFP7P\">[Gupta 1989, p. 23]</a> Inferred access to copper by rulers or at least people acting on behalf of rulers. “The Kalabhras who ruled in the far South including Kerala and South Mysore, minted and circulated a large quantity of copper coins from about 250 A.D. to the middle of the sixth century A.D. On early issues of the tribe we have the figures of tiger, elephant, horse and the fish. In rare specimens a seated Jain Muni or a swastika sign or the short sword or the symbol of Manjusri are seen. The Prakrit inscription on the other side of the coin in Brahmi script reads invariably Acuvikanta Kalabhra.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5Z4TFP7P\">[Gupta 1989, p. 23]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 58,
"polity": {
"id": 792,
"name": "in_kanva_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Kanva Dynasty",
"start_year": -75,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“scholars know very little about the Kanva dynasty or its rulers. Most information is based on a few ancient coins, on accounts of the history of the geographical area, and on the Puranas, an ancient account of the Hindu religion that is more useful for genealogical information than for political history. According to the Puranas, the Kanva dynasty had four kings…who ruled for a total of only forty-five years…the short-lived Kanva dynasty left little mark on the history of India…” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB\">[Middleton 2015, p. 486]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 59,
"polity": {
"id": 705,
"name": "in_madurai_nayaks",
"long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai",
"start_year": 1529,
"end_year": 1736
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 632,
"name": "nl_dutch_emp_1",
"long_name": "Dutch Empire",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1795
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“On the one hand, the import of precious metals stimulated production (especially cotton piece-goods), facilitated the monetization of the Madurai economy and land revenue demand, and promoted the recourse to the system of revenuefarming. The Dutch imported into the Coromandel unlimited quantities of Bullion and precious metals and enriched the currency system of the region. The liberal supply of the gold coins was an attraction to the local traders and their economic viability gained prosperity”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 224]</a> “On the one hand, the import of precious metals stimulated production (especially cotton piece-goods), facilitated the monetization of the Madurai economy and land revenue demand, and promoted the recourse to the system of revenue farming. The Dutch imported into the Coromandel unlimited quantities of Bullion and precious metals and enriched the currency system of the region. The liberal supply of the gold coins was an attraction to the local traders and their economic viability gained prosperity”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CE94UU3H\">[RAVICHANDRAN 2011, p. 224]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 60,
"polity": {
"id": 777,
"name": "in_nanda_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Nanda Dynasty",
"start_year": -413,
"end_year": -322
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 777,
"name": "in_nanda_dyn",
"long_name": "Magadha - Nanda Dynasty",
"start_year": -413,
"end_year": -322
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; silver. “The gold-washing industry is no longer renumerative. But Herodotus informs us that in the fifth century B.C. “India”, i.e. the Indus Valley, paid a tribute of 360 talents of gold-dust.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49SA53G7\">[Nilakanta_Sastri_Raychaudhuri 1967, p. 29]</a> “The figures of the eight princes who succeeded the first Nanda are rather shadowy… The last of them is said to have been addicted to hoarding treasure. He amassed riches to the amount of eighty kotis.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49SA53G7\">[Nilakanta_Sastri_Raychaudhuri 1967, p. 24]</a> “Next, a hoard of coins was found at a deep stratum in Golakhpur at the site of ancient Pataliputra. These are taken to be the earliest known punch-marked silver coins and to be pre-Maurya, perhaps, Nanda, coins. They bear a pre-Maurya symbol, ‘the hare and dog on hill’ which may be taken as the Nanda symbol.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UM9NSYS8\">[Mookerji 1966, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 61,
"polity": {
"id": 396,
"name": "in_pala_emp",
"long_name": "Pala Empire",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 1174
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Silver, gold, bronze and copper-alloys, iron. ‘Bengal is then \"the gift of the Ganges\" to as much as, if not a greater degree than \"Egypt is the gift of the Nile.\" In no place in the world is there a richer variety of foliage, plants, and herbs valuable to man's livelihood and pleasure, and nowhere else a greater rainfall. There were, as well, valuable forest and deposits of coal, iron, gold, and diamonds. Bountiful living, active trade both east and west, and security from invasion nurtured a succession of India'searliest and most brilliant dynasts: Mauryas, Andhras, Guptas, Palas, and Senas, all of them builders of empires extending far beyond their original holdings.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N8QIT4DS\">[Marcus 1967, pp. 240-241]</a> ‘The art of metal casting was as excellent as that of stonecutting and in as much demand. Vast numbers of metal icons must have been cast, for at a single site, the ruined monastery of Kurkihar on the pilgrim route to Bodhgaya, a cache of some 250 ritual objects was unearthed-many of them carefully stowed away in earthenware jars by monks fleeing from the invaders, others laid on the ground. Of these, 150 were images of great beauty, 105 of them inscribed. As the Tibetan monk-historian Taranatha wrote that the two famous artists of Devapala's reign, Dhiman(a) and his son Bitpalo, were proficient in stonecarving, metal casting, and painting as well, it seems probable that other Pala craftsmen were equally versatile.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N8QIT4DS\">[Marcus 1967, p. 251]</a> ‘Each of the images in the Museum's collection, while not presenting the evolution of Pala sculpture in all its aspects, is unique and outstanding in quality. Lacking are a fine stone image of the eleventh century, an example in Chunar sandstone, and, that rarest of all materials to have survived, an image in wood. (Two exist in the Dacca Museum which demonstrate the technical proficiency of the Bengal artist in this medium.) There are ivory, terra cotta, black chlorite, other stones, and bronze in the Museum and in the George P. Bickford Collection on loan to the Museum; three of them are from Kashmir and Burma, both countries deeply indebted to the Palas.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N8QIT4DS\">[Marcus 1967, p. 261]</a> RA’s note: The following quote states that a specific copper plate was issued by the ruler, hence, we can assume royal consumption. ‘Let us take few examples from the copper plate issued by Pala kings. In the Bhagalpur copper plate of Narayanpala the relationship between Devapala and Jaypala is compared with the relation of Indra and Vishnu. Verse 3 of Jagivanpur copper plate (discovered in 1987) Mahendrapala, describes Dharmapala as one ‘who attained fame (Yasa) by conquering a host of imperious kings like Indra, his fame purified the faces of the direction of the earth defiled by Kali’. Verse 12 of the same plate says, ‘Like Devaki, she [Mahata, wife of Devapala] gave birth to a good son named Mahendrapala, to whom thousands of kings offered salutations, who dexterously bore the burden of the earth and who was like god Purusottama (Vishnu-Krsna), who goddess Laksmi chose as her husband on her own accord’’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZR7DEIN\">[Hasan 2011, p. 32]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 62,
"polity": {
"id": 702,
"name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
"long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
"start_year": 300,
"end_year": 890
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“Early Pallavas were known for their workmanship in metal as exemplified by the image of Avalokitesvara dated about 4th to 5th century AD now at Albert Museum in London. Sankara (8th century AD) in his Brahmasutrabhashya gives the description of making images in metal.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BBE23BWE\">[Adirai 2016, pp. 83-89]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 63,
"polity": {
"id": 700,
"name": "in_pandya_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Pandyas",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
},
{
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“The imports to South India [from the Mediterranean], several of which are known from the Periplus, consisted of coin, topaz, coral, thin clothing and figured linens, antimony, copper, tin and lead, wine, realgar and orpiment and also wheat, the last mentioned probably for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports. […] Tamilakam had access to the gold from Karnataka, i.e. Raichur-Bellary plateau which is presumably the region referred to as the northern hills (-aiujamalai) in the Tamil texts. The gold mines in Karnataka have provided evidence of ancient workings. Gold articles and jewellery figure prominently among gilts conferred by chieftains on bards- and are generally found to be associated with the ruling and urban elite. Goldsmiths and traders in gold (pansi’y-kullan and pon-Tuhiipai) are mentioned in Namnai and in Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. […] [L]uxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, pp. 187-190]</a> “The Roman contact was an important factor in the external trade of the Tamil country from about the times of Augustus (27 Bc to AD 14), although a considerable antiquity has been assigned to the commerce between the Tamil country and the west. It perhaps started as a mere ‘trickle’ or sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and other ‘oriental’ exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other assorted articles for well over two centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 179]</a> “luxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 64,
"polity": {
"id": 627,
"name": "in_pandya_emp_3",
"long_name": "Pandya Empire",
"start_year": 1216,
"end_year": 1323
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "’’’ “At the higher level was the big-time goldsmith or jeweler referred to the inscriptions as perumtattan (literally ‘great goldsmith’) indicating a master-craftsman employing apprentice Goldsmiths. He made ornaments of gold.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P8VMZE76\">[Thangapandian 2014, pp. 241-242]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 65,
"polity": {
"id": 89,
"name": "in_satavahana_emp",
"long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
"start_year": -100,
"end_year": 200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “One of the early epigraphs of the Satavahana dynasty is inscribed in a cave at the Nanaghat pass, linking the hinterland to the coast, thirty kilometres north-west of Junnar. The record lists the massive gifts donated to brahmanas by Nayanika […]. Besides these, some silver and gold metals were gifted to honourable priests. This indicates that their treasury was overflowing with money and metals. The inscription has been dated to the beginning of the first century B.C.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 195]</a> “One of the early epigraphs of the Satavahana dynasty is inscribed in a cave at the Nanaghat pass, linking die hinterland to the coast, thirty kilometres north-west of Junnar. The record lists the massive gifts donated to brahmanas by Nayanika, the widowed queen of Satakarni I, during the performance of Vedic sacrifices. The gifts included tens and thousands of cows, horses, elephants, villages and money (kahapanas) etc. Besides these, some silver and gold metals were gifted to honourable priests.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B8KQG349\">[Kathare 2005, p. 195]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 66,
"polity": {
"id": 793,
"name": "bd_sena_dyn",
"long_name": "Sena Dynasty",
"start_year": 1095,
"end_year": 1245
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Inferred from use of precious metal in creation of statuary; likely used for other luxury goods as well. “General Features of the Pala and Sena Sculptures. Generally speaking, the sculptures of the Pala and Sena epochs are carved out of black-stone (kashti-pathar), either fine or coarse-grained [outlined as being black steatite in Zimmer and Campbell 1990: 110]. The metal images are, however, case in brass or in octo-alloy (ashta-dhatu). One or two images of gold and silver have also come down to us, and wood carvings also are not unknown”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\">[Majumdar 1943, p. 535]</a> “Bengal was primarily a rural country and a beautiful descripion of its countryside is given in the Radmacharita. But even in ancient times there were a number of towns and important commercial centres which were abodes of wealth and luxury {supra, p. 340). The description of Ramavati and Vijayapura, the capital cities of the Palas and Senas, by two contemporary poets, in spite of obvious poetic exaggerations, gives us a vivid picture of the wealthy cities of ancient Bengal. Such towns contained wide roads and symmetrical rows of palatial buildings, towering high and surmounted by golden pitchers on the top. The temples, monasteries, public parks and large tanks, bordered by rockery and tall palm-trees, added to the beauty and amenities of town-life. These towns, as in all ages and countries, were the homes of all shades of peoples ; the plain, simple, virtuous and religious, as well as the vicious and the luxurious. Luxuries were chiefly manifested in fine clothes, jewellery, palatial buildings, costly furniture, and sumptuous feasts. Abundant supply of food, far beyond the needs and even capacity of invited guests, was characteristic of these feasts in ancient, as in modern Bengal.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDTA7MGI\">[Majumdar 1971, p. 464]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 67,
"polity": {
"id": 509,
"name": "ir_qajar_dyn",
"long_name": "Qajar Dynasty",
"start_year": 1794,
"end_year": 1925
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Russia",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold, silver, iron, steel. “Like the trade with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian trade was favourable to Iran, in so far as Iran imported from Russia a considerable quantity of specie in gold and silver, as well as iron, steel, cutlery of all descriptions, lead, brass, pistols, guns and gunpowder, clocks and watches, locks, glass- ware, mirrors, paper and stationery of various kinds, senubar (deal-wood), whales' teeth, cochineal, oil, some Kashmir shawls (presumably via the Oxus region), gold lace and thread, velvet, broad cloth, printed and plain cloth of coarse quality, chintzes and dimities of European manufacture, Russian leather for boots and water-containers, as well as small quantities of wines and spirits. This import was amply paid for by the export from Iran to Russia of raw and manufactured silk, cotton, cotton thread, Isfahani gold cloth, Kirman shawls, coarse cloth and coarse chintz manufactured in Iran, some cloth and chintz manufactured in India, coarse lambskins, fox skins, pearls, fish, rice, fuel-wood, naphtha, saffron, sulphur and gall-nuts <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS9K7MKS\">[Hambly, 1964, p. 79]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 68,
"polity": {
"id": 374,
"name": "ir_safavid_emp",
"long_name": "Safavid Empire",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1722
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “Tin, of which 40—50 tons a year were used in Persia, came principally from Malacca and was worth 48—50 shahis a man […]. Copper was greatly used for all kinds of utensils and, as it was an import prohibited by the Portuguese, was brought in overland from India at great charge: in plates it was worth 40—44 shahls a man, in ingots 34-36 shahls a man […]. Indian goods which could be disposed of in Persia included metals such as copper, iron and steel, the last of which was expensive in Persia owing to it being another commodity prohibited by the Portuguese and carried into Persia overland from India” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 448]</a> “For Persia the exports of silk were crucially important, for whilst Persia generally had an unfavourable balance of trade with the east, it was favourable with the west. With the proceeds from the sales of silk Persia principally imported cloth but, most important, coined money was acquired without which a circulating Persian coinage would have been almost impossible. Persia did not have any real gold or silver mines and as there were not enough exports to balance the imports of cotton goods, spices and drugs from the east, the balance was made up in money, part of the flow of precious metals eastwards” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 441]</a> “The Turks, according to Arthur Edwards, \"bring great store of silver to be coyned, to wit, Dollars at ten shaughes the peece. The Hungarie Ducket is at 12 shaughs. And having monie in readiness at the time of the yeere, they buy silke the better cheap, when the country men bring it first to be sold\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 430]</a> “Tin, of which 40—50 tons a year were used in Persia, came principally from Malacca and was worth 48—50 shahis a man […]. Copper was greatly used for all kinds of utensils and, as it was an import prohibited by the Portuguese, was brought in overland from India at great charge: in plates it was worth 40—44 shahls a man, in ingots 34-36 shahls a man […]. Indian goods which could be disposed of in Persia included metals such as copper, iron and steel, the last of which was expensive in Persia owing to it being another commodity prohibited by the Portuguese and carried into Persia overland from India” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87MQJ3QG\">[Ferrier,_R 1986, p. 448]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 69,
"polity": {
"id": 191,
"name": "it_papal_state_2",
"long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1378,
"end_year": 1527
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; silver; copper; brass.“With highly specialized goods, such as […] gold and silverware and antiquities, elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] By the mid-sixteenth century there was a veritable explosion of lotteries, particularly in major cities such as Genoa, Venice, and Rome. To prevent fraud Roman legislation made it obligatory to show the public the […] gold and silver […] that might be won. […] When he took out a loan from di Segni, the Roman printer Paolo Graziani used the following items (that actually belonged to someone else) as pledges: Two silver cups of twenty ounces each […] four copper plates for prints; a gilt brass clock, and a silver assay stick; a gilt glass clock and various small copper plates for prints.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-91]</a> “With highly specialized goods, such as […] gold and silverware and antiquities, elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] Yet by the mid-sixteenth century, buying […] gold, and silver that had been deposited in these new institutions was already being recommended as a safe form of investment for those who wanted to preserve a noble lifestyle. […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] silversmiths […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-99]</a> “A typical studio in this era might contain the following: […] antique bronze […] gold-work, medals, and coins. Such objects would be displayed in the studio in cabinets and organized in a way that was orderly and harmonious to the owner” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QVN7J7JF\">[McCray 2016, p. 220]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 70,
"polity": {
"id": 192,
"name": "it_papal_state_3",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
"start_year": 1527,
"end_year": 1648
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; silver; copper; brass.“With highly specialized goods, such as […] gold and silverware and antiquities, elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] By the mid-sixteenth century there was a veritable explosion of lotteries, particularly in major cities such as Genoa, Venice, and Rome. To prevent fraud Roman legislation made it obligatory to show the public the […] gold and silver […] that might be won. […] When he took out a loan from di Segni, the Roman printer Paolo Graziani used the following items (that actually belonged to someone else) as pledges: Two silver cups of twenty ounces each […] four copper plates for prints; a gilt brass clock, and a silver assay stick; a gilt glass clock and various small copper plates for prints.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-91]</a> “With highly specialized goods, such as […] gold and silverware and antiquities, elite purchasers usually turned to unofficial as well as official experts […] Yet by the mid-sixteenth century, buying […] gold, and silver that had been deposited in these new institutions was already being recommended as a safe form of investment for those who wanted to preserve a noble lifestyle. […] Once these wealthy residential suburbs had been isolated from the smells and bustle of commerce, the inner commercial centre could then be properly subdivided: The charms of the city will be very much enhanced if the various workshops are allocated to the distance and well-chosen zones. […] silversmiths […] and, in short, all those that might be thought more respectable.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SXKA7S3D\">[Welch 2005, pp. 85-99]</a> “A typical studio in this era might contain the following: […] antique bronze […] gold-work, medals, and coins. Such objects would be displayed in the studio in cabinets and organized in a way that was orderly and harmonious to the owner” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QVN7J7JF\">[McCray 2016, p. 220]</a> “Communal drinking goblets evolved into individual glasses intended solely for water, wine (specifically red, white, or dessert), aperitifs, or particular spirits, to be drunk from by a single diner […] A silver bowl might be precious for the material of which it was made, but it might also display an all’antica style which would be appreciated by well-educated dining companions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 71]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 71,
"polity": {
"id": 193,
"name": "it_papal_state_4",
"long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
"start_year": 1648,
"end_year": 1809
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; silver; bronze“The unarrogant Roman aristocrat still considered his first obligation that of making a good appearance […] carriages were the great obsession of Rome, her surest status symbol […] the bronzework […] the horses might come out of the Apocalypse but the drivers wore square wigs and gold braid. […] only the noble families, registered in the Golden Book of the patriciate, might have gilding.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRRAV2CU\">[Andrieux 1968, pp. 44-45]</a> RA NOTE:The following are instances of Pope Pius VI commissioning or gifting precious metals. “Pius was understandably delighted with this image, rewarding Batoni with […] a gold-and-lapis crown […] In 1782 […] Francesco Biondini was paid 130 scudi for crafting two handwritten Gospels, each with forty-six “large illuminated initials…covered in gold leaf and fine silver […] “gold-ground walls and vaults carry rich neoclassical arabesques and monumental candelabra […] the strong visual continuities linking floor, walls, and ceiling, give the visitor the sense of entering a gilded cage […] the pope […] awarded him a gold and silver medal […] the room’s gilt-bronze and wrought-iron gates were especially fine, causing the poor painter “a very great loss of time in not spoiling the gilt metal ornaments with which it is heavily garnished.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 60]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 114]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 180]</a> “The embellishments on Roman furniture consisted of the most various materials […] and it was necessary to call upon many different specialists for a single piece of furniture […] gilders, and even silversmiths.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RJVDNIG4\">[Bowron 2000, p. 158]</a> “heavy gold earrings were worn and big necklaces of gold or coral” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRRAV2CU\">[Andrieux 1968, p. 108]</a> “The unarrogant Roman aristocrat still considered his first obligation that of making a good appearance […] carriages were the great obsession of Rome, her surest status symbol […] the bronzework […] the horses might come out of the Apocalypse but the drivers wore square wigs and gold braid. […] only the noble families, registered in the Golden Book of the patriciate, might have gilding” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRRAV2CU\">[Andrieux 1968, pp. 44-45]</a> RA NOTE: The following are instances of Pope Pius VI commissioning or gifting precious metals. “Pius was understandably delighted with this image, rewarding Batoni with […] a gold-and-lapis crown […] In 1782 […] Francesco Biondini was paid 130 scudi for crafting two handwritten Gospels, each with forty-six “large illuminated initials…covered in gold leaf and fine silver […] “gold-ground walls and vaults carry rich neoclassical arabesques and monumental candelabra […] the strong visual continuities linking floor, walls, and ceiling, give the visitor the sense of entering a gilded cage […] the pope […] awarded him a gold and silver medal […] the room’s gilt-bronze and wrought-iron gates were especially fine, causing the poor painter “a very great loss of time in not spoiling the gilt metal ornaments with which it is heavily garnished.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 60]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 114]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4AJBHN29\">[Collins 2004, p. 180]</a> “The unarrogant Roman aristocrat still considered his first obligation that of making a good appearance […] carriages were the great obsession of Rome, her surest status symbol […] the bronzework […] the horses might come out of the Apocalypse but the drivers wore square wigs and gold braid. […] only the noble families, registered in the Golden Book of the patriciate, might have gilding […] the shabbiest cardinal had at least three coaches to his name, black and decorated outside with gilded bronze mountings” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRRAV2CU\">[Andrieux 1968, pp. 44-49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 72,
"polity": {
"id": 545,
"name": "it_venetian_rep_4",
"long_name": "Republic of Venice IV",
"start_year": 1564,
"end_year": 1797
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; Silver. “’Magnificence’ […] was a virtue which could only be enjoyed by the wealthy […] material displays of honour meant purchasing a wide variety of objects for a multitude of different uses and made of a range of different materials in an effort to make family and guests comfortable, and perhaps a little envious. […] porcelain should be displayed alongside dishes of gold or silver. While this was certainly a display of wealth, it was also a display of refinement and knowledge. […] Italian noblemen with one permanent residence in the city had the potential to possess a greater number and variety of fixed goods and furnishings […] During this time, the insides of Venetian homes became as gilded and opulent as their exteriors, if not more so […] A silver bowl might be precious for the material of which it was made, but it might also display an all’antica style which would be appreciated by well educated dining companions” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, pp. 67-71]</a> “Venetian writer Francesco Sansovino in 1581 […] had a good eye and voluble pen [he said] ‘there are countless buildings with ceilings of bedrooms decorated in gold […] almost everyone has his house adorned with […] gilded leather […] cornices are loaded with gold. […] dressers displaying silverware […] pewter, and brass or damascene bronze are innumerable.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VE43SBDG\">[Brown 2000, p. 296]</a> “’Magnificence’ […] was a virtue which could only be enjoyed by the wealthy […] material displays of honour meant purchasing a wide variety of objects for a multitude of different uses and made of a range of different materials in an effort to make family and guests comfortable, and perhaps a little envious. […] porcelain should be displayed alongside dishes of gold or silver. While this was certainly a display of wealth, it was also a display of refinement and knowledge. […] Italian noblemen with one permanent residence in the city had the potential to possess a greater number and variety of fixed goods and furnishings […] During this time, the insides of Venetian homes became as gilded and opulent as their exteriors, if not more so” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, pp. 67-69]</a> “’Magnificence’ […] was a virtue which could only be enjoyed by the wealthy […] material displays of honour meant purchasing a wide variety of objects for a multitude of different uses and made of a range of different materials in an effort to make family and guests comfortable, and perhaps a little envious. […] porcelain should be displayed alongside dishes of gold or silver. While this was certainly a display of wealth, it was also a display of refinement and knowledge. […] Italian noblemen with one permanent residence in the city had the potential to possess a greater number and variety of fixed goods and furnishings […] During this time, the insides of Venetian homes became as gilded and opulent as their exteriors, if not more so […] A silver bowl might be precious for the material of which it was made, but it might also display an all’antica style which would be appreciated by well educated dining companions” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, pp. 67-71]</a> “A utensil inherited from Byzantium, the fork was in common use throughout Italy by the 14th century, and was available in materials ranging from wood to gold or silver; yet even Venetians of lesser means might still own a few pieces of cutlery in silver” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QP8EDUT5\">[Garwood 2017, p. 71]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 73,
"polity": {
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 151,
"name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
"long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1603
},
{
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Silver; copper; gold; lead. “The Western merchants brought to Japan silk fabrics, gold, sugar, perfume, medicinal herbs, and apparel from China, India, and other Asian countries. With the introduction of firearms in Japan, the demand for imported lead and nitrate also increased. In return Japan exported silver, copper, lacquerware, and pottery. Silver was one of Japan’s main attractions for the Western traders. Some historians estimate that Japan was probably producing at that time one-third of the silver in the world.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 122]</a> “Since the export of silver was suspended, Japan was unable to import such luxury goods as premium-grade silk and ginseng from China. The focus of Japanese exports subsequently shifted to copper.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG4SVC7P\">[Yasunori 2013]</a> “For Japan, Manila was an exporter of deerskins, gold dust and Chinese goods via Fujian merchants.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58NABZ3U\">[Oka 2017]</a> “In the sixteenth century, what the Japanese most desired among the goods these traders brought were military supplies such as lead, saltpetre as an ingredient of gunpowder, and guns and cannons. […] in order to obtain Southeast Asian lead and Chinese saltpetre, it was necessary to use Portuguese intermediaries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58NABZ3U\">[Oka 2017]</a> “Kyoto was also the chief center of trade and industry, and the home of skilled craftsmen who produced fine lacquers, pottery, elegant textiles, metalwares, and other luxury goods for affluent members of the aristocracy, clergy, warrior, and merchant classes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 24]</a> (NB Manila was under Spanish rule at this time.) “In order to strengthen his [Hideyoshi’s] financial position he controlled the gold and silver mines.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 119]</a> (NB Portugal was also under Spanish rule under much of this period.) “In 1586, in the midst of the construction, a delegation of Jesuit priests was welcomed to the castle and Hideyoshi personally guided them through the donjon. The account, by Luis Frois, relates: He acted as a guide just as if he were a private individual […] Thus he would say. “This room which you see here is full of gold, this one of silver; […] that one with robes, while these rooms contain mostly katana (swords) and weapons.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6SRH5F6\">[Hickman 1996, p. 33]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 74,
"polity": {
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 150,
"name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
"long_name": "Warring States Japan",
"start_year": 1467,
"end_year": 1568
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; Silver; Copper; Bronze.“From about the middle of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century, the history of mining was marked by the sudden opening of gold and silver mines throughout the country and great increase in the production of gold and silver […] Though the daimyos of the Sengoku period strove to the utilize the value of gold and silver, their collection of these precious metals cannot be compared to the accumulation and utilization of gold and silver by Hideyoshi, and later, Ieyasu.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 57]</a> “In this period […] gold was an important export for Japan, and was exchanged for raw silk, silk materials etc., in China.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 61]</a> “Japan exported to China such things as […] copper […] from Korea Japan imported cotton goods in exchange for copper” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 102]</a> “From about the middle of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century, the history of mining was marked by the sudden opening of gold and silver mines throughout the country and great increase in the production of gold and silver […] Though the daimyos of the Sengoku period strove to the utilize the value of gold and silver, their collection of these precious metals cannot be compared to the accumulation and utilization of gold and silver by Hideyoshi, and later, Ieyasu.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 57]</a> “The opening of gold and silver mines came about as a means of financing the daimyos of the Sengoku period, and gold and silver first showed their efficacy as mediums of high value in their hands.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 257]</a> “The use of gold sand as a tribute to the emperor and retired emperor at the investiture of a Shogun, or as a stipend given to the officials in charge at such a ceremony, remained customary from the Kamakura period into the Edo period. […] The exchange of gold and silver as presents also took place among nobles, shrines and temples, and military officers.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 257]</a> “When Uesugi Kenshin (1530-1578) died, there were as many as 2,500 mai of gold deposited in his treasure house at Kasuga-san castle.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 257]</a> “The opening of gold and silver mines came about as a means of financing the daimyos of the Sengoku period, and gold and silver first showed their efficacy as mediums of high value in their hands. […] As military resources with great buying power and easily transportable or storable, gold and silver soon demonstrated their convenience. As rewards for meritorious service they were suitable in place of land, supply of which was limited.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIIAN422\">[Kobata 1997, p. 257]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 75,
"polity": {
"id": 152,
"name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
"long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
"start_year": 1603,
"end_year": 1868
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 152,
"name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
"long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
"start_year": 1603,
"end_year": 1868
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold. Silver.“The city Edo experienced many devastating fires, and the silver and gold mines began producing less” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 134]</a> “the most elaborate robes were created with woven designs, gold-leaf and gold thread” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHHAQXUP\">[Yasutaka 1989, p. 16]</a> \" '“The city Edo experienced many devastating fires, and the silver and gold mines began producing less” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 134]</a> “In 1685 […] the outflow of silver to China was limited to 6,000 kan (about 49,620 lbs).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 128]</a> “samurai […] sword guards were decorated with gold and silver inlays” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW6KBXR7\">[Hane 1991, p. 190]</a> “To preserve at least the outward distinctions among classes, chonin were chided in sumptuary laws not to […] decorate their rooms with gold and silver leaf, or to furnish them with objects of gold lacquer.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FR896GQ7\">[Hanley 2008, p. 711]</a> “commoners were simply told […] ‘not to make gold lacquered furniture’,’ not to use either gold or silver in house decorations’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CUXFRI5W\">[Eijiro 1933, p. 39]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 76,
"polity": {
"id": 432,
"name": "ma_saadi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Saadi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1554,
"end_year": 1659
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “The city welcomed traders to its markets from the surrounding region, who brought textiles, metalwork, food and gold, slaves and ivory from the caravans that crossed the Sahara from the Western Sudan.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8JGEBBVM\">[García-Arenal 2009]</a> “The Jews of Fez who engaged in trades specialized in occupations that were either forbidden to the Muslim population, such as money-lending, or disdained by them, such as metalwork. They became jewellers, goldsmiths, minters of coins, arms manufacturers, and makers of special varieties of gold and silver braid.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8JGEBBVM\">[García-Arenal 2009]</a> “The city welcomed traders to its markets from the surrounding region, who brought textiles, metalwork, food and gold, slaves and ivory from the caravans that crossed the Sahara from the Western Sudan.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8JGEBBVM\">[García-Arenal 2009]</a> “The Sa'did placed the Sahara and the Sudan at the centre of their plans because of the pivotal role of the trans-Saharan trade in North Africa's economy. The Sultans claimed ownership of the salt mines in the Sahara in order to control the gold trade and thus to finance their activities in the Mediterranean through the minting of more gold ducats, a currency then well appreciated on international markets. Fernand Braudel's suggestion that the gold supply from the Sudan in the sixteenth century could not satisfy Morocco's needs is pertinent in this context. Although the Askiya Dawiid's prosperous reign (1549-83) had stimulated the trans-Saharan trade, European navigation and trading on the coast of West Africa could not but reduce the volume of the Saharan gold traffic. Thus the 159I invasion sought 'to control and revive the route' of the precious metal. Some historians, especially John R. Willis and John O. Hunwick, have viewed the 1591 invasion as an example of the Sa'did competition against the Ottoman Turks for leadership in the Muslim world and of their 'designs on universal Caliphate'. From the Moroccan point of view, control of the resources of the Sudan could lead to the acquisition of more gold and hence the purchase of more armament to be used against the Turks stationed in Algeria.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPT7ZCTF\">[Kaba 1981, p. 460]</a> ‘Morocco's growing demands for European-made goods worsened her balance of payments and culminated in a form of uneven development to be discussed below. In summary, al-Mansur's entire policy aimed at finding adequate sources of revenue to solve Morocco's fiscal problems. Most of the sixteenth-century chroniclers, whether Mediterranean or Sudanese, perceived the invasion of the Sudan as a project intended to shift most of West Africa's trade back to the north and to stimulate Morocco's economy, that is, to regain control of the gold trade, the 'driving force of the economy '. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPT7ZCTF\">[Kaba 1981, p. 462]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 77,
"polity": {
"id": 434,
"name": "ml_bamana_k",
"long_name": "Bamana kingdom",
"start_year": 1712,
"end_year": 1861
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "unclear",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, copper. The Masina uprising was in 1818, and the other wars referred to were perhaps afterward, but this quote refers to trade routes in the centuries previous, and the value of goods. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a> The following suggests restricted access to iron, though it may not be considered a luxury metal. “The spear and the sword formed a transitional stage, because iron was widely found and although access to technology was often restricted, their manufacture could not be controlled completely. The horse and the gun, however, represented divergent political patterns.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T52VQAVG\">[Roberts 1980]</a> Expert needed to determine exact provenance. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] Kolanut was another very valuable article carried mainly by the Diulas. For centuries trade in this commodity had served as an important link between the Western Sudan and the coastal regions of West Africa. From Ashanti kolanuts were conveyed north-westwards to Sansanding, Segu and Timbuktu and north-eastwards across the Niger to Kano and Bornu. Some of the kolanuts were also re-exported to the Sahara and North Africa. The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a> Gold “The Pagan king of Segu, fighting Shehu Ahmadu, sought the help of a noted Bambara warrior, sending him, so the traditions tell, 6,000 horns of Arab powder, 15,000 of local powder, 6,000 slaves, 500 cattle, ten horses, two ostriches with feet encircled with gold, and a vedette whose gait was more supple than that of a female ostrich” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQQF7KCJ\">[Fisher 2001, pp. 198-199]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 78,
"polity": {
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 229,
"name": "ml_mali_emp",
"long_name": "Mali Empire",
"start_year": 1230,
"end_year": 1410
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Gold; silver; copper; iron. “…the regions that were filled with gold, such as Ghana, Bure, and Bambuk, were under the reign of Mali…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XI8G7TQX\">[History_Titans 2021, p. 8]</a> “During his [Mansa Musa] famed pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325, he was a very generous guest to many hosts on the way. His retinue included a hundred camels bearing 300 lbs of gold each. Most of the gold was given out, causing depreciation in the value of gold in Cairo”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B68W6B3F\">[Sapong 2016]</a> “[Referring to the role of the Mali Empire in trans-Saharan trade] …gold was the most important commodity. There were three principal gold fields below the Sahara. One of the main ones, which had also been a source for ancient Ghana, was at Bambuk, between the Sénégal and Falémé Rivers. Another, also formerly controlled by Ghana, was at Buré above the Upper Niger in what is now northeast Guinea. The third was in Akan territory near the forest in the modern republics of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. Mali drew on all three gold fields for the trans-Saharan trade in precious metal”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, pp. 37-38]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, pp. 42-45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, pp. 86-87]</a> “[Referring specifically to copper in relation to the Mali Empire and in the first quote to the role of officials during the later part of the Mali Empire] The santigui (master of the treasury) was a kind of finance minister…With the diversification of sources of revenue, he took charge of deposits of gold and other riches such as ivory, copper… […] Takedda was…a great centre for the production and sale of copper; cast in strips, the metal was exported to the south, whose people valued it more highly than gold. […] [Ibn Battuta] informs us that copper was shaped into both thick and thin bars. The former were sold at the rate of 1 gold mithkal for 400 bars and the latter at the rate of 1 mithkal for 600 or 700 bars. In the [Mali] region, copper bars served as currency for the purchase of wood, meat, sorghum, butter and wheat. […] Mansa Musa let it be clearly understood in Cairo that he drew great profits from the copper he mined. Copper from Mali was traded in the forest regions for gold, ivory, kola nuts and also slaves”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 161]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 165]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 170]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, pp. 618-619]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 624]</a> Gold; copper; iron. “…the regions that were filled with gold, such as Ghana, Bure, and Bambuk, were under the reign of Mali…[gold] was [also] exported from Mali to Europe…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XI8G7TQX\">[History_Titans 2021, p. 8]</a> “[Referring to the role of the Mali Empire in trans-Saharan trade and the sourcing of gold specifically] There were three principal gold fields below the Sahara. One of the main ones, which had also been a source for ancient Ghana, was at Bambuk, between the Sénégal and Falémé Rivers. Another, also formerly controlled by Ghana, was at Buré above the Upper Niger in what is now northeast Guinea. The third was in Akan territory near the forest in the modern republics of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. Mali drew on all three gold fields for the trans-Saharan trade in precious metal…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, pp. 42-43]</a> “[Referring to the political and administrative organisation of the Mali Empire under Mansa Musa] Mine exploitation was…very important…gold was mined in Bure and Bambuk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SF4689A5\">[Maïga 2009, p. 28]</a> “[Referring specifically to gold in relation to the Mali Empire; same source as below but divided by precious metal type] …Mani or Niani [capital of Mali] was on the edge of the forest, a source of gold… […] Gold was worked in Mande by smiths called Siaki, who lived in the great urban centres. In Takrur and Jolof the forging of precious metals was a tradition dating back to the kaya maghan…Mali had many gold-mines…Gold was mined in Bure, the province bordering Mande…Bambuk, Galam on the upper Senegal river and the area around Niani also produced gold…Mali also got gold from the forest regions to the south. Begho, in Bronland (present-day Ghana), was a major centre for trade in…gold…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 136]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 170]</a> “[Referring specifically to copper and iron in relation to the Mali Empire; same source as above but divided by precious metal type] Iron was abundant in the Mandingo mountains as well as in the Niani [capital of Mali] region…The mansa had great forges at Niani… […] Takedda was…a great centre for the production and sale of copper…the metal was exported to the south… […] Copper from Mali was traded in the forest regions for gold, ivory, kola nuts and also slaves”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 165]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 170]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 624]</a> Gold; silver; copper; iron. “During his [Mansa Musa] famed pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325, he was a very generous guest to many hosts on the way. His retinue included a hundred camels bearing 300 lbs of gold each. Most of the gold was given out…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B68W6B3F\">[Sapong 2016]</a> “The powers of the Mansas included the right to…monopolize trade, particularly gold…So great was the entourage and so vast the wealth of gold carried to Arabia by Mansa Musa, in 1324-1325 CE, that some regard African wealth as the financier of the further propagation and spread of Islam in the later centuries. Without a doubt, much of the gold transported across the desert trade routes by Mansa Musa remained in Egypt, Syria and Mecca and at all points along the way. The estimated twelve tons of gold made Mali the most well-known African kingdom, and its diverse but peaceful expansion is attributed to this factor along with the unification and political ability of its leaders”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZXCP9MGF\">[Davis 2012, pp. 109-110]</a> “[Referring specifically to copper and iron in relation to the Mali Empire] The mansa had great forges [of iron] at Niani. […] Mansa Musa let it be clearly understood in Cairo that he drew great profits from the copper he mined”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 165]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 624]</a> Gold; silver; iron. “[Referring to Dugha, Chief jeli or bard of Mansa Sulayman’s court] As chief of the jeliw [bards], Dugha was one of the best-dressed people at the Mali court…From his waist hung a sword in a golden sheath, and he carried “two short lances, one of gold and the other of silver, with iron tips…On the day described by Ibn Battuta [while in Mali attending the celebration that followed Ramadan], Dugha came out with…about 100 young women…wearing gold headbands decorated with silver and gold ornaments”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, pp. 86-87]</a> “[Referring to royal audiences under Mansa Musa’s uncle, ruler Mansa Sulayman] Dugha [Chief jeli or bard of Mansa Sulayman’s court]…had a sword in a gold scabbard on his side; and he wore spurs, two gold and silver javelins with iron tips”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NI9JX6I5\">[Diop 1987, p. 84]</a> Gold; copper. “[Referring to Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca] …the Malians [Mansa Musa and his large entourage] spent such large amounts in the market [in Cairo], that gold declined in value… […] The mansa [Mansa Musa’s uncle, ruler Mansa Sulayman] was preceded [during royal audiences] by singers and musicians “with gold and silver stringed instruments” (quoted by Levtzion and Hopkins)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, p. 38]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCWPIU7F\">[Conrad 2005, p. 44]</a> “[Referring to the political and administrative organisation of the Mali Empire under Mansa Musa] …gold…[was] sometimes used as currency. […] Taxes were collected from anyone selling gold… [Referring to Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca] He went to Mecca and Cairo with 60,000 porters and servants decked out in gold, each carrying a golden staff weighing over three kilograms…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SF4689A5\">[Maïga 2009, pp. 28-29]</a> “[Referring specifically to copper in relation to the Mali Empire] [Ibn Battuta] informs us that…In the [Mali] region, copper bars served as currency for the purchase of wood, meat, sorghum, butter and wheat. […] Copper from Mali was traded in the forest regions for gold, ivory, kola nuts and also slaves”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, pp. 618-619]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTE5GGEJ\">[Niane 1984, p. 624]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 79,
"polity": {
"id": 433,
"name": "ml_segou_k",
"long_name": "Segou Kingdom",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1712
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "unclear",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, copper. The Masina uprising was in 1818, and the other wars referred to were perhaps afterward, but this quote refers to trade routes in the centuries previous, and the value of goods. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a> The following suggests restricted access to iron, though it may not be considered a luxury metal. “The spear and the sword formed a transitional stage, because iron was widely found and although access to technology was often restricted, their manufacture could not be controlled completely. The horse and the gun, however, represented divergent political patterns.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T52VQAVG\">[Roberts 1980]</a> Expert needed to determine exact provenance. “For instance the wars between Bambara Segu and Masina had disastrous effects on Jenne and Timbuktu, especially on their status as commercial centres. The wars continually interrupted communications between these places and Nyamina, Sansanding, Bamako and Boure, whence came the bulk of the gold traded in the Western Sudan.[...] Kolanut was another very valuable article carried mainly by the Diulas. For centuries trade in this commodity had served as an important link between the Western Sudan and the coastal regions of West Africa. From Ashanti kolanuts were conveyed north-westwards to Sansanding, Segu and Timbuktu and north-eastwards across the Niger to Kano and Bornu. Some of the kolanuts were also re-exported to the Sahara and North Africa. The Moors and the Arabs were very important for their role in the gum trade, and in the trade in sugar, dates, cowries, incense, oriental perfumes and copper bracelets. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FW9GISAQ\">[Oloruntimehin 1972, p. 25]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 80,
"polity": {
"id": 242,
"name": "ml_songhai_2",
"long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
"start_year": 1493,
"end_year": 1591
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 708,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period",
"start_year": 1495,
"end_year": 1579
},
{
"id": 242,
"name": "ml_songhai_2",
"long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
"start_year": 1493,
"end_year": 1591
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “The first Europeans to infiltrate the trading market established between West and North Africa were the Portuguese, who between 1480 and 1540, controlled the Atlantic coastline from Morocco and the Guinea gulf. They engaged in a profitable trade with West Africa, exchanging copper and cloth in particular for slaves and gold, thus successfully eliminating the Sahara middlemen.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2996AFHU\">[Spring_Hudson 0, p. 24]</a> “The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots. One of these ingots weighs 970 pounds.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GU9AEZE6\">[Africanus_Brians 0]</a> “The first Europeans to infiltrate the trading market established between West and North Africa were the Portuguese, who between 1480 and 1540, controlled the Atlantic coastline from Morocco and the Guinea gulf. They engaged in a profitable trade with West Africa, exchanging copper and cloth in particular for slaves and gold, thus successfully eliminating the Sahara middlemen.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2996AFHU\">[Spring_Hudson 0, p. 24]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 81,
"polity": {
"id": 443,
"name": "mn_mongol_late",
"long_name": "Late Mongols",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1690
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Silver. “In [Ming] government purchases the prices were calculated in silver but not necessarily paid in silver alone: the Mongols received as payment silver, cotton cloth and cotton fibre, satin and silk of various types; also needles, thread, combs, rice and salt, preserved fruit, otter skins (tanned and processed ?), kettles, iron and steel tools, saltpetre.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58BKWEGB\">[Serruys 1975, p. 53]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 82,
"polity": {
"id": 444,
"name": "mn_zungharian_emp",
"long_name": "Zungharian Empire",
"start_year": 1670,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘’‘ gold, silver, bronze. “During the Qing Dynasty, the Zunghar Khanate had a wide range of goods imported from the Qing Empire. These goods included various items such as python robes, shuangxi robes, silk fabrics, embroidery threads, spices, food, medicines, and daily necessities. The python robes, originating from the Ming Dynasty, were highly decorative garments with intricate patterns symbolizing auspiciousness and the stability of the nation. They were worn by imperial princes, officials, and even non-ruling class individuals, with variations in the number of pythons and colors. The shuangxi robes were embroidered with the Chinese character \"囍\" (xi), representing joy and happiness in Han Chinese culture. The Zunghar Khanate purchased a significant number of python robes and gold shuangxi robes, indicating their growing acceptance of Central Plains culture and a shift away from their nomadic lifestyle. The purchases also reflected a divergence between the upper and lower classes of the Zunghar Khanate… In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign alone, a staggering 220,500 sheets of gold leaf, known as \"佛金\" (Buddhist gold), were purchased. These gold leaf sheets were specifically used for creating gilded Buddha statues. Furthermore, while the proportion of tea in the two trading events was not significant, it is evident that the Mongolian people had a strong demand for tea. This suggests that the Zunghar Khanate must have had alternative trade routes for procuring tea. (清朝卖给准噶尔的货物种类丰富，不但有成件的蟒袍、双喜袍，还有各种绸缎、花线、调味品、食品、药品和日用品等。这些商品中，尤为注意的是蟒袍和双喜袍。蟒袍源于明朝，因袍上绣有蟒纹而得名。至清代为吉服，皇子、亲王、郡王等文武百官，直至未入流皆可穿服，只是在蟒数和颜色上有所区别，并有一套完整而严格的规制。蟒袍是一种装饰性很强的服饰，几乎袍上的每个纹饰都有讲究，如波浪和山石的纹饰，除有吉祥绵续之外，还有国土永固之意。清代文武百官只有在朝贺、接驾、祝寿等场合穿用，它代表的是儒家或者中央政府的一种审美观。双喜袍即在袍上绣上“囍”的字样，代表的是一种汉地文化，至今汉族人在结婚的时候，还要在门口贴上红双喜的字样，以示吉利和喜庆。而准噶尔在乾隆九年购买了49件蟒袍，购买了3件金双喜袍；乾隆十三年购买了191件蟒袍，30件金双喜袍。两次相加，则购买的蟒袍和金双喜袍有273件，如果再加上其他年份的购买数，则数额更多。这些衣服价格很高，最低的为五丝蟒袍，10两一件，最高的为金双喜袍，20两一件，很显然，这是为准噶尔贵族购买的。购买这么多的蟒袍和金双喜袍说明准噶尔贵族有意或无意地接受了中原文化，逐渐脱离了游牧生活方式，越来越向往中原官僚的生活方式了，而这种向往又说明了准噶尔上层和下层民众的背离……仅乾隆九年购买的佛金一项，就有220500张佛金，这些佛金就是金箔，是用于制作金身佛像的。另外，两次贸易中茶叶所占贸易的比例并不高，但是蒙古人又对茶叶有极大的需求，看来准噶尔购买茶叶应该还有另外的贸易渠道。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJUSTDJ6\">[Lv 2014, pp. 21-38]</a> “During the Qing Dynasty, the Zunghar Khanate had a wide range of goods imported from the Qing Empire. These goods included various items such as python robes, shuangxi robes, silk fabrics, embroidery threads, spices, food, medicines, and daily necessities. The python robes, originating from the Ming Dynasty, were highly decorative garments with intricate patterns symbolizing auspiciousness and the stability of the nation. They were worn by imperial princes, officials, and even non-ruling class individuals, with variations in the number of pythons and colors. The shuangxi robes were embroidered with the Chinese character \"囍\" (xi), representing joy and happiness in Han Chinese culture. The Zunghar Khanate purchased a significant number of python robes and gold shuangxi robes, indicating their growing acceptance of Central Plains culture and a shift away from their nomadic lifestyle. The purchases also reflected a divergence between the upper and lower classes of the Zunghar Khanate… In the ninth year of the Qianlong reign alone, a staggering 220,500 sheets of gold leaf, known as \"佛金\" (Buddhist gold), were purchased. These gold leaf sheets were specifically used for creating gilded Buddha statues. Furthermore, while the proportion of tea in the two trading events was not significant, it is evident that the Mongolian people had a strong demand for tea. This suggests that the Zunghar Khanate must have had alternative trade routes for procuring tea. (清朝卖给准噶尔的货物种类丰富，不但有成件的蟒袍、双喜袍，还有各种绸缎、花线、调味品、食品、药品和日用品等。这些商品中，尤为注意的是蟒袍和双喜袍。蟒袍源于明朝，因袍上绣有蟒纹而得名。至清代为吉服，皇子、亲王、郡王等文武百官，直至未入流皆可穿服，只是在蟒数和颜色上有所区别，并有一套完整而严格的规制。蟒袍是一种装饰性很强的服饰，几乎袍上的每个纹饰都有讲究，如波浪和山石的纹饰，除有吉祥绵续之外，还有国土永固之意。清代文武百官只有在朝贺、接驾、祝寿等场合穿用，它代表的是儒家或者中央政府的一种审美观。双喜袍即在袍上绣上“囍”的字样，代表的是一种汉地文化，至今汉族人在结婚的时候，还要在门口贴上红双喜的字样，以示吉利和喜庆。而准噶尔在乾隆九年购买了49件蟒袍，购买了3件金双喜袍；乾隆十三年购买了191件蟒袍，30件金双喜袍。两次相加，则购买的蟒袍和金双喜袍有273件，如果再加上其他年份的购买数，则数额更多。这些衣服价格很高，最低的为五丝蟒袍，10两一件，最高的为金双喜袍，20两一件，很显然，这是为准噶尔贵族购买的。购买这么多的蟒袍和金双喜袍说明准噶尔贵族有意或无意地接受了中原文化，逐渐脱离了游牧生活方式，越来越向往中原官僚的生活方式了，而这种向往又说明了准噶尔上层和下层民众的背离……仅乾隆九年购买的佛金一项，就有220500张佛金，这些佛金就是金箔，是用于制作金身佛像的。另外，两次贸易中茶叶所占贸易的比例并不高，但是蒙古人又对茶叶有极大的需求，看来准噶尔购买茶叶应该还有另外的贸易渠道。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJUSTDJ6\">[Lv 2014, pp. 21-38]</a> “Among the accessories, rings and purses are the main items. Rings, known as 'suik', are ‘made of gold and silver and worn as earrings. They are adorned with pearls and are used by both men and women’. Purses, known as 'habutaga', are ‘made of satin fabric and have beautifully crafted tassels with subtle differences from those on the central plains region. The Zungharians have a wide variety of accessories, and aside from their homemade ones, they also acquire a significant number of exquisite accessories through trade with the central plains region. In a Russian document in 1689, it listed the stolen goods that the Zungharians demanded compensation for from the Russian authorities, we can see items such as sky blue beads, jewellery, coral prayer beads, silver jewellery, necklaces, and more. These accessories were undoubtedly popular within the Zungharian tribe, particularly among the nobility. (饰物主要有环和荷包。环，叫“绥克”，“金银为之，以坠耳。饰以珠，男妇皆用之”。荷包叫“哈布塔嘎”，“缎布为之，制与内地微异，结穗精美”。准噶尔人的饰物种类是颇多的，除了自制外，还从与中原地区贸易中得到大量精美饰物。我们从一份一六八九年准噶尔要求沙俄当局赔偿的被劫货物清单的俄文档案中可以看到：有天蓝色珠子、珠宝、珊瑚念珠、银首饰、项链等项目，这些首饰肯定是在准噶尔部内，至少是准噶尔部贵族中流行使用。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UMVK3EK\">[Editorial_Team 2007, p. 233]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 83,
"polity": {
"id": 774,
"name": "mw_early_maravi",
"long_name": "Early Maravi",
"start_year": 1400,
"end_year": 1499
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 710,
"name": "tz_tana",
"long_name": "Classic Tana",
"start_year": 1000,
"end_year": 1498
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Zambia; Congo",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘’’ “Thus, the extraordinary abundance of imported objects at Mankhamba makes the site unique. It shows that it was the Chewa who intensified long-distance trade in the area once they became firmly established at the site. Glass beads from Asia and Europe were one of the commodities obtained from Indian Ocean coastal traders. The Chewa also imported different objects made of copper and copper ore, probably from the copper-producing areas of Zambia and the DRC. Furthermore, the excavation yielded objects made of iron which could not have been produced locally. It is also likely that the people of Mankhamba imported perishable items such as cloth to supplement their own locally made material.” […] “The people of Mankhamba were also great users of copper products. Considering that Luba, their original home, was located within a major copper-producing area, it is likely that they were familiar with copper workings before they arrived at Mankhamba. Some of the objects recovered at Mankhamba, such as copper rings and bangles, were used as a medium of exchange. One type of object not recovered at the site, but nearby, was the copper ingot. In 1967, a man removing a tree stump on the adjacent Dedza escarpment, not far from Mankhamba, found a hoard of eight, large H-shaped ingots (see Plate 12.1). This shows that despite their absence in the Mankhamba excavations, these objects circulated in the area. Their absence in the excavation was value-related as ingots were expensive objects and unlikely to be disposed of carelessly. In contrast, rings, bangles, necklaces and other objects were readily available to the general population. The value of copper depended on the principle of supply and demand, in relation to location. Freeman-Grenville indicated that objects like bracelets were used as a medium of exchange for small expenses in much of southern and eastern Africa. […] The abundance of copper and total absence of gold objects at Mankhamba makes the argument acceptable that Africans viewed copper as being more valuable than gold.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 187]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 190-192]</a> “Thus, the extraordinary abundance of imported objects at Mankhamba makes the site unique. It shows that it was the Chewa who intensified long-distance trade in the area once they became firmly established at the site. Glass beads from Asia and Europe were one of the commodities obtained from Indian Ocean coastal traders. The Chewa also imported different objects made of copper and copper ore, probably from the copper-producing areas of Zambia and the DRC. Furthermore, the excavation yielded objects made of iron which could not have been produced locally. It is also likely that the people of Mankhamba imported perishable items such as cloth to supplement their own locally made material.” […] “Malawi, unlike southern Zambezia, did not have gold, copper or silver in commercially exploitable quantities. With respect to silver, however, an exception might be made even though the extent of its exploitation by the people of Mankhamba is far from clear.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 187]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 192]</a> “The recovery of a copper vessel at Mankhamba was totally unexpected. The fact that only one was recovered suggests that copper vessels were rare. It is not clear what this type of vessel was used for, but many ethnologists and museum collectors in Africa observed that copper objects were used largely for ceremonial and ornamental purposes.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 84,
"polity": {
"id": 776,
"name": "mw_maravi_emp",
"long_name": "Maravi Empire",
"start_year": 1622,
"end_year": 1870
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Central Africa",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Iron, silver. Copper was widely used and therefore likely not seen as \"precious\", but certain copper items were rarer than others and therefore should be included here. \"The Chewa also imported different objects made of copper and copper ore, probably from the copper-producing areas of Zambia and the DRC. Furthermore, the excavation yielded objects made of iron which could not have been produced locally.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 186-187]</a> \"Besides commonly occurring implements such as spears and razors several pronged objects were also recovered……. The first was made of silver and looked like a small sounding tool except that one of its prongs was twisted. Even though a small silver-bearing lead deposit exists on one of the plateau areas above Mankhamba (Killick 1990, 55), there is no evidence that the Maravi or any other group of people in Malawi ever exploited silver. This object was therefore an import, but its origins and use cannot presently be determined.………. Except for the flat iron strap, all these objects were imported\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/REKE4Q53\">[Juwayeyi 2010, p. 191]</a> \"Unlike iron implements, copper objects were well preserved and thus easily identifiable. The most commonly occurring objects were needles, thick and thin copper wires, fish hooks, rings and rods. In addition, one piece of copper slag was recovered. Thick wires averaged 1.6 mm in thickness and were probably the raw materials for the manufacture of needles and fish hooks (Juwayeyi, 2010, 191). Copper ornaments comprised necklaces, rings and bangles. Nine necklaces were recovered and some look almost modern, resembling those interlocking linked gold- chains commonly sold in jewellery shops. One particular necklace is, however, quite different. It is thick and consists of three thick wires that were initially held together by thin wire before compactly wrapping it with more thin wire. While bangles were rare, rings were the most common copper ornaments .They were made of thick copper wire over which thin wire was compactly coiled to make them more bulky or elaborate. The average internal diameter of most rings suggests that they were too large for fingers and most were thus probably used as earrings <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/REKE4Q53\">[Juwayeyi 2010, pp. 192-193]</a> \"The Chewa also imported different objects made of copper and copper ore, probably from the copper-producing areas of Zambia and the DRC. Furthermore, the excavation yielded objects made of iron which could not have been produced locally.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 186-187]</a> \"The first was made of silver and looked like a small sounding tool except that one of its prongs was twisted. Even though a small silver-bearing lead deposit exists on one of the plateau areas above Mankhamba (Killick 1990, 55), there is no evidence that the Maravi or any other group of people in Malawi ever exploited silver. This object was therefore an import, but its origins and use cannot presently be determined.………. Except for the flat iron strap, all these objects were imported.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/REKE4Q53\">[Juwayeyi 2010, p. 191]</a> \"The value of copper depended on the principle of supply and demand, in relation to location. Freeman-Grenville indicated that objects like bracelets were used as a medium of exchange for small expenses in much of southern and eastern Africa. The fact that only one was recovered suggests that copper vessels were rare. It is not clear what this type of vessel was used for, but many ethnologists and museum collectors in Africa observed that copper objects were used largely for ceremonial and ornamental purposes. It is possible that the Mankhamba specimen was used in some ceremonial activity.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 192]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 85,
"polity": {
"id": 775,
"name": "mw_northern_maravi_k",
"long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom",
"start_year": 1500,
"end_year": 1621
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 775,
"name": "mw_northern_maravi_k",
"long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom",
"start_year": 1500,
"end_year": 1621
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Bronze (items made of bronze), gold, iron. \"Some of the commodities used in the exchange of these items were ivory, cattle and perhaps gold. Although the role of gold during this early period is not that clear, the evidence shows that it was being exploited at least by ad 1000. The same might apply to the exploitation of copper. Remains of copper in southern Zambezia were found at several sites, including those that had been occupied by non-elites. This metal was so widely used, it has been argued that Africans considered it more valuable than gold. \" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 186-187]</a> \"Imported objects such as glass beads, cowrie shells and objects made of bronze began to appear in southern Zambezia before ad 900, but later in northern Zambezia where Mankhamba is located. Long-distance trade never became a prominent activity in the southern Lake Malawi area before the Chewa came to Mankhamba. Once they established themselves at that site, they began to import glass beads, ceramics, cowrie shells and metal, largely copper objects. They exchanged these for ivory, iron implements, cotton cloth, animal skins, salt and beeswax. (Juwayeyi, 2020:202). \" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a> \"Imported objects such as glass beads, cowrie shells and objects made of bronze began to appear in southern Zambezia before ad 900, but later in northern Zambezia where Mankhamba is located. Long-distance trade never became a prominent activity in the southern Lake Malawi area before the Chewa came to Mankhamba. Once they established themselves at that site, they began to import glass beads, ceramics, cowrie shells and metal, largely copper objects. They exchanged these for ivory, iron implements, cotton cloth, animal skins, salt and beeswax.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 202]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 86,
"polity": {
"id": 773,
"name": "mw_pre_maravi",
"long_name": "Pre-Maravi",
"start_year": 1151,
"end_year": 1399
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Southern Zambezia",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Copper, bronze, gold, silver. “Although identifiable objects made of copper at Mankhamba were abundant compared to iron, copper working was a minor industry. This was due to a lack of commercially exploitable copper deposits in the area. It is likely that many of the copper rings, necklaces and thin wire found there were brought to Mankhamba by traders who travelled between the copper belt and the southern Lake Malawi area. This trade continued well into the nineteenth century.” […] “Commenting on the nature and intensity of the trade in southern Zambezia, Chirikure pointed out that imported items, such as glass beads, cowrie shells and bronze items began to appear before ad 900. […] Bronze was recovered at the site of Berryl Rose Claims in northern Zimbabwe where it was dated to ad 800 and cowrie shells appear elsewhere in the hinterland at about the same time. […] Although the role of gold during this early period is not that clear, the evidence shows that it was being exploited at least by ad 1000. The same might apply to the exploitation of copper. Remains of copper in southern Zambezia were found at several sites, including those that had been occupied by non-elites. This metal was so widely used, it has been argued that Africans considered it more valuable than gold.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 176]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 186-187]</a> “Malawi, unlike southern Zambezia, did not have gold, copper or silver in commercially exploitable quantities. With respect to silver, however, an exception might be made even though the extent of its exploitation by the people of Mankhamba is far from clear.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 176]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, pp. 186-187]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 192]</a> “The distribution of the sites shows that both the elite and ordinary people in southern Zambezia participated in the trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 186]</a> “The distribution of the sites shows that both the elite and ordinary people in southern Zambezia participated in the trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WGKGFX2X\">[Juwayeyi 2020, p. 186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 87,
"polity": {
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 16,
"name": "mx_aztec_emp",
"long_name": "Aztec Empire",
"start_year": 1427,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold; copper; silver. “The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “According to the Codex Mendoza… [...] Distant provinces delivered luxurious raw materials and manufactured goods such as turquoise mosaics, strings of finished greenstones, colorful feathers, gold adornments, fine lip plugs, and jaguar pelts in their tribute payments.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 42-43]</a> “Tribute paid to Aztec overlords included many types and considerable quantities of fully or partially manufactured goods: textiles (some elaborately decorated), feathered warrior costumes and shields, fine greenstone beads, turquoise mosaics, gold ornaments, lip plugs, copper bells and axes, bowls, smoking tubes, paper, and wooden carrying frames (Berdan and Anawalt, 1992, vol. 3).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 57-58]</a> “Copper bells served as aristocratic gifts, bedecked godly idols, and accompanied the deceased on their journeys to the underworld; they were reportedly valued according to their size.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 68]</a> “The Aztec empire targeted this zone for staple foodstuffs and localized resources such as bees’ honey, dyes and pigments, paper, gold, copper, and turquoise.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 6]</a> “Different crafts demanded different degrees of economic investment, usually in raw materials – the feather worker, lapidary, and gold worker produced “luxury” objects of materials defined as precious, expensive, and exotic; utilitarian artisans such as basket and sandal makers worked in less expensive and more broadly accessible raw materials. [...] Inter-craft collaborations were the rule among luxury artisans such as the feather workers who depended on the contributions of scribes, gold workers, and lapidaries in producing their feathered masterpieces, and residential clustering of some crafts in Otompan “facilitated a high degree of interdependence among industries” (Nichols 1994: 184).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 26-27]</a> “Specialists such as pulque makers, dyers, painters, gold workers, mat makers, stone workers, curers, and professional merchants were localized in specific Tenochtitlan–Tlatelolco calpolli (López Austin, 1973: 65–75; Monzon, 1949).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 56]</a> “Different crafts demanded different degrees of economic investment, usually in raw materials – the feather worker, lapidary, and gold worker produced “luxury” objects of materials defined as precious, expensive, and exotic; utilitarian artisans such as basket and sandal makers worked in less expensive and more broadly accessible raw materials. [...] Some households were attached to royal or other noble palaces and by that very circumstance were necessarily tied to broader economic processes. These included at least metal workers, feather workers, painters, stone cutters, lapidaries, and wood carvers, as well as pulque makers. Their high-end and other essential materials would have been available in the palace storehouses, stocked by tribute or other assessments (see Section 3). There was no ambiguity as to their customers: They worked specifically for their royal or noble sponsors.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 26-28]</a> “In addition to human sacrificial ceremonies, the delivery of tributes from near and far was featured: vast amounts of gold, precious feathers and stones, clothing and adornments, cacao, and all manner of foods. These goods were managed by the royal treasurer, and “Especially everything the priests requested for the cult to the gods and for the present ceremonies was provided” (Durán, 1994:336). These were impositions made by a ruler but for primarily religious purposes (although, admittedly, the tlatoani himself reaped rewards of power, stature, and godly favor). [...] …and godly idols housed in temple shrines were divinely adorned with cloth, gold, shells, feathers, and fine stone artistry. [...] Gold, feathers, and precious stone adornments were produced by palace artisans, at least in Tenochtitlan, and all of these materials appear on the Codex Mendoza tribute tally (Sahagún 1950-82, book 8: 91).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “Some households were attached to royal or other noble palaces and by that very circumstance were necessarily tied to broader economic processes. These included at least metal workers, feather workers, painters, stone cutters, lapidaries, and wood carvers, as well as pulque makers. Their high-end and other essential materials would have been available in the palace storehouses, stocked by tribute or other assessments (seeSection 3). There was no ambiguity as to their customers: They worked specifically for their royal or noble sponsors.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 28]</a> “In addition to human sacrificial ceremonies, the delivery of tributes from near and far was featured: vast amounts of gold, precious feathers and stones, clothing and adornments, cacao, and all manner of foods. These goods were managed by the royal treasurer, and “Especially everything the priests requested for the cult to the gods and for the present ceremonies was provided” (Durán, 1994:336). [...] …and godly idols housed in temple shrines were divinely adorned with cloth, gold, shells, feathers, and fine stone artistry. [...] Gold, feathers, and precious stone adornments were produced by palace artisans, at least in Tenochtitlan, and all of these materials appear on the Codex Mendoza tribute tally (Sahagún 1950-82, book 8: 91).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 48]</a> “Wealthy merchants were sent on their way with their trade goods, which could include jaguar pelts, greenstone beads, copper bells, gold, and precious feathers (Figure 20; Boone, 1983: folio 68r).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, p. 61]</a> “Different crafts demanded different degrees of economic investment, usually in raw materials – the feather worker, lapidary, and gold worker produced “luxury” objects of materials defined as precious, expensive, and exotic; utilitarian artisans such as basket and sandal makers worked in less expensive and more broadly accessible raw materials.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4UCU45A\">[Berdan 2023, pp. 26-27]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 88,
"polity": {
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 532,
"name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
"long_name": "Monte Alban V",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1520
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “A period V also has been distinguished at Monte Albán, beginning about 1350. Monte Albán still was uninhabited, as it had been in period IV. However, the burials and offerings of period V contained artifacts of a style different from those of period IV. The elaborate polychrome pottery, the detailed bone carvings, and the gold and metal work, such as that found in the famous Tomb 7 by Alfonso Caso, are characteristic of the post-Classic Mixtee cultural tradition.” […] “The first archeological evidence of Mixteca-Puebla influences in the Valley of Oaxaca came from Monte Albán, where, as has already been noted, period V was originally defined in conjunction with burials. […] The most spectacular discovery of twentieth-century Mesoamerican archeology was Tomb 7 at Monte Albán. In it were found silver objects with a total weight of 325 grams, including a vessel (the largest silver object known from pre-Columbian Mexico), bracelets, tweezers, plaques, rings, and bells. There were also 121 gold objects with a total weight of 3,598.7 grams, including pectorals, garment ornaments, pendants, rings, necklaces, tweezers, ear ornaments, and other objects. Carved bones, turquoise mosaics, and objects carved of precious stone added to the already rich array of status items.” […] “The position of prince carried with it the right to exact tribute and obtain services from the subject population. Most of the relaciones indicate that commoners gave tribute to their prince, although few indicate specifically what was given. […] Other towns paid to their princes such things as gold dust, jewelry or gold, precious stones, feathers, jaguar skins, and cotton clothing as well as fowl, maize, chilies, beans, and animals of the hunt, such as rabbits and deer.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 81]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, pp. 97-98]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 140]</a> “Oaxaca had its own tradition of metallurgy during the Postclassic period. Two known mines, El Taviche and Los Ocoltes, provided the region with native metal (Hosler and Macfarlane 1996:1821). Metalworkers in Oaxaca developed a unique copper-gold alloy after A.D. 1200; its relation to West Mexico’s earlier copper-based metallurgy is unclear. Oaxaca is well known for producing axemonies: stylized axes that were far too thin to be mistaken for functional tools and, instead, served as a form of wealth (Hosler et al. 1990).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VT6RUQ3Q\">[Paris 2008, p. 48]</a> “Precious metals such as gold, silver, and copper as well as some precious stones like alabaster were found in restricted locations in the mountains as well as in deposits in some coastal rivers.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\">[Joyce 2010, p. 54]</a> “The position of prince carried with it the right to exact tribute and obtain services from the subject population. Most of the relaciones indicate that commoners gave tribute to their prince, although few indicate specifically what was given. […] Other towns paid to their princes such things as gold dust, jewelry or gold, precious stones, feathers, jaguar skins, and cotton clothing as well as fowl, maize, chilies, beans, and animals of the hunt, such as rabbits and deer.” […] “Other relaciones pertaining to Zapotec-speaking towns supplement these accounts. Elites in Teocuicuilco wore brightly decorated, woven cotton or feathered mantles and shirts as well as lip plugs, earrings, brightly colored feather headdresses, and gold and precious-stone bead necklaces; the common estate wore plain maguey-fiber clothing devoid of ornamentation. […] The caciques and principales were equipped in battle with different weapons and armor from those of commoners in both Ixtepeji and Ocolotepec, also Zapotec-speaking communities. These phenomena are characteristic of most Mesoamerican societies of the post-Classic.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 140]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K7TZ6GA\">[Whitecotton 1984, p. 143]</a> “Ixtac Quiautzin was the second colonial period yya or ruler of Tututepec and was later baptized as “Don Pedro de Alvarado.” On his death circa C.E. 1547, a controversy regarding the inheritance of the yuhuitayu and associated ani ̃ ne resources was sorted out in the Spanish courts (Woensdregt 1996:40). Documents from the legal wranglings provide details of Quiautzin’s property, including numerous pieces of turquoise and gold jewelry, strings of pearls, greenstone beads, quetzal feathers, mirrors, and other goods (Berlin 1947:31–32).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7UJPVP\">[Levine 2011, p. 28]</a> The following quote refers to tributary goods paid to Tututepec and listed in the Relaciones “A second class of goods are identified as valuable raw materials (e.g., gold dust, feathers, cochineal) for crafting highly ornate luxury goods or social valuables, such as jewelry or fancy clothing. A third class of items consist of fungible goods, including cacao, cotton cloth mantas, gold dust, and copper axe-monies—all of which were used as forms of currency during the Late Postclassic (Berdan et al. 2003:101–102).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7UJPVP\">[Levine 2011, p. 27]</a> “By at least the Late Postclassic in the Basin of Mexico, luxury goods were produced in both workshops and households, and those households were incorporated into broader residential originations. These urban residential \"guilds\" regulated membership, controlled quality in production, provided training, and involved their membership specific religious activities (Sahagùn 1950-1982book 9). They included, most notably, the featherworkers, fine Iapidaries, and metalworkers (of gold and silver). In Oaxaca, where such artisanship attained a remarkable level of sophistication, luxury artisans were members of the nobility” […] “In the small polities of the Mixtec and Zapotec areas of Oaxaca, merchants and luxury craftsmen were junior members of the nobility. The merchants undertook long expeditions to distant regions where they traded in luxury goods and the primary materials used in the manufacture of jewelry and other fine objects used for display, gifting, and bridewealth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/45IS8SR8\">[Berdan_et_al 2003, pp. 100-103]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 89,
"polity": {
"id": 659,
"name": "ni_allada_k",
"long_name": "Allada",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1724
},
"year_from": 1670,
"year_to": 1724,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, silver. “Gold: soon after gold was discovered in Brazil in 1698 Portuguese ships took some to Whydah to buy slaves and would do so for a half a century or more. […] These were the status symbols, the privileges of rank and wealth that propped up the egos of African kings, chiefs, grandees, and rich helping to set them apart from the common folk. The roster of trappings would be long: […] silver-headed canes, silver tobacco pipes […] elegant silverware velvet upholstered armchairs with gilt legs […] Silver: a form used to adulterate gold was available on the Gold Coast by 1601 and silver bullion by the late seventeenth century. Silver dust was being imported into the Slave Coast by 1670. Silver chains, rings, and other objects appear in the records, probably intended mainly as gifts. But the main source of silver for Kwaland seems to have been coins: English, Dutch, and French crowns, French pounds, Dutch patacas, Spanish pieces of eight and reals, Spanish-American dollars. Presumably most of them were melted down and reworked into ornaments or regal paraphernalia.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 14]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 29]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 90,
"polity": {
"id": 669,
"name": "ni_hausa_k",
"long_name": "Hausa bakwai",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1808
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 669,
"name": "ni_hausa_k",
"long_name": "Hausa bakwai",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1808
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “From time immemorial, trade has necessitated the standardization of exchange. Prior to the 20th century, a variety of items served as acceptable media of trade across Nigeria. Purchases of land, slaves, and major commodities were made using a single or combination of currencies such as kolanuts, stamped gold coins (mithqal), and cowry shells. The mithqal was made from gold imported from Bonduku (in present-day Ivory Coast) and minted. It was used extensively along trade routes between central Nigerian kingdoms and the Hausa Kingdoms.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 343]</a> “Bronze and brass casting were ancient crafts practiced for over a thousand years in the Nigerian region and reached a high artistic achievement level.” […] “Similarly, according to the Kano Chronicle, by 1000 CE there were eleven chiefs in Kano, each the head of a kinship group specializing in different occupations like smelting, blacksmithing, brewing, salt- digging, and medicine (Fuglestad 1978; Palmer 1967, 511; Smith 1964).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6J59P64H\">[Usman 2022, pp. 175-176]</a> “To this day blacksmithing is an important occupation in Hausa towns and villages, and hoes remain a substantial proportion of the manufactures. No longer, however, does the smith rely on local mining and smelting, but rather on scrap and imported iron. Even in the nineteenth century it is doubtful whether Hausaland was self-sufficient in wrought iron, and memories exist of its being brought long distances, especially from 'Gwari' country to the south. But some instances of recent Hausa smelting are recorded from south Katsina and Zamfara,22 and workable medium-quality laterite ores are common enough. Near Zaria and at Kano these were exploited in the later first millennium A.D.,23 but whether by an early Hausa or an essentially pre-Hausa population cannot be determined at this stage.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9RS8M6C\">[Sutton 1979, p. 186]</a> “The raw materials iron and cotton were abundant and high demand stimulated highquality crafts” […] “The Sahara and Azbin sent Arab and European goods to these markets, including mirrors and paper, but particularly horses (the dan Azbin breed, also called bagazam, from Azbin), camels, dates, henna, salt (palma after the city of Bilma), swords and other articles. Part of the salt and sword consignments were in transit and bound ultimately for the south. In return, Hausaland supplied them with slaves, clothes, fabrics, millet, hides, iron, gold dust and kola nuts from Gwanja. Borno had horses (dan Bahar or Bahargazal), natron and salt to offer, and in exchange received metal articles, gold dust and kola nuts, again from Gwanja. Hausaland exported salt, swords, condiments, hides, clothes and fabrics, slaves and horses to Gwanja, Borgu, Nupe and Yoruba and received in return various European goods, local iron, antimony, slaves and eunuchs, rifles from Nupe (for Kano), and kola nuts from Gwanja for general consumption” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJ8JS6WR\">[bookSection_The Hausa States]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJ8JS6WR\">[bookSection_The Hausa States]</a> “Archeological findings indicate that tin mining occurred in Jos Plateau, Bauchi, and Okeri prior to the 19th century. The Hausa, for example used tin to coat the brass creations that they acquired through the trans-Saharan trade. Europeans found evidence of tin smelting in Kano in the 1880s that dated back centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\">[Falola_Genova 2009, p. 343]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 91,
"polity": {
"id": 660,
"name": "ni_igodomingodo",
"long_name": "Igodomingodo",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1450
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\">[Bondarenko_Roese 2001, pp. 185-186]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 92,
"polity": {
"id": 612,
"name": "ni_nok_1",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -1500,
"end_year": -901
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 93,
"polity": {
"id": 615,
"name": "ni_nok_2",
"long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
"start_year": -900,
"end_year": 0
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 94,
"polity": {
"id": 668,
"name": "ni_nri_k",
"long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì",
"start_year": 1043,
"end_year": 1911
},
"year_from": 1670,
"year_to": 1911,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, silver. “Gold: soon after gold was discovered in Brazil in 1698 Portuguese ships took some to Whydah to buy slaves and would do so for a half a century or more. […] These were the status symbols, the privileges of rank and wealth that propped up the egos of African kings, chiefs, grandees, and rich helping to set them apart from the common folk. The roster of trappings would be long: […] silver-headed canes, silver tobacco pipes […] elegant silverware velvet upholstered armchairs with gilt legs […] Silver: a form used to adulterate gold was available on the Gold Coast by 1601 and silver bullion by the late seventeenth century. Silver dust was being imported into the Slave Coast by 1670. Silver chains, rings, and other objects appear in the records, probably intended mainly as gifts. But the main source of silver for Kwaland seems to have been coins: English, Dutch, and French crowns, French pounds, Dutch patacas, Spanish pieces of eight and reals, Spanish-American dollars. Presumably most of them were melted down and reworked into ornaments or regal paraphernalia.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 14]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 29]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 95,
"polity": {
"id": 663,
"name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
"long_name": "Oyo",
"start_year": 1300,
"end_year": 1535
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "\"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PK7F26DP\">[Ogundiran 2005, pp. 151-152]</a> Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: \"Of the earliest period of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB32ZPCF\">[Law 1977, p. 33]</a> Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 96,
"polity": {
"id": 666,
"name": "ni_sokoto_cal",
"long_name": "Sokoto Caliphate",
"start_year": 1804,
"end_year": 1904
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “[D]uring the heyday of the Sokoto Caliphate in the 19th century, the major currencies used were the cowries, silver, gold, Maria Theresa dollars, slaves, strips of sawaye cloth, kola nuts and millet.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TED5UJM5\">[Abubakar_Yandaki 2022, p. 63]</a> “The smiths were also skilled craftsmen and worked silver, copper, and alloys, as well as iron. Apart from agricultural implements, there was a brisk demand all over the Sudan for weapons, bits, stirrups, and women’s ornaments.” […] “The main products of the brass and silver smiths of Bida were sword and dagger hilts, horse trappings, bowls, jugs, dishes, ladles, anklets, bangles, necklaces, and rings. Artistic decoration, as well as superior workmanship, helped to give these articles their special value. For the manufacture of some of them a form of cire perdue casting was employed which was probably introduced from Benin.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E92Q4IPV\">[Johnson 1967, pp. 158-159]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 97,
"polity": {
"id": 662,
"name": "ni_whydah_k",
"long_name": "Whydah",
"start_year": 1671,
"end_year": 1727
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 709,
"name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2",
"long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern",
"start_year": 1640,
"end_year": 1806
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, silver. A note on vocabulary: The Gbe region was the area where Gbe languages were spoken. This includes the Whydah polity. “Gold: soon after gold was discovered in Brazil in 1698 Portuguese ships took some to Whydah to buy slaves and would do so for a half a century or more. […] These were the status symbols, the privileges of rank and wealth that propped up the egos of African kings, chiefs, grandees, and rich helping to set them apart from the common folk. The roster of trappings would be long: […] silver-headed canes, silver tobacco pipes […] elegant silverware velvet upholstered armchairs with gilt legs […] Silver: a form used to adulterate gold was available on the Gold Coast by 1601 and silver bullion by the late seventeenth century. Silver dust was being imported into the Slave Coast by 1670. Silver chains, rings, and other objects appear in the records, probably intended mainly as gifts. But the main source of silver for Kwaland seems to have been coins: English, Dutch, and French crowns, French pounds, Dutch patacas, Spanish pieces of eight and reals, Spanish-American dollars. Presumably most of them were melted down and reworked into ornaments or regal paraphernalia.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 14]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZH65FPB\">[Alpern 1995, p. 29]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 98,
"polity": {
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 83,
"name": "pe_inca_emp",
"long_name": "Inca Empire",
"start_year": 1375,
"end_year": 1532
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold; silver; tin bronze. “The first group displayed golden weaving tools to commemorate how Mama Ocllo transformed ordinary wool into fine cloth, a key gift that Inca rulers used to reward their faithful subjects. A second group brought out golden pitchers and cups, and then poured and distributed chicha maize beer. [...] The final group bore golden vessels and utensils to recall the Inca empress’s role in feeding her husband, a metaphor for the food that Inca officials provided to the tributary laborers who built the imperial roads, irrigation works, and buildings across the Andes. 5” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 35]</a> “A golden cable was brought into the central plaza for the performance of a public dance, viewed by the mummies and statues of dead Incas and Coyas.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 141]</a> “However, excavations in Awkaypata in 1995, associated with the municipal refurbishment of the Colonial fountain, uncovered wall footings as well as a quantity of Inca ceramics and four camelid figurines – one made of gold, two of silver, and one of spondylus shell.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AA5PS4Q4\">[D’Altroy 2015, p. 205]</a> “The goods that were recovered include hundreds of Inca-style ceramics, bead strings, and thirty-five metal objects. Most of the metal was tin bronze in such forms as axes, awls, tweezers, and tumis (crescent knives); only one silver and two gold objects were included in the inventory.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AA5PS4Q4\">[D’Altroy 2015, p. 308]</a> “After the ceremony, Mama Ocllo’s descendants created a golden statue of the empress and placed the remains of her womb in its hollow interior.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, p. 35]</a> “The contrast in wealth and power between coastal rulers and the most prominent highlanders is hard to overstate. At the coastal center of Sicán, archaeologists discovered a shaft tomb, 33 feet deep (10 m), that held the bodies of four individuals. These royal dead were surrounded by more than a ton of grave goods, including a disassembled litter and other symbols of royalty: finely made cloth, semiprecious stones, shells, and thousands of pieces of gold and other metal alloys. [...] This meant gaining control over many valued products—gold, coca leaf, cotton, colorful feathers, shell—which signaled the capacity to reach far beyond the kin-based labor networks of highland farming and herding societies who were their first conquests. [...] Raw materials taken from across the Andes—tropical hardwoods, gold, colorful feathers, marine shell, and soft vicuña wool— arrived in the city periodically as tribute, to be worked by the mamakuna and the Inca’s artisans into fine cloth, drinking cups, and jewelry the rulers gave to their families and their loyal subjects.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 49-59]</a> “He sent rich gifts of cloth, gold, and herd animals to sweeten the deals and convince prominent local men that they stood to gain more as Inca subjects than what they might lose in battle.5 [...] He gave them rich gifts produced by his artisans—precious gems, gold, and silver, as well as garments made of the finest cloth. [...] Gold dust could be taken from the swift rivers flowing from the mountains, and the special hardwoods, colorful feathers, and exotic animals of the lowlands could be used to enhance the spectacle of court life in the Inca capital.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 112-120]</a> “As a counterpart to Cuzco’s Coricancha temple complex, Mullu Cancha was built to impress: its walls were made of fine masonry, painted and inlaid with precious stones, and adorned with stamped plates of gold.51 In this temple, Huayna Capac placed his mother’s golden statue, which had traveled with him from Cuzco. [...] He gave them hair and nail clippings that his father had left in Quito, ordering that they be incorporated into two golden statues. One statue was to travel with Atahuallpa everywhere he went, and the other would remain in Huayna Capac’s house in Quito, the place where he died.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 134-143]</a> “By comparison, in the Jauja highlands, a region with some of the largest pre-Inca villages, archaeologists excavated burials from the same time, encountering forty-four individuals buried under floors at the pre-Inca hilltop centers. These graves yielded a total of just thirty-seven objects, half of which came from two “elite” burials.32 [...] Food surpluses allowed elites to build impressive palaces and tombs, and to support artisans who produced fine craft goods—cloth, featherwork, precious metals, shell—that distinguished high-status people in life and death. [...] Raw materials taken from across the Andes—tropical hardwoods, gold, colorful feathers, marine shell, and soft vicuña wool— arrived in the city periodically as tribute, to be worked by the mamakuna and the Inca’s artisans into fine cloth, drinking cups, and jewelry the rulers gave to their families and their loyal subjects. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L8TC8ITM\">[Covey 2020, pp. 49-59]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 99,
"polity": {
"id": 445,
"name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial",
"long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial",
"start_year": 1734,
"end_year": 1883
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "The following quote suggests that precious metals were absent in the pre-colonial period. “[Referring to research gathered by the author during fieldwork in the Orokaiva region of Papua New Guinea from September 1923 to March 1925, and in the first quote to European influence on Orokaiva people and culture in the early phases of contact from the mid-1880s] In…the introduction of steel implements we [Europeans] have considerably reduced the hard work of the native gardener…Whereas he [referring to Orokaiva people] must have formerly worked off much of his surplus energy with repeated blows of a stone axe, he now strikes a few blows with a steel axe… […] [Referring to deforestation and the implements used for the latter]…formerly his [referring to Orokaiva people] finger-nails, a stick, and a stone axe, nowadays his finger-nails, a stick, a tomahawk, and an 18-inch trade-knife…in bygone days, when a tree had to be brought down with a stone axe,…light bush was an easier problem than the primary growth; now that stone has been replaced by steel, it [manual labour] is easier beyond all comparison. […] [Referring to tools used in horticulture] [Horticulture in the Orokaiva region]…is incomparably inferior to that of Africa or the East, and principally…for the reason that our [Orokaiva] natives have never used [i.e. been able to access and acquire] a hoe…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NNJDDX2E\">[Williams 1969, p. 92]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NNJDDX2E\">[Williams 1969, p. 130]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NNJDDX2E\">[Williams 1969, p. 160]</a> “[Referring to contact with Europeans from the mid-1880s] The missionaries were most likely to handle threatening situations by giving goods such as…iron [via Europe]…Desire for Western goods [not before available] was…an extremely important element in the initial contact phase. […] …from the Orokaivan villager’s point of view, the period from 1910 to 1940 gave the ordinary man a wider perspective on the world…He was forced to participate in a cash nexus…The money gave him access to highly prized trade goods such as…new steel goods [via Europe] which eased some of the labour in subsistence production”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KECWNXTU\">[Newton 1985, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KECWNXTU\">[Newton 1985, p. 42]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 100,
"polity": {
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 126,
"name": "pk_indo_greek_k",
"long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom",
"start_year": -180,
"end_year": -10
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Silver, gold, copper, bronze. ‘On the other hand, the Indo-Greek kings (i.e., those ruling south of the Hindu Kush) seem to have first attempted to strike silver coinage in a weight both convertible to the Attic standard and corresponding with the value of contemporary Indian coinage circulating in the northwest. However, they soon replaced this system with a lower-weight one which appears to have more closely approximated the silver value of contemporary Indian coins (i.e., late Mauryan debased silver punch marked karsapanas), but utilizing the divisions of Attic denominations.81 The adaptation of this system was probably intended to improve local acceptance of these coinages and their integration in the region’s preexisting monetary economy, perhaps with the effect of lowering transaction costs for trade within Indic monetary spheres, although there are other plausible goals.82 The use of two distinct monetary zones within the empire probably slightly complicated interregional trade to adegree (i.e., by requiring conversion), especially because we very rarely see Indian weight coinage in regular use contexts in southern Central Asia. However, these systems may not have functionally impeded imperial revenue collection, as the treasury texts of Ai Khanum (discussed above) demonstrate the processing of incoming payments in forms of karsapanas.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/96B974FU\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 462]</a> ‘The arm and wrist ornaments found in the excavations are of several varieties. There are plain, decorated and twisted bangles, bangles with trumpet ends, bangles with ends in the shape of lions head and wrist bands with cut ends. The material used for making these pieces are glass, shell, ivory, bone, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Unfortunately, no terracotta bangles have been found. It appears that by this time either the fashion of wearing terracotta bangles which was common in the Indus Valley Civilization had disappeared or was ignored by the excavators. We have to presume that all these were in use during the period under review. We cannot say when one type of bangle came into use and the other out of fashion as the excavations have not been scientifically carried out.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JSHXUANZ\">[Chandra 1979, p. 60]</a> RA’s note: the production of specific artefacts with precious metal would have happened domestically, however, the procurement of the material would have been both from local mines and imported from elsewhere. ‘Kautilya mentions five different varieties of gold which came from five different sources. Jambanada a product of the river Jambu, perhaps one of the tributaries of Indus or Indus itself flowing in Jambudesa; Sata Kumbha a product of the mountain of Sata Kumbha, Haṭaka a product of mines; Vainava coming from the mountain Venu, and Srnga Suktiya an extract from Sṛnga Sukti perhaps Tibet.7 According to the commentators all these were of different hues. According to him that gold was supposed to be the best which had the hue of red lotus petals, was ductile, glossy, incapable of making a ringing sound (anadi) and glittering. The gold of reddish yellow colour was of middle quality, while that which was of red colour was of low quality. Marshall says that gold was being obtained from the rivers of India, and mines Hyderabad State, the Madras Presidency and Mysore.8 It was also being imported from Dardistan and Tibet. In the eastern parts of India gold was being obtained from Assam, Burma and Malaya where ancient mines have been discovered.9 According to Marshall in the north-west of India gold was coming from the near east by way of the Persian Gulf.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JSHXUANZ\">[Chandra 1979]</a> ‘Marshall interpreted Deposit E, a miscellaneous collection of 88 copper, gold, stone, glass, and silver objects, from House 4 in Block D as ‘the stock-in-trade of some lapidary or jeweller’ (ibid., 188).’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KG2JRHIQ\">[Coningham_Edwards 1998, p. 56]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}