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"count": 162,
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{
"id": 1,
"polity": {
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“During recent survey of the site and interactive discussion with the community living nearby village, some other objects made of terracotta, metal, semi-precious metal, stone, ivory and shell were also collected. Although millions of potsherds are found scattered at every inch of the site, a god number of artifacts have also been recovered from the site. These objects include broken shell bangles, fired bricks, fragments of terra-cotta objects, particularly animal figures, beads which local people find most often after rainfall.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49JUVGWS\">[Hameed_Bukhari 2021, p. 291]</a> Much of the Durrani Empire’s success was built with treasure seized from formerly Mughal-ruled territories in northern India. Ahmad Shah used these resources to fund campaigns across large portions of Khorasan, Turkistan, and into the former Safavid provinces, seizing the cities of Herat and Mashhad. He drew upon Mughal but especially Safavid models of governance, relying on members of the Qizilbash community (a Turkish group that had been at the core of the Safavid regime) to fulfill the state’s administrative requirements. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z7U8G9BG\">[Archambault 2023, p. 14]</a> “The riches of India were the main incentive for the invaders and the big disaster came from a Muslim Afghan, Nadir Shah Durrani, who plundered Delhi Darbar and took away the main treasures of Mughals in 1739. Traditions narrate that 70 camels traveled back to Afghanistan, laden only with the gems and jewels that included Koh-iNoor, Draya-i-Noor, Akbar Shah, the Shah and the world famous Takht-e-Taus (Peacock throne). Unfortunately most of these jewels were divided in such manner that they are lost in the mist of time except for a very few”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TTVUSK67\">[Kanwal 2015, p. 43]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 2,
"polity": {
"id": 134,
"name": "af_ghur_principality",
"long_name": "Ghur Principality",
"start_year": 1025,
"end_year": 1215
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘\" Gold, silver. ‘Despite the civil unrest of 1199, al-Juzjani paints a picture of vibrant, sophisticated urban life at Firuzkuh in its heyday, with court patronage of poets, respect for religious law and theological debates, and the distribution of largesse at festivals and banquets, including gold and silver vessels, embroidered silks, perfumed leather (which Raverty comments must have been ‘extremely valuable in those days’), precious stone (including pearls and diamonds) and slaves acquired during the ‘holy wars’.22 The treasury reputedly contained 400 camel loads of gold in 800 chests, although al-Juzjani’s numbers need to be treated with a degree of scepticism.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEN89ESZ\">[Thomas_Bennison_Gascoigne 2007, p. 118]</a> ‘Juzjani also writes of huge quantities of gold in Firuzkuh, the great fort of Baz Kushk-i-Sultan being decorated with gold-inlaid pinnacles and two huge golden birds, while the portico of the congregational mosque was ornamented with a ring, chains and drums of gold. Golden vessels and money were, according to Juzjani, distributed among the population by the Sultan until the whole city was filled with wealth (Juzjani tr. 1881, 403-6). Although these accounts are doubtless wildly exaggerated, they appear to be well known, and we should not underestimate the incentive that such tales can provide for illicit digging in modern times.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VD7NPQJ9\">[Thomas_Gascoigne_van_Krieken-Pieters 2006, p. 155]</a> ‘’' ‘With the exception of coins - a relatively abundant if understudied source for Ghurid history and art history - few surviving portable objects can be definitively associated with Ghurid patronage.33 Among them are two unpublished gold amulet boxes ornamented with repoussé harpies and rosettes and inscribed with the names and titles of sultan Ghiyath al-Din in Arabic. The boxes are said to have been found near the minaret of Jam, the assumed site of the Ghurid summer capital, Firzukuh, from whence some carved wooden doors of the same period have also been recovered.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPFX2JFT\">[Flood 2009, p. 94]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 3,
"polity": {
"id": 350,
"name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
"long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
"start_year": -256,
"end_year": -125
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 108,
"name": "ir_seleucid_emp",
"long_name": "Seleucid Empire",
"start_year": -312,
"end_year": -63
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The following quote suggests access to silver. “The distribution of silver coins is a good indication both of their use as international currency beyond the borders of the countries in which they were issued, and of the geographical range of that country’s commercial activities. The area in which Graeco-Bactrian tetradrachms are found (mainly of Euthydemus I and II, Eucratides I and II, and Heliocles) reached as far as Syria-Mesopotamia with finds at Baarin, Susa and the Kabala hoard in Caucasia. Indo-Greek coins circulated as far as the heart of the Ganges valley at Panchkora. In contrast, the Western silver coins that reached Bactria were mainly Seleucid (up to Antiochus III) or posthumous issues struck in the name of Alexander from mints in Asia Minor, Syria and Phoenicia.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIB5JTCU\">[Bernard_et_al 1994, p. 121]</a> “In contrast, the Western silver coins that reached Bactria were mainly Seleucid (up to Antiochus III) or posthumous issues struck in the name of Alexander from mints in Asia Minor, Syria and Phoenicia.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HIB5JTCU\">[Bernard_et_al 1994, p. 121]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 4,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Silver, gold, bronze , copper. ‘A silver Hephthalite coin, an imitation of Peroz’s coins, was also found during the excavations of Dalverzin-tepe. The coin was dated to the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th centuries AD.173’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 43]</a> ‘The chaotic location of the bones is explained by robbery of vaults, committed after the termination of use of the hill. 11 small bronze coins were discovered but are not identifiable. The coins were usually put in the deceased individual’s mouth, under the head near the mouth, but were also found a little distance from skulls, so the ritual designation of these coins is difficult to determine. A large quantities of small artifacts were also discovered: amulets, beads, pins, bronze mirrors. Among the finds from vault 3 two bracteates of thin gold plate with portrait prints of images of late Kushan-Hephthalite origin are of great interest. 500-600 meters south of these vaultsanother 14 vaults of a similar nature were discovered.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 57]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 5,
"polity": {
"id": 127,
"name": "af_kushan_emp",
"long_name": "Kushan Empire",
"start_year": 35,
"end_year": 319
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Copper, bronze, silver, gold. ‘That political entity, the Kushan Empire, issued coins principally in copper and gold. The copper coinage derived from silver and copper coinages of North India, Pakistan and Afghanistan current in the first century AD. Under the first Kushan Emperors it included some silver and debased silver issues. The gold coinage was a Kushan innovation, which commenced under the third emperor Wima Kadphises. That gold coinage set a pattern which was followed for centuries in South and Central Asia (Cribb 2003; 2007).’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJQWKM6I\">[Bracey_Sánchez 2012, pp. 117-118]</a> ‘There was pronounced trade between the Kushans with the Romans. The transfer of money to the Kushans was considerable, as can be seen from Pliny’s plea. He writes: ‘There is no year in which India draws less than 50 million sesterces.’39 It can be assumed that the Kushans melted down the Roman aurei (gold coins) and minted their own gold coins, for Roman gold coins have very rarely been found in India. A coin of the ruler Kanishka II (between 200 and 222 AD, possibly even 20 years later), calling himself ‘Maharajasa Rajatirajasa Devaputra’, bears an additional inscription ‘Kaisara Kanishka’, which is a direct reference to the Roman emperors!40 Trade with Rome took place by merchant ships, bypassing the Parthian Empire, where customs duties would have had to be paid. Thus, the Kushan Empire aimed to achieve supremacy at sea.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K8KVZX3U\">[Ellerbrock 2021, p. 122]</a> ‘While the majority of silverware in Gandhara was probably locally produced (and sometimes inspired by Parthian visual and material culture) there are some examples of probable imports from Roman territory, Roman glass vessels found in a number of houses at Saka-Parthian period Taxila-Sirkap.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9PWVBVIJ\">[Morris_Reden 2021, p. 722]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 6,
"polity": {
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“The goldsmiths of Bengal were also famous as the manufacturer of various kinds of utensils, jewellery and ornaments of gold and silver, which was much in demand at local markets and foreign markets. In local markets, especially these items were much demanded in the noble classes of people and royal houses.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GUN6ITVE\">[Shaikh 2016, p. 37]</a> “For the conflict with Delhi administration, it was not easy for the Bengal sultans to import silver or gold from the sources of Afghanistan or Persia, on the other side Arakan (a part of Myanmar) was a friendly state of Bengal sultans, so it would be easier to import silver from Myanmar and China. So, the mints situated in eastern side of Bengal may be containing higher percentage of silver than the west” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X5WDWK6M\">[Hasan 2013, p. 192]</a> “Further mentioning to the gold and silver ornaments used by women of Bengal he states, “The ornaments in use were usually earrings of precious stones set in gold, pendants for the neck, bracelets for the wrists and ankles, and rings for the fingers and the toes.” foreign accounts and Bengali literature give a vivid description of women wearing gold ornaments of a fairly wide variety” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GUN6ITVE\">[Shaikh 2016, p. 37]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 7,
"polity": {
"id": 780,
"name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
"long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“Tarafdar himself admits that epigraphic records prepared during Deva, Chandra and Varman rule give no indication of trade, which renders impossible the determination of the extent of commercialisation of the contemporary society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 202]</a> “Not a single new commercial centre sprang up in Bengal between the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. and it appears that this region had hardly a place in external trade for at least 500 years.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 206]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 8,
"polity": {
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“ William Frankland and Thomas Boddam, two members of the Board were appointed as the President and Member for the said Committee, respectively. The Committee immediately started the minting activities at Calcutta, though initially on experimental basis. Coins in gold and silver bearing the name of Mughal Emperor 'Alamgir II (1754-59) and the mint - name 'Alinagar Kalkatta, were struck at Calcutta. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PEDXFX5X\">[Garg 1990, p. 387]</a> “As the terms for establishing a mint at Calcutta were not quite explicit in above mentioned Article of the Treaty, the Select Committee, on 16th Feb 1757 instructed William Watts, Company's newly appointed Agent at the Court of Nawab, to \"get the article of the Mint explained in fuller terms and extend liberty of coining to all bullion and gold imported into Calcutta by the Company”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PEDXFX5X\">[Garg 1990, p. 386]</a> \" “The princes used, in addition, precious ornaments, necklace, bracelet and earrings of gold and diamond, and weapons like the sword, bow and arrows. Rich people also dressed themselves with ornaments and jewelleries. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 28]</a> \" “Women were fond of ornaments and wore various kinds of ornaments of gold, silver and copper according to their means. Middle class women adorned themselves with nath and vesara on the nose, kundala, jhumka and pasa as earrings and bajus on their arms. Fillet (Smrithi and tara) and nupuras (anklets) were in fashion. Gold ring, bracelet and necklace of pearls, gems and rubies of value were used by the aristocratic and wealthy ladies. The women of poor class could wore ornaments of brass, cowries and other inferior metals”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 28]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 9,
"polity": {
"id": 619,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I",
"start_year": 701,
"end_year": 1100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The only metal mentioned in the literature consulted is iron. There is some evidence that ironworking was an exclusive practice and connected to emerging social inequality, but it remains unclear whether it was considered a “precious” metal. “At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, de- rived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 10,
"polity": {
"id": 617,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1400
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The only metal mentioned in the literature consulted is iron. There is some evidence that ironworking was an exclusive practice and connected to emerging social inequality, but it remains unclear whether it was considered a “precious” metal. “At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, de- rived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 11,
"polity": {
"id": 618,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV",
"start_year": 1401,
"end_year": 1500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The only metal mentioned in the literature consulted is iron. There is some evidence that ironworking was an exclusive practice and connected to emerging social inequality, but it remains unclear whether it was considered a “precious” metal. “At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, de- rived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 12,
"polity": {
"id": 613,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
"start_year": 100,
"end_year": 500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The only metal mentioned in the literature consulted (which is recent and seemingly comprehensive) is iron. There is some evidence that ironworking was an exclusive practice and connected to emerging social inequality, but this occurred later in the chronological sequence (and it remains unclear whether it was considered a “precious” metal even at that later point). “At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, de- rived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 13,
"polity": {
"id": 622,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
"start_year": 501,
"end_year": 700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The only metal mentioned in the literature consulted is iron. There is some evidence that ironworking was an exclusive practice and connected to emerging social inequality, but it remains unclear whether it was considered a “precious” metal. “At Kirikongo, increasing centralization is associated with a gradual co-option of iron metallurgy. Iron metallurgy as an avenue to inequality would provide an alternative spiritual power, de- rived from profound excavation and transformation in the realm of divinities (the earth). It is this power that today makes smiths held in high esteem and occasionally feared. The spiritual power of the Bwa smith is separate from the political process, but at Kirikongo the emergence of smith-elites at Mound 4 marks the possible combination of multiple spiritually derived sources of power, from those based upon their role as village founder (over nature and ancestry), to a new cult (iron) that may have been manipulated owing to its mysterious nature. In short, between Yellow II and Red I, the inhabitants of Mound 4 likely employed their ancestral priority to assume control of the village territory, then co-opted another source of authority using the spiritual power of iron.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 14,
"polity": {
"id": 690,
"name": "bu_burundi_k",
"long_name": "Burundi",
"start_year": 1680,
"end_year": 1903
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Copper. “The mining of metals and the production of metal goods had taken place in the Great Lakes region for centuries. […] Although iron deposits were relatively numerous, copper deposits were much more restricted. […] By importing brass wire and transporting raw material to regions where it became accessible to skilled smiths, and by trading worked metal goods to regions of demand, Arab traders boosted the metals trade. […] Burundian smiths and ankle-bracelet (inyerére) craftsmen participated in the newly stimulated metals trade network, procuring from it copper and wire, but it is important to note that artisan families had carried on their craft—and had traded to receive raw materials and distribute their finished goods—long before the mid-nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, pp. 157-158]</a> ‘‘‘ Copper. The following seems to imply that copper, however valuable, was not restricted to the elites. “The mining of metals and the production of metal goods had taken place in the Great Lakes region for centuries. […] Although iron deposits were relatively numerous, copper deposits were much more restricted. […] By importing brass wire and transporting raw material to regions where it became accessible to skilled smiths, and by trading worked metal goods to regions of demand, Arab traders boosted the metals trade. […] Burundian smiths and ankle-bracelet (inyerére) craftsmen participated in the newly stimulated metals trade network, procuring from it copper and wire, but it is important to note that artisan families had carried on their craft—and had traded to receive raw materials and distribute their finished goods—long before the mid-nineteenth century.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, pp. 157-158]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 15,
"polity": {
"id": 470,
"name": "cn_hmong_1",
"long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing",
"start_year": 1701,
"end_year": 1895
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "silver, bronze ‘‘‘ “The Book of Qian, Tian Wen [Qing Dynasty]: The Flower Hmong: Men and women weave their clothes from strips of discarded fabric, creating garments without collars or openings that simply slip over the head. They wrap their heads in blue indigo cloth. Their diet mostly consists of millet, weeds, and wild vegetables, with occasional rice. Their food is stored for special occasions or to offer guests. Some Hmong people never eat grains for their entire life…The Record of Crimes, Zha Jizuo [Qing Dynasty]: the border regions between Hunan and Guangxi are home to many Hmong people. ... Hmong women often adorn themselves with seashells, copper bells, glass pearls...A Survey of Miao Defense, Yan Ruyi [Qing Dynasty]: Wealthy Hmong men bind their hair with netted headbands, adorned with four or five silver hairpins. They wear two silver rings at the back of their heads, a large silver ring in their left ear, a silver neck ring, and silver bracelets on their wrists. ... Hmong women wear silver hairpins, necklaces, bracelets, and leg bands similar to the men, but they distinguish themselves by wearing two to five silver rings in each ear, a display of their wealth. ...Unmarried Hmong girls part their hair and braid it down the back, decorating it with tin bells, seashells, glass pearls, and make ornaments out of all above. Even in the biting cold of winter, they wear only three or four layers of thin clothing, no quilts or padding, their figures hunched as they walk through the wind and rain,regardless of their family's wealth. (黔書 （清）田雯: 花苗 男女拆敗布緝條以織，衣無衿竅而納諸首，以青蘭布裹頭。所食多以麥稗雜野蔬，間有稻，皆儲以待正供或享賓。有終身不穀食者。 罪惟錄 （清）查繼佐: 按湖廣南界廣西，地多苗人……婦人雜海蚆、銅鈴、藥珠、結纓（）為餙……苗防備覽 （清）嚴如熠 富者以網巾束髮，貫以銀簪四五枝，腦後戴二銀圈。左耳貫銀環如碗大，項圍銀圈，手帶銀釧……其婦女銀簪、項圈、手釧行縢皆如男子，惟兩耳貫銀環二三四五不等，以多夸富。苗女未嫁者，額髮中分結辮，垂后以錫鈴、海蚆、藥珠為飾，深冬嚴寒三兩重單衣，不衣絮綿，傴偻彳亍風雨中，貧富如。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3NM386Q\">[Zhang 2018, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3NM386Q\">[Zhang 2018, p. 70]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3NM386Q\">[Zhang 2018, p. 163]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 16,
"polity": {
"id": 471,
"name": "cn_hmong_2",
"long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese",
"start_year": 1895,
"end_year": 1941
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "silver, copper. “According to a record of the missionary Chen Xinzhuan in the early Republic of China, the Hmong people in Xiangxi, \"Now, regardless of whether they are Hmong or Yi, the men who are close to the Han people or live close to them are already similar to the Han people.\" “However, those who live in remote mountains and rarely enter the city are slightly different. They all like to wrap their heads with blue or flowered cloth, and wear blue and green large cloth full-breasted or large-breasted clothes; sometimes they can still be seen with neck rings and collars, and red copper bracelets on their right arms. For women, it is said that in the past forty or fifty years... poor families, all use blue and green fabrics for it; the rich have even more local silk, Hangzhou silk, brocade, satin, and lambskin for it.\"... although, at banquets and festivals, \"they like to wear silver necklaces, shoulder straps, earrings, toothpicks, and bracelets and rings.\"（据民国初年传教士陈心传记载，湘西苗族，“今无论苗、仡，察其男子之凡与汉族接近或居处接近者，已多与汉民同”。“惟僻处深山而少入城市者则略异。皆喜裹青布或花布头巾，著青兰大布满襟或大襟衣；间或可见仍有颈环项圈、右臂围以红铜手钏者。妇女，或闻其近四五十年以来……贫寒之家，皆系以青兰布匹为之；富者则更有以土绸、杭绸即绫、缎、羔皮为之者。”……但于宴会节庆时，“则喜戴银项圈、抬肩、耳环、牙签，及镯、戒等饰品。”) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, pp. 364-365]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 17,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold, bronze “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱，但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好，还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走，仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 155]</a> ’’’ “Gold is produced from the east side of Ru River and Han River. (金起于汝、汉之右。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58PWUGNK\">[Guan 2019]</a> note: Ru River is at the border of the State of Jin. ‘\" “The person buried in the tomb... The jade ornaments on the upper part of their body were disturbed, but the ones on the lower half are in better condition. They also discovered accessories like a circular jade pendant, a large jade dagger-axe, a big jade disc, finger rings, a jade platform, a golden waist belt, and other decorative items... It seems that bronze items and other things buried with them might have been taken away, as only a small piece of a bronze tripod leg was found... The individual in the tomb marked as m1 is believed to be possibly Duke Wen of Jin, a well-known figure in the history of the state of Jin…(墓主人……上身的玉组佩被扰乱，但下半身的玉组佩保存相对完好，还发现有璜组佩、大玉戈、大玉璧、扳指、踏玉、金腰带等饰件……随葬的铜器等可能均被搬走，仅仅见到一小段铜鼎的断足……m1的墓主人可能是晋国历史上著名的晋文侯……) ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, p. 155]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 18,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold, silver. \"Item 73: Ming Dynasty Golden Crown Adorned with Gem-set Phoenixes. with a silver core, the exterior features intricate gold inlay work, with motifs of dragons, phoenixes, and various floral patterns. The adornments are adorned with striking red and green gemstones. At the crown's center, a resplendent peony flower can be found with its petals layered beautifully, surrounded by delicate branches. Just above the flower, five phoenixes proudly stand side by side, while a decorative border graces the area beneath the flower. Crowning the top are three majestic dragons taking flight, each side accentuated with floral earpieces. (73 嵌宝石金凤冠 明。银片作胎，外缀以金片砑花、金丝缕花做成的龙、凤和花卉，并在一些部位的饰件上镶嵌红绿宝石。正面中间置大牡丹花一朵，瓣片重叠，嫩枝参差；花上五凤并立，花下有条形边饰一道；顶部三龙腾空，左右两侧各有一横栏花耳。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGRHQWWJ\">[National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration 1996, p. 148]</a> “Item 164: A Ming Dynasty Gold Mounting with Gem-Encrusted Leather Belt. Crafted from two layers of red plain silk with a layer of leather in between, this exquisite piece has twenty gold ornaments adorned with intricate flower motifs. These ornaments are symmetrically arranged, starting from the central sphaṭika at the back and extending to both sides. They include silver and gold ingots, ancient coins, a pair of linked coins, coral, ruyi scepters, rhinoceros horn, precious beads, and more. At the front center, you'll find a rectangular ornament featuring a raised cloud-dragon pattern. Each of these ornaments is embellished with eight to ten red and blue gemstones... This remarkable artifact was unearthed from the coffin of the Wanli Emperor, Zhu Yijun, in Changping, Beijing, in 1958. (164 金托嵌宝革带 明。由两层红素缎中间夹一层皮革制成。其上缀有以花丝镶嵌制成的金饰物共二十块，自后面正中火珠起向左右两侧对称配置，依次为银锭、金锭、古钱、连胜、珊瑚、如意、犀角、宝珠等。前面正中一块为长方形，内饰浮雕式云龙纹。每一饰物上均嵌有红蓝宝石八至十块……1958年北京昌平定陵万历朱翊钧棺内出土。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGRHQWWJ\">[National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration 1996, p. 145]</a> “Official regulations in the Ming Dynasty had the most substantial influence on clothing, crowns, gold and silverware. Gold and silver items, due to their precious materials, were subjected to rigorous scrutiny… The \"official style\" was essential not only to ensure a consistent appearance of these items but also as a means to distinguish between social classes directly. Thus, the official style was not only widely restricted but also strictly enforced. Deviating from these standards could lead to severe consequences, even death. For example, during the third year of the Zhengtong reign, Emperor Yingzong issued an edict through the Directorate of Ceremonial, “banning the production of official-style blue-and-white porcelain with a white background in Jiangxi kilns. The sale or gifting of such porcelain to officials was also prohibited. Violators would face execution, and their families would be exiled to the frontiers”. Gold and silverware, being even more precious, were held to even stricter standards... While historical records reveal the extensive and strict use of the official style, tangible artifacts confirm its far-reaching impact... Typically, the official style emphasized form and patterns. However, when it came to gold and silverware, the primary consideration was the material itself… To illustrate, examining the gold and silverware used in imperial and princely ceremonies (as indicated in Table 2), the significance of the material becomes evident, with gold taking precedence over silver. In cases where both gold and silver were used, the quality of the gold and the value of the patterns were evaluated. For silverware, the first aspect assessed was the amount of gold embellishment, followed by an evaluation of the patterns.\" (官方的各种规定对明代器用冠服面貌影响最大，金银器也不例外，且因材质高贵，督之甚严……“官样”不仅是保证器物面貌统一的必要条件，更是辨上下明贵贱的直接手段。所以官样不仅被广泛颁行，更被严令遵守。若僭越，会招来杀身之祸。如正统三年，英宗“命都察院出榜，禁江西瓷器窑厂烧造官样青花白地瓷器于各处货卖及馈送官员之家，违者正犯处死，全家谪戍口外”。金银器较瓷器高贵，使用条件更苛刻……文献说明了官样普遍而严格的使用，实物则亲证了其深远的影响……通常，官样强调造型与纹样，但对金银器而言，首先考虑的是材质……以皇帝、太子、亲王仪仗所用部分金银器为例（表二），可知材质是首位，金质高于银质；若同是金器，则看成色高低、纹样贵贱；若同是银器，则先较饰金多少，再比纹样高下。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AHC33G7V\">[Zhang 0, pp. 120-122]</a> Note: Table 2 provides information from the \"Great Ming Code\" regarding the use of gold and silver objects in the entourage of the Emperor, Crown Prince, and Princes. “Item 7: Six gold hairpins adorned with intricate filigree work and gemstones… three of them… adorned with 8-12 rubies, sapphires, and turquoise around the corner… the one that features a triangular-shaped head , with 17 stones still intact, including rubies, sapphires, turquoise, and zircon. These hairpins were used by the Princess…). (7. 金累丝镶宝石玉簪：6件……其中3件……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石，现存8-12颗……等腰三角形簪首……边缘一周镶嵌红宝石、蓝宝石、绿松石、锆石，现存17颗。均为王妃用品……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 5]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3KE65XAB\">[Zhang 2014, p. 7]</a> Note: Table 2 provides information from the \"Great Ming Code\" regarding the use of gold and silver objects in the entourage of the Emperor, Crown Prince, and Princes. “Official regulations in the Ming Dynasty had the most substantial influence on clothing, crowns, gold and silverware. Gold and silver items, due to their precious materials, were subjected to rigorous scrutiny… The \"official style\" was essential not only to ensure a consistent appearance of these items but also as a means to distinguish between social classes directly. Thus, the official style was not only widely restricted but also strictly enforced. Deviating from these standards could lead to severe consequences, even death. For example, during the third year of the Zhengtong reign, Emperor Yingzong issued an edict through the Directorate of Ceremonial, “banning the production of official-style blue-and-white porcelain with a white background in Jiangxi kilns. The sale or gifting of such porcelain to officials was also prohibited. Violators would face execution, and their families would be exiled to the frontiers”. Gold and silverware, being even more precious, were held to even stricter standards... (官方的各种规定对明代器用冠服面貌影响最大，金银器也不例外，且因材质高贵，督之甚严……“官样”不仅是保证器物面貌统一的必要条件，更是辨上下明贵贱的直接手段。所以官样不仅被广泛颁行，更被严令遵守。若僭越，会招来杀身之祸。如正统三年，英宗“命都察院出榜，禁江西瓷器窑厂烧造官样青花白地瓷器于各处货卖及馈送官员之家，违者正犯处死，全家谪戍口外”。金银器较瓷器高贵，使用条件更苛刻……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AHC33G7V\">[Zhang 0, pp. 120-122]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 19,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold, silver, bronze “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the \"Tomb No. 1,\" a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始，秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘，出土了大量陶器、铜器，以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有：金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4VXT69MP\">[Xinhua_News_Agency 2022]</a> “The first and second bronze chariots, along with their horse buddies, are all decked out with fancy gold and silver decorations. The horse gear like straps, reins, and collars are mostly made of shiny gold and silver. The tips of the pole, the hook on the yoke, the edges of some curved parts on the umbrella, and even the parts around the wheels are all silver. Out of the 3,642 pieces on the second bronze chariot and horse, a good 737 of them are gold bits, and 983 are silver. When you combine the gold and silver decorations from both sets of chariots and horses, you get approxiamately 3,500 pieces. That's more than half of all the parts in the two sets put together. To show off the royal style, the horse heads wear these fancy headpieces made of woven gold and silver strands, creating a cool design. And around the neck of each horse, there's a special collar made of about 84 pieces of gold and silver tubes—looks pretty fancy. When you add it all up, the two chariots have more than 14 kilograms of these carefully crafted gold and silver pieces. (一、二号铜车马上使用众多的金银装饰件，铜马的络头、缰、项圈、靼等大部分都由金银制成，另外在衡的两端、轭的顶端和钩端，轮轴的轴端、车伞部分的诸多弓栋之末也是银质的，其中在二号铜车马的3642个零件中、就有金饰件737件，银饰件983件。再把两乘铜车马的金银饰件加在一起就更多了，共3500件左右，约占两乘钢车马零件总数的50％以上，为了炫耀皇室车马的富丽，马头上均戴有金银编缀并与金银泡连接组成的络头，左右骖马的脖子上各佩戴一个由84节金银管组成的项圈，十分华贵。在两乘车上共镶嵌金银制品14公斤多……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RNKQZT2V\">[Xu 2002]</a> ’’’ “Gold is produced in Yuzhang. (豫章出黄金。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54T67REC\">[Sima 1982]</a> “Gold is produced from the east side of Ru River and Han River. (金起于汝、汉之右。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58PWUGNK\">[Guan 2019]</a> “In the southern part of the state of Chu, gold is produced inside the Lishui River, and many people secreatly mine the gold. (荆南之地、丽水之中生金, 人多窃采金。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UI3FZUTB\">[Han 1998]</a> ‘\" “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the \"Tomb No. 1,\" a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始，秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘，出土了大量陶器、铜器，以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有：金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4VXT69MP\">[Xinhua_News_Agency 2022]</a> “The first and second bronze chariots, along with their horse buddies, are all decked out with fancy gold and silver decorations. The horse gear like straps, reins, and collars are mostly made of shiny gold and silver. The tips of the pole, the hook on the yoke, the edges of some curved parts on the umbrella, and even the parts around the wheels are all silver. Out of the 3,642 pieces on the second bronze chariot and horse, a good 737 of them are gold bits, and 983 are silver. When you combine the gold and silver decorations from both sets of chariots and horses, you get approxiamately 3,500 pieces. That's more than half of all the parts in the two sets put together. To show off the royal style, the horse heads wear these fancy headpieces made of woven gold and silver strands, creating a cool design. And around the neck of each horse, there's a special collar made of about 84 pieces of gold and silver tubes—looks pretty fancy. When you add it all up, the two chariots have more than 14 kilograms of these carefully crafted gold and silver pieces. (一、二号铜车马上使用众多的金银装饰件，铜马的络头、缰、项圈、靼等大部分都由金银制成，另外在衡的两端、轭的顶端和钩端，轮轴的轴端、车伞部分的诸多弓栋之末也是银质的，其中在二号铜车马的3642个零件中、就有金饰件737件，银饰件983件。再把两乘铜车马的金银饰件加在一起就更多了，共3500件左右，约占两乘钢车马零件总数的50％以上，为了炫耀皇室车马的富丽，马头上均戴有金银编缀并与金银泡连接组成的络头，左右骖马的脖子上各佩戴一个由84节金银管组成的项圈，十分华贵。在两乘车上共镶嵌金银制品14公斤多……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RNKQZT2V\">[Xu 2002]</a> “Since 2013, the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum has been on a continuous excavation journey at the \"Tomb No. 1,\" a companion burial located on the western side of the Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum. A treasure trove of pottery, bronze artifacts, as well as golden dancing sleeve figurines, silver and gold camels, and silver hunting dogs, has emerged from the depths. …Today, the archaeologists have taken up the task of meticulous restoration, like the gold and silver camels, the captivating gold-dancing sleeve figurines, copper flat bottles adorned with glass inlays, jade tripods, and the dignified silver hunting dog. (从2013年开始，秦始皇帝陵博物院对秦陵西侧的陪葬墓“1号墓葬”进行了持续发掘，出土了大量陶器、铜器，以及金舞袖俑、金银骆驼、银猎犬等金银铜俑。……考古工作者目前已经修复完整的器物有：金骆驼、银骆驼、金舞袖俑、镶嵌琉璃的铜扁壶、玉鼎、银猎犬等。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4VXT69MP\">[Xinhua_News_Agency 2022]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 20,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘“In Xinjiang and Mongolia, authorities fought to control the growth of new Chinese gold mining camps in the 1770s and 1780s. Copper production on the Southwestern frontier began notably earlier, starting in the first quarter of the eighteenth century. Yet the golden age of copper production in the Southwest began only after 1760, when production reached unprecedented peaks; production there, too, remained high until roughly 1820.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 52]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 21,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ gold, silver, copper. “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> Note: The precious stones referred to in this quote belonged to the Wei Royal Family and were excavated from Guwei Village in Huixian. “A dou discovered from Changzhi in the same province, tentatively dated to the late fifth or early fourth century B.C., reflects a more advanced state of inlay decoration. It resembles an earlier dou reportedly from Hunyuan in northern Shanxi, but abstract dragon patterns delineated in gold threads take the place of the copper inlays of animals and figures.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D9EEH7VI\">[Loewe_Shaughnessy 1999, p. 682]</a> Note: The dou in this quote refers to a ceremonial food container, typically used for serving meat dishes. Changzhi was located within the territories of the Wei state during the Warring States period. “Gold is produced from the east side of Ru River and Han River. (金起于汝、汉之右。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58PWUGNK\">[Guan 2019]</a> note: Ru River is at the border of the State of Wei during the time of Duke Wen of Wei and Duke Wu of Wei. “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> Note: The precious stones referred to in this quote belonged to the Wei Royal Family and were excavated from Guwei Village in Huixian. “In the area of the state of Wei, many ancient tombs have been found over the last few decades… a lot of jade items were excavated… One big pendant made of jade was shaped like a dragon… It's made up of 7 pieces of Hetian jade and 2 bronze animal heads that are covered in gold… Another find from Tomb No. 5 is a silver belt hook with gold patterns showing a coiled dragon. This hook is 18.4 centimeters long and it's made of silver, and the pattern of a dragon is made with gold plating. There are also pieces of white jade and small round beads added, and the hook part is made from white jade that's carved into the shape of a duck's head…(在魏国境内，近数十年来考古发掘古墓葬较多……在这些墓中伴随出土不少魏国的玉器……出土的龙形大玉璜……由7块和田美玉和2个鎏金铜兽头组成……5号墓出土的包金镶玉琉璃珠银带钩，长18.4厘米，底为银托，面为包金组成的蟠龙，嵌以白玉块和料珠，勾部则用白玉雕琢成鸭头状……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/37HG47XT\">[Ji 2014, pp. 45-46]</a> Note: The precious stones referred to in this quote belonged to the Wei Royal Family and were excavated from Guwei Village in Huixian.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 22,
"polity": {
"id": 268,
"name": "cn_yuan_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Yuan",
"start_year": 1271,
"end_year": 1368
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "gold, silver ‘‘‘ “Yuan Dynasty Gold Plate with Cloud-Shaped Carvings. Food container. Material: Gold…The entire plate is covered in intricate cloud-shaped carvings, which resemble a riot of flowers. It is one of the most magnificent examples of gold and silver decoration from the Yuan Dynasty. The plate was unearthed from the tomb of Yuan official Lü Shimeng in Wuxian, Jiangsu Province, in 1959. It is now on display at the Nanjing Museum. (159 如意云纹金盘 元。盛食器。金质……纹饰布满全器，犹如百花斗艳，为元代金银装饰中最瑰丽的作品。1959年江苏吴县元吕师孟墓出土。现藏南京博物院。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGRHQWWJ\">[National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration 1996, p. 143]</a> “Zhu Bishan's Silver Zhiji Cup/Date: Yuan Dynasty / Collection: National Palace Museum, Taipei / This silver Zhiji cup was made by Zhu Bishan, a famous silversmith of the Yuan Dynasty. The cup is 15.2 centimeters high and 19.8 centimeters long… Silver wine vessels have been very popular since the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, it was Zhu Bishan who created the idea of making a wine vessel in the shape of a raft.(朱碧山制支机杯 年代：元代 馆藏地：台北故宫博物院 这件银槎由元代著名的银公朱碧山制作，杯高15.2厘米，长19.8厘米……银制酒器在隋唐时就已经非常盛行，但把酒器造成槎形则是由朱碧山创制的。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UQWD5RK7\">[Li_Ding 2005, pp. 260-261]</a> “As Rashīd al-Dīn fully understood, for the Mongols “jewelry (muraṣṣaʿāt), gems and pearls (javāhir) and garments” were essential markers of wealth and status and therefore an essential ingredient in court politics. Together they formed an integrated package, and everyone of standing was eager to display all three. The same opinion was held by the late Yuan author, Yang Yu, who noted that in China gold, pearls, and brocade cloth were the standard markers of elite status and that the lack thereof was deemed a source of great embarrassment. Their lack also prompted competition and intense jealousy. Another Chinese observer of the same period, Quan Heng, recounts a rather remarkable case of this. In 1358, the last Yuan emperor, Toghan Temür, built a sumptuous dwelling for a courtier, which prompted the palace eunuchs to complain that their lodgings were now inferior. The emperor accepted their argument and in response allowed the eunuchs to remove the gold and pearls from the courtier’s dwelling for use in their own!” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SF9RD75V\">[Allsen 2019, p. 70]</a> “Yuan Dynasty Gold Plate with Cloud-Shaped Carvings. Food container. Material: Gold…The entire plate is covered in intricate cloud-shaped carvings, which resemble a riot of flowers. It is one of the most magnificent examples of gold and silver decoration from the Yuan Dynasty. The plate was unearthed from the tomb of Yuan official Lü Shimeng in Wuxian, Jiangsu Province, in 1959. It is now on display at the Nanjing Museum. (159 如意云纹金盘 元。盛食器。金质……纹饰布满全器，犹如百花斗艳，为元代金银装饰中最瑰丽的作品。1959年江苏吴县元吕师孟墓出土。现藏南京博物院。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RGRHQWWJ\">[National_Cultural_Heritage_Administration 1996, p. 143]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 23,
"polity": {
"id": 435,
"name": "co_neguanje",
"long_name": "Neguanje",
"start_year": 250,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 435,
"name": "co_neguanje",
"long_name": "Neguanje",
"start_year": 250,
"end_year": 1050
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; tumbaga; copper. “In addition, cooking and drinking vessels, as well as polished stone axes, carnelian and quartz beads, and gold objects intentionally deposited during phases of rebuilding, most probably as part of propitiatory and protective events linked to new structures, were also recovered.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, p. 34]</a> “Initially characterized by a suite of incised and painted ceramic wares with scroll-like motifs (see Figure 2.2), the use of jadeite objects and figurines, and peculiar gold work that differed significantly from that known for the Tairona, it was thought to be restricted to coastal areas since none of these objects had been found in sites located in the upper reaches of the mountain. [...] Of these objects, unfortunately, the only one from a controlled context is the gold pendant from the Neguanje tomb excavated by Mason, which gave a date of A.D. 310 ± 70 (OxA-1528). [...] More than 8,000 beads were recovered from the burial, along with carved jadeite figurines, gold earrings, bracelets, breast plates, figurines, and fine pottery vessels.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, pp. 50-52]</a> “They practiced ceramic pottery and other crafts, with impressive achievements in the working gold from alluvial deposits.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MT4WFJJ\">[Hudson 2010, p. 5]</a> “This is when material culture appears to have become standardized, coinciding with the rise of specialist centers for pottery production, salt extraction, manufacture of ceremonial lithic artifacts, and metallurgical centers. These specialized centers supplied new colonies on the coast of the Sierra and between the lowland of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta and the west of the Sierra Nevada (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1953; Oyuela-Caycedo 2001). After AD 900 settlement patterns in the lower Gaira, Tairona Park, and upper Buritaca are similar, with groups concentrated into nucleated settlements. Hundreds of settlements have been discovered that date later than the ninth century; all of them share the same religious icons in metal, ceramic and stone artifacts.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SHVC64G\">[Oyuela-Caycedo_Silverman_Isbell 2008, p. 419]</a> “Se destacan las figurinas fundidas que representan felinos o murciélagos antropomorfizados, orejeras, narigueras, bezotes, pectorales, cascabeles y un sinnúmero de pequeños adornos manufacturados de oro o de tumbaga, en la técnica de la mise en couleur35. Se conocen varios ejemplares de figuras humanas que aparentemente llevan máscaras y un gran tocado de espirales y cabezas de aves o culebras muy estilizadas. Las figuras sostienen en sus manos una barra o vara horizontal que termina en ambos extremos en dos espirales enroscadas en direcciones opuestas36.” RA Translation: “Highlights include cast figurines representing anthropomorphized felines or bats, ear muffs, nose rings, lip plugs, hanging chest piece (RA is unsure of name for this object in english), bells and countless small ornaments made of gold or tumbaga, in the mise en couleur technique35. Several specimens of human figures are known that apparently wear masks and a large spiral headdress and highly stylized bird or snake heads. The figures hold in their hands a horizontal bar or rod that ends at both ends in two spirals twisted in opposite directions36.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, pp. 169-170]</a> “En zonas aledañas a la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, una orfebrería local se formaba como parte del proceso cultural que culminaría con la mayor consolidación de las sociedades de habla chibcha conocidas en arqueología con el nombre genérico de Tairona. [...] Estudiada en conjunto, la orfebrería de la sierra muestra cierta variedad tecnológica. En general predominan las piezas fundidas en tumbaga con bajo contenido de oro; la mayoría son huecas, con orificios en su parte posterior para retirar el núcleo. El dorado por oxidación fue acompañado de un cuidado o pulimento.” RA Translation: “In areas surrounding the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, local goldsmithing formed as part of the cultural process that would culminate with the further consolidation of the Chibcha-speaking societies known archaeologically by the generic name of Tairona. [...] Studied as a whole, the metalwork of the sierra shows a certain technological variety. In general, pieces cast in tumbaga with low gold content predominate; most are hollow, with holes in the back for removing the core. The gilding by oxidation was accompanied by treatment or polishing.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9W4GDS\">[Falchetti 1993, pp. 33-41]</a> “A stone lined tomb was located in the northeastern quadrant of the structure and a number of objects collected from within it, including several stone axeheads, beads, and gold fragments. More stone axeheads of red and green stone were found above the grave along with a fine black ware vessel containing a green stone ornament and two pottery whistles. A treasure jar found at the foot of the grave contained two monolithic stone axes. Green stone ornaments were also found in another treasure jar along with polished stone batons, four water worn pebbles, and two quartz crystals. More vessels were found scattered throughout the soil. One contained beads, another had long, tubular carnelian beads, and a small fluted pot contained more unshaped pebbles. An additional thirty axeheads were found scattered in the soil, along with fragments from two gold earrings, a monkey shaped figurine, more quartz crystals and another monolithic axe.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SHVC64G\">[Oyuela-Caycedo_Silverman_Isbell 2008, p. 155]</a> “This building was also excavated by Alden Mason (1931: 90-93, site XXIX), finding a stone lined tomb with numerous grave goods, among them a great quantity of axeheads and carnelian beads found within the tomb's soil. In addition, seven pottery vessels containing varying quantities of winged stone pendants, beads, gold and copper bracelets, and two limestone matrices used for beating gold were recovered. Two curved “walls\" or rows of upright slabs placed diagonally were also found. According to Alden Mason (1931: 91), a sterile layer of soil was found 150 centimeters below the surface, which apparently coincides with the plaza level.19 The amount and quality of the grave goods, as well as the type of tomb and its location indicate that this was a high status or elite burial. The upper layer of soil was also laced with carnelian beads, as were the caps of the grave and the areas surrounding the slabs, intentionally placed throughout the terrace when it was built up (Mason 1931: 93).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\">[Giraldo 2010, pp. 165-166]</a> “A la vez se puede deducir que aunque hay evidencia de acumulación de riqueza por parte de algunos individuos (como objetos de oro, piedra tallada o casas muy grandes), no hay una explicación satisfactoria para el proceso social que llevó a la formación de la sociedad Tairona descrita por los cronistas.” RA translation: “At the same time, it can be deduced that although there is evidence of wealth accumulation by some individuals (such as gold objects, carved stone, or large houses), there is no satisfactory explanation for the social process that led to the formation of Tairona society as described by the chroniclers.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6MCIVC2J\">[Dever 2010, p. 124]</a> “En varios sitios de la costa septentrional y también en el litoral al sur de Santa Marta, se han hallado grandes urnas funerarias, a veces con objetos metálicos dentro o pequeñas tallas de concha o de hueso.” RA Translation: “In several places on the northern coast and also on the coast south of Santa Marta, large funerary urns have been found, sometimes with metal objects inside or small shell or bone carvings.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2TKDVRGN\">[Reichel-Dolmatoff 2016, p. 171]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 24,
"polity": {
"id": 197,
"name": "ec_shuar_2",
"long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian",
"start_year": 1831,
"end_year": 1931
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; iron.“Kuashu had an old iron axe with which he cut up a few logs while we were hunting for strange insects. It was not a heavy blade, but he handled it with skill, and before the morning was out he had reduced half a dozen trunks to firewood.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 183]</a> “Indians in their canoes were to be seen darting about in the back waters, and in many places we encountered them washing gold on the gravel bars. We landed at one place and watched an old woman scratch up some gravel, put it in a big wooden batea and concentrate it down until, in the black sand that remained behind, glittered flakes of gold.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 211]</a> “The process is painfully slow, owing to the crude tools at the command of this Stone Age people; metals, except gold, are absolutely unknown to them; their axes are of stone, their chisels are of animal’s teeth, and the only substitute for the file and the plane which is known to them is sand, with which they get a wonderful finish to their work.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, p. 198]</a> It was furnished with bamboo beds, a stone fireplace, and earthenware pots, with a sprinkling of iron utensils imported by traders.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H2GCD3XI\">[Up_de_Graff 1923, p. 59]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 25,
"polity": {
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Gold; silver. “Al-Ashraf is connected with a number of astrolabes…The expense of the object is evident from its size and weight…The size and quality of al-Ashraf’s astrolabe bear[s?] testimony to its status as a royal statement of learning, wealth and taste. This was reinforced by the inscription inlaid in gold around the rim, which aimed to manifest al-Ashraf’s erudition, his orthodoxy and power in the most sumptuous manner possible”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSSSMMNG\">[Eastmond 2017, pp. 273-274]</a> “Stimulated by the transfer to Syria of specialized metalworkers from Mosul in Iraq, splendid objects with silver and gold inlays made a triumphant appearance in the Ayyubid-dominated regions, perpetuating a tradition well established east of Syria”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DXCZCCUC\">[Ekhtiar 2011, p. 138]</a> “Syria’s metalworking tradition also witnessed a revival during the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods. Military costumes and ceremonial attire would have featured important metallic artwork, offering a glimpse of aristocratic fashion…By far the most exquisite art of the period is the inlaid metalwork…The techniques used for inlaid metalwork were highly valued skills. Expert inlay artisans used silver, gold and copper on brass items - such as ewers, bowls and candlesticks - and, in order to highlight the contrast of the different colour metals, they delineated them with black niello…one of the most famous Syrian examples of metalwork from the Ayyubid period is the Rusafa Treasure, an early 7th-/13th-century collection of fine silverware produced using local methods in metalworking…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a> “…there were three values of coins during the Ayyubid period. The lesser denomination of fils was made of copper and sometimes bronze, the median denomination of dirham was made of silver, while the highest value coin, the dinar, was made of gold”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a> “Syria’s metalworking tradition also witnessed a revival during the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods…Expert inlay artisans used silver, gold and copper on brass items - such as ewers, bowls and candlesticks - …one of the most famous Syrian examples of metalwork from the Ayyubid period is the Rusafa Treasure, an early 7th-/13th-century collection of fine silverware produced using local methods in metalworking…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 26,
"polity": {
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Gold; silver; bronze; copper. “Our excavations [of Hosh el-Guruf, an ancient gold-mining site in Egypt] showed that the power of Kush rested in part on its ability to extract gold from the sands and gravels of the Nile Valley…In later periods [post-2000 B.C.], gold from Kush was sent as tribute to the pharaohs, as in the painted scenes from the walls of the tomb of Huy, the Egyptian governor of Kush during the New Kingdom (ca. 1330 B.C.). […] There was one burial [at the cemetery site of Al-Widay] with 101 tiny gold beads, made from a gold sheet that was rolled and cut into small rings; another contained a single gold bead”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIE8742S\">[Emberling 0, p. 56]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KIE8742S\">[Emberling 0, p. 59]</a> “High-quality finds from settlement and cemetery sites indicate that bronze vessels…functioned as prestige goods and were items of royal munificence and gift exchange within the elite…The high level of Meroitic workmanship is indicated by several finds [referring to bronze bowls]. […] Gold and silver jewellery of a very fine quality was found in the ba-chapel of Queen Amanishakheto’s [a Kandake of Kush] pyramid. Bracelets, armlets, shield rings and pendants richly decorated with gold wire, granulation and fused-glass inlays demonstrate the continuity of late Napatan and Meroitic goldsmith’s art and indicate the impact of Egyptian imports. The iconography of these pieces and of an extraordinary collection of rings with decorated bezels shows…that the representations on jewellery made for royal use were selected from a repertory associated with the traditional myth of the state. Rings decorated with scenes of a cycle illustrating the legend of the ruler’s divine birth suggest that there existed a pictorial rendering of the late Meroitic discourse on royal legitimacy which, however, also included moments, such as, e.g., the presentation of the heir by his/her mother to his/her earthly father the king which did not occur in earlier representations of royal pre-destination and investiture…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, pp. 527-528]</a> “[Referring to beads and pendant finds from graves in the Meroitic cemetery at Berber] The recovered beads…and pendants…are made of…metal (silver)… […] Almost 60 beads and pendants are made of sheet silver. […] About 600 drawn metal-in-glass beads were found at Berber. Also called sandwich beads, they are made of two layers of glass with gold or silver foil in between…the metal in-glass beads described above are common finds at other Meroitic sites…Luxurious gold-in-glass beads with diverse figurative motifs and dotted or lozenge patterns are rare on the whole. They have been found primarily in Nubia…Egypt, southern Russia, and Iran…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 32]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 34]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32AMNQZX\">[Then-Obluska 2018, p. 37]</a> Gold; copper; iron. “…Traces [of gold] are completely missing in the Egyptian Eastern Desert under the twenty-fifth, Kushite dynasty. A possible explanation is that the Kushite kings ordered their gold from Nubia. Relief blocks attributed to King Piye (740-713 BC) in the temple of Mut in Luxor shows five cargo ships coming from Nubia, one of them was loaded with gold (Benson and Gourlay 1899).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5F74INN8\">[Klemm_Klemm 2013, p. 611]</a> Gold; silver. “High-quality finds from settlement and cemetery sites indicate that bronze vessels…functioned as prestige goods and were items of royal munificence and gift exchange within the elite…The high level of Meroitic workmanship is indicated by several finds [referring to bronze bowls]. […] Gold and silver jewellery of a very fine quality was found in the ba-chapel of Queen Amanishakheto’s [a Kandake of Kush] pyramid. Bracelets, armlets, shield rings and pendants richly decorated with gold wire, granulation and fused-glass inlays demonstrate the continuity of late Napatan and Meroitic goldsmith’s art and indicate the impact of Egyptian imports. The iconography of these pieces and of an extraordinary collection of rings with decorated bezels shows…that the representations on jewellery made for royal use were selected from a repertory associated with the traditional myth of the state. Rings decorated with scenes of a cycle illustrating the legend of the ruler’s divine birth suggest that there existed a pictorial rendering of the late Meroitic discourse on royal legitimacy which, however, also included moments, such as…the presentation of the heir by his/her mother to his/her earthly father the king which did not occur in earlier representations of royal pre-destination and investiture…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, pp. 527-528]</a> Gold; bronze “High-quality finds from settlement and cemetery sites indicate that bronze vessels…functioned as prestige goods and were items of royal munificence and gift exchange within the elite…The high level of Meroitic workmanship is indicated by several finds [referring to bronze bowls]. Here mention must be made of the characteristic technique of incision in decoration”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 527]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 27,
"polity": {
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, silver. “Following the economic crisis of the early fifteenth century, the use of precious metal diminished, but this seems to have been temporary. The golden saddles (sarj dhahab) were mostly made of gilded silver, as is revealed on one occasion when Sultan Abu Sa‘id Qansuh (r. 1498–1500) appeared dressed entirely in white, with all the trappings, including the saddle of his horse, in ‘white silver without gilding. Pure gold is also occasionally mentioned. The gold or silver would have been applied as sheets on the crescent-shaped front and back of the saddle, following an old Asian tradition that was also valid for Mongol saddles. In a period of crisis during the reign of al-Nasir Ahmad (r. 1342), copper was mixed into the precious metal.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 16]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 28,
"polity": {
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Nubia",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Silver; gold. “Imports to Egypt comprised commodities such as metals…Long-distance trade and exchange, still a royal monopoly, also continued with Nubia as it had throughout much of Pharaonic history, although specific evidence for the Saite Period is not strong. Traditional luxury items such as gold, ebony and ivory would have continued to be in demand and the Nubians were the traditional agents for procurement of such items”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 184-185]</a> “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] The silver figure, which was dated on stylistic grounds to the Twenty-sixth, or Saite, Dynasty (664-525 B.C.). […] …technical studies undertaken both before and after cleaning provided new insights into the production of silver statuary in ancient Egypt and illustrated the high level of achievement attained by Egyptian craftsmen in this medium. […] There are relatively few extant Egyptian examples of large silver statuary representing human figures. In any case, a consistent production of figural sculpture in metal, even of the more common copper alloys, must be considered a relatively late development in ancient Egypt. […] An unpublished amulet in the British Museum (EA 32770) is of particular relevance since it may be the only other extant Saite Period sculptural representation in silver of an unclothed woman… […] Elemental analysis carried out on a polished cross section [of the silver statuette in the Met] indicated that the figure was made from an alloy containing approximately 96.7 percent silver and 2.6 percent copper. Lesser amounts of gold…and iron…were also detected…The Egyptian tradition of silver working included both hammering and casting, although it appears that statuary was produced almost exclusively by casting. […] Among extant Egyptian statuary the Metropolitan Museum’s silver figure is unique. […] The importance of the [Met’s] statuette is asserted by the wealth of silver and the high quality of workmanship, as well as by the presence of King Necho’s cartouches. These features, together with the artistic refinement of the sculpture and the clarity with which it exemplifies the aesthetic standards of the Saite Period, lead one to conclude that the Metropolitan Museum’s figure is the product of a royal workshop”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 45-47]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, pp. 51-52]</a> “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] The silver figure, which was dated on stylistic grounds to the Twenty-sixth, or Saite, Dynasty (664-525 B.C.). […] …technical studies undertaken both before and after cleaning provided new insights into the production of silver statuary in ancient Egypt and illustrated the high level of achievement attained by Egyptian craftsmen in this medium”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 42]</a> “Imports to Egypt comprised commodities such as metals…Long-distance trade and exchange, still a royal monopoly, also continued with Nubia as it had throughout much of Pharaonic history, although specific evidence for the Saite Period is not strong. Traditional luxury items such as gold, ebony and ivory would have continued to be in demand and the Nubians were the traditional agents for procurement of such items”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, pp. 184-185]</a> “[Referring to a silver statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession number: 1930.30.8.93] The importance of the statuette is asserted by the wealth of silver and the high quality of workmanship, as well as by the presence of King Necho’s cartouches. These features, together with the artistic refinement of the sculpture and the clarity with which it exemplifies the aesthetic standards of the Saite Period, lead one to conclude that the Metropolitan Museum’s figure is the product of a royal workshop”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F38D4FVK\">[Becker_Pilosi_Schorsch 1994, p. 52]</a> “[Referencing the ram in royal jewellery in Egypt] Ram amulets in faience, lapis lazuli, and gold also appear in the Saite Dynasty XXIV”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VEA9KDQN\">[Lobban 2021, p. 357]</a> “[Referring to Herodotus’s narrative of the following, see Hist. 2.172] …Amasis [II, AKA Ahmose II] owned a massive gold vase, which had been put to base uses during banquets (as a basin for washing guests’ feet but also for vomiting and urinating) before he decided to have it broken, melted, and cast into an idol that was subsequently considered a god and the object of a specific cult”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJBQDHAW\">[Mason_Lupieri 2018, p. 162]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 29,
"polity": {
"id": 647,
"name": "er_medri_bahri",
"long_name": "Medri Bahri",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1889
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Based on the literature consulted, Eritrean history appears to be especially obscure. No information could be found on the topic of trade or consumption habits in Eritrea in any era before the late 19th century. List which kinds.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 30,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Gold; silver; mercury; copper. “[Referring to the sourcing of precious metals in the New World] Gold was the first great lure offered: Columbus, Cortés, Pizarro and every subsequent adventurer placed the search for gold at the head of his priorities. The Caribbean, where Columbus had seen natives eat off plates of gold, was the primary producer; the precious metal was in the early days panned from mountain streams. In the first two decades of the sixteenth century the Spaniards probably collected around fourteen tons of gold (14,118 kilos) from the Caribbean. The news of the discovery of gold in Peru led to further exploration, discovery and exploitation. Most of the metal went to Spain, where it excited astonishment. An official of the emperor’s treasury wrote from Seville in 1534 that ‘the quantity of gold that arrives every day from the Indies and especially from Peru, is quite incredible; I think that if this torrent of gold lasts even ten years, this city will become the richest in the world’. The effects were quickly noticed in the royal treasury of Castile. ‘I am extremely pleased’, Charles V wrote from Italy in 1536, at a moment when war with France was imminent, ‘at the timely arrival of the gold from Peru and other parts, it amounts to nearly eight hundred thousand ducats, a great help for our present needs’. From the 1540s the first silver mines were discovered on the mainland, principally Zacatecas and Guanajuato in Mexico and Potosí in Peru. Their output, however, remained low until the development of the use of mercury in mid-century…Charles [V] used the precious metals, or the promise of their arrival, to set up credit for himself with the only bankers who had adequate international connections: those of Augsburg, Genoa and Antwerp. The bankers, in turn, set up or expanded their operations in Seville and the rest of Castile, in order to have direct access to their profit. This […] meant, inevitably, that a high proportion of the gold and silver from America became pledged to foreign bankers, often years in advance. Charles, obviously, used that part of the precious metal he was entitled to, the ‘fifth’ levied as a tax on all mine production in America. But from 1523, and more frequently from 1535, he also began to ‘borrow’ (that is, seize as involuntary loans) shipments that came for the Castilian merchants of Seville. The latter complained bitterly in 1536 that this effectively gave the advantage to foreign merchants: ‘they control all the money’. In fact, the foreigners controlled more than money…German financiers were…given control of the rich mercury mines at Almadén in southern Spain. […] There are no reliable figures for the amounts of metal transported across the Atlantic, but the official imports registered at Seville indicate that between 1500 and 1650 over a hundred and eighty tons of gold and sixteen thousand tons of silver were sent from the New World to Spain…The crown of Spain was foremost among those who profited, receiving by law one fifth (quinto) of wealth produced [in the New World]. To demonstrate their loyalty to the crown, conquistadors from the time of Cortés and Pizarro always took great care to set aside the royal fifth before dividing the spoils…The precious metals…were the key to the development of the monarchy”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, pp. 88-89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 287]</a> “[Referring to the heyday of the Spanish Empire] …later ambassadors, like Girolamo Soranzo [a Venetian ambassador in Spain, 1608-1611], were dazzled by the silver and gold landed [from the New World] at Seville…[and] Lady Ann Fanshawe, wife of the British ambassador [was impressed during the mid-1660s] with the ‘curiositys brought from Italy and the Indies’, the silver…from America… […] The great memorandum of 4 December 1593 to the Cortes of Castile, denounc[ed] the widespread problem of peasant debt…[including] contact with the mores of the town and its luxuries. No one should lend money to the peasants, ‘which is the ruin of such an innocent and useful body of people’, nor sell them on credit gold or silver or copper…’ […] Spain became one of the earliest economies to be exposed to the influx of bullion on a scale which seemed to transform market relations. As the New World began to yield up its enormous wealth of gold and especially silver, contemporary observers became appalled at what they regarded as the destabilisation of fair exchange…[referring to the role of money in pre-industrial Spain]…there was no standard, universal currency in the modern sense. As the Cortes of 1579-82 pointed out, copper coins circulated in the countryside, especially in the poorer villages, which could not be exchanged outside the locality except at a premium…The good coin of Spain was the silver real and the gold escudo. Minted separately in each of the peninsular kingdoms, with different weights and fineness, they were not easy to transfer…In general silver and gold coins had some of the features of treasure, and were liable to be hoarded or plundered. American treasure created new opportunities and challenges, with enough silver coming into Spain at the peak of the flow in the 1590s to pay for three weeks’ labour by every worker every year - undreamt of wealth for a pre-industrial society. […] In order to remedy the shortage of currency at home [referring in the previous paragraph to the way in which Spain quickly went through its reserves of gold and silver] there was an increasing resort to vellón, an alloy of silver and copper, or just copper alone…After the death of Philip II an increasingly bankrupt monarchy resorted to the minting of pure copper, pouring out great quantities of the stuff in the years 1599-1625. After 1625 the Crown was too poor even to buy copper, and preferred to devalue the existing copper currency…As a result of the treaties of 1648 and 1659 scaling down imperial commitments in northern Europe, the Spanish government could afford to devalue slightly its magnificent silver currency”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 6]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 58]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, pp. 68-69]</a> Gold; silver; mercury. “[Referring to the sourcing of precious metals in the New World] Gold was the first great lure offered…The Caribbean, where Columbus had seen natives eat off plates of gold, was the primary producer; the precious metal was in the early days panned from mountain streams. In the first two decades of the sixteenth century the Spaniards probably collected around fourteen tons of gold (14,118 kilos) from the Caribbean. The news of the discovery of gold in Peru led to further exploration, discovery and exploitation. Most of the metal went to Spain…An official of the emperor’s treasury wrote from Seville in 1534 that ‘the quantity of gold that arrives every day from the Indies and especially from Peru, is quite incredible…’…‘I am extremely pleased’, Charles V wrote from Italy in 1536…‘at the timely arrival of the gold from Peru and other parts…’. From the 1540s the first silver mines were discovered on the mainland, principally Zacatecas and Guanajuato in Mexico and Potosí in Peru. Their output, however, remained low until the development of the use of mercury in mid-century… […] German financiers were…given control of the rich mercury mines at Almadén in southern Spain. […] There are no reliable figures for the amounts of metal transported across the Atlantic, but the official imports registered at Seville indicate that between 1500 and 1650 over a hundred and eighty tons of gold and sixteen thousand tons of silver were sent from the New World to Spain…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, pp. 88-89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 287]</a> “[Referring to the heyday of the Spanish Empire] …later ambassadors, like Girolamo Soranzo [a Venetian ambassador in Spain, 1608-1611], were dazzled by the silver and gold landed [from the New World] at Seville…[and] Lady Ann Fanshawe, wife of the British ambassador [was impressed during the mid-1660s] with the ‘curiositys brought from Italy and the Indies’, the silver…from America…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 6]</a> Gold; silver; copper. “[Referring to the sourcing of precious metals in the New World] An official of the emperor’s treasury wrote from Seville in 1534 that ‘the quantity of gold that arrives every day from the Indies and especially from Peru, is quite incredible; I think that if this torrent of gold lasts even ten years, this city will become the richest in the world’. The effects were quickly noticed in the royal treasury of Castile. ‘I am extremely pleased’, Charles V wrote from Italy in 1536…‘at the timely arrival of the gold from Peru and other parts, it amounts to nearly eight hundred thousand ducats…’…Charles [V] used the precious metals [gold and silver], or the promise of their arrival, to set up credit for himself with the only bankers who had adequate international connections: those of Augsburg, Genoa and Antwerp… […] Charles…used…the precious metal he was entitled to, the ‘fifth’ levied as a tax on all mine production in America. But from 1523, and more frequently from 1535, he also began to ‘borrow’ (that is, seize as involuntary loans) shipments that came for the Castilian merchants of Seville… […] The crown of Spain was foremost among those who profited [from the transportation of gold and silver from the New World], receiving by law one fifth (quinto) of wealth produced. To demonstrate their loyalty to the crown, conquistadors from the time of Cortés and Pizarro always took great care to set aside the royal fifth before dividing the spoils…The precious metals…were the key to the development of the monarchy”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, pp. 88-89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 287]</a> “In order to remedy the shortage of currency at home [referring in the previous paragraph to the way in which Spain quickly went through its reserves of gold and silver] there was an increasing resort to vellón, an alloy of silver and copper, or just copper alone…After the death of Philip II an increasingly bankrupt monarchy resorted to the minting of pure copper, pouring out great quantities of the stuff in the years 1599-1625. After 1625 the Crown was too poor even to buy copper, and preferred to devalue the existing copper currency”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 69]</a> Gold; silver; mercury. “[Referring to the sourcing of precious metals in the New World] Charles [V] used the precious metals [gold and silver], or the promise of their arrival, to set up credit for himself with the only bankers who had adequate international connections: those of Augsburg, Genoa and Antwerp. The bankers, in turn, set up or expanded their operations in Seville and the rest of Castile, in order to have direct access to their profit. This […] meant, inevitably, that a high proportion of the gold and silver from America became pledged to foreign bankers, often years in advance…[and] from 1523, and more frequently from 1535, he [Charles V] also began to ‘borrow’ (that is, seize as involuntary loans) shipments that came for the Castilian merchants of Seville. The latter complained bitterly in 1536 that this effectively gave the advantage to foreign merchants: ‘they control all the money’. In fact, the foreigners controlled more than money…German financiers were…given control of the rich mercury mines at Almadén in southern Spain”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, pp. 88-89]</a> Gold; silver; copper. “The great memorandum of 4 December 1593 to the Cortes of Castile, denounc[ed] the widespread problem of peasant debt…[including] contact with the mores of the town and its luxuries. No one should lend money to the peasants, ‘which is the ruin of such an innocent and useful body of people’, nor sell them on credit gold or silver or copper…’ […] [referring to the role of money in pre-industrial Spain] …there was no standard, universal currency in the modern sense. As the Cortes of 1579-82 pointed out, copper coins circulated in the countryside, especially in the poorer villages, which could not be exchanged outside the locality except at a premium…American treasure created new opportunities and challenges, with enough silver coming into Spain at the peak of the flow in the 1590s to pay for three weeks’ labour by every worker every year - undreamt of wealth for a pre-industrial society”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 58]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 68]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 31,
"polity": {
"id": 641,
"name": "et_gomma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Gomma",
"start_year": 1780,
"end_year": 1886
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The first of the following quotes establishes that at least some of the goods that passed through Jimma were exported to Gomma. The quotes after that establish the kinds of items that were traded in Jimma. “Trade between the north and the southwest passed through Jimma, much of it carried on by Jimma merchants. Through Hirmata (where the modern town of Jimma is situated) passed caravans to the southwest (to Kafa, Maji, Gimira); the south (Kullo, Konta, Uba, and elsewhere); to the west (Gomma, Guma, Gera Ilubabor); and north to Limmu, Nonno, Shoa, Wollo, and Gondar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 49]</a> “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a> ‘‘‘ “Trade between the north and the southwest passed through Jimma, much of it carried on by Jimma merchants. Through Hirmata (where the modern town of Jimma is situated) passed caravans to the southwest (to Kafa, Maji, Gimira); the south (Kullo, Konta, Uba, and elsewhere); to the west (Gomma, Guma, Gera Ilubabor); and north to Limmu, Nonno, Shoa, Wollo, and Gondar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 32,
"polity": {
"id": 651,
"name": "et_gumma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Gumma",
"start_year": 1800,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The first of the following quotes establishes that at least some of the goods that passed through Jimma were exported to Gumma. The quotes after that establish the kinds of items that were traded in Jimma. “Trade between the north and the southwest passed through Jimma, much of it carried on by Jimma merchants. Through Hirmata (where the modern town of Jimma is situated) passed caravans to the southwest (to Kafa, Maji, Gimira); the south (Kullo, Konta, Uba, and elsewhere); to the west (Gomma, Guma, Gera Ilubabor); and north to Limmu, Nonno, Shoa, Wollo, and Gondar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 49]</a> “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a> ‘‘‘ “Trade between the north and the southwest passed through Jimma, much of it carried on by Jimma merchants. Through Hirmata (where the modern town of Jimma is situated) passed caravans to the southwest (to Kafa, Maji, Gimira); the south (Kullo, Konta, Uba, and elsewhere); to the west (Gomma, Guma, Gera Ilubabor); and north to Limmu, Nonno, Shoa, Wollo, and Gondar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 33,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1800,
"year_to": 1875,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly label almost any of the goods that circulated in this polity at this time as notably luxurious. However, given that Harar was a major trade centre in the nineteenth century, importing and exporting a broad range of items from across the Indian Ocean and East Africa, it seems reasonable to infer that precious metals were traded there. “Fitawrari Tackle Hawariyat was nine year old when he entered Harar with Menelik’s army that defeated Amir Abdullah’s small army at Chelenque battle[ in 1987]. He had been living at Addis Ababa just before he left and came to Harar which he described as follows: ‘[…] The shops and stores are stuffed with various types of goods imported from abroad. […]’ As the boy stated the shops and stores were stuffed with goods and merchandises imported from abroad, i.e. Yemen, Arabia, India, China, etc.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 34,
"polity": {
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 711,
"name": "om_busaidi_imamate_1",
"long_name": "Imamate of Oman and Muscat",
"start_year": 1749,
"end_year": 1895
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a> At this time, the Swahili Coast was largely under Omani rule. “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a> ‘‘‘ Gold described as “elite good”. “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 35,
"polity": {
"id": 650,
"name": "et_kaffa_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa",
"start_year": 1390,
"end_year": 1897
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ The first of the following quotes establishes that at least some of the goods that passed through Jimma were exported to Kaffa. The quotes after that establish the kinds of items that were traded in Jimma. “Jimma is both the name of the town on which this study focuses, as well as being one of the five “Gibe states” that flourished in the second half of the 19th century. The site of the present town was also a central market town in that kingdom and a staging point for caravans that traversed the whole length of the Ethiopian Highlands, all the way from Kaffa to Massawa.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6DXVMD6A\">[Seifu_Záhorík 2017, p. 49]</a> “When Abba Jifar wanted to buy elite goods—such as buffalo hides and horns, lion skins, ivory, colobus monkey skins, and gold—which normally came with traders from the countries to the south and southwest, he had the nagadras or his treasurer contact and negotiate with the merchants who brought such goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 96]</a> ‘‘‘ “Trade between the north and the southwest passed through Jimma, much of it carried on by Jimma merchants. Through Hirmata (where the modern town of Jimma is situated) passed caravans to the southwest (to Kafa, Maji, Gimira); the south (Kullo, Konta, Uba, and elsewhere); to the west (Gomma, Guma, Gera Ilubabor); and north to Limmu, Nonno, Shoa, Wollo, and Gondar.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 49]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 36,
"polity": {
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "A~P",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Woleai; Guam",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Iron; steel. “[Referring to local responses to early foreign visitors in Micronesia, including Truk] Many historians have claimed that the islanders’ recognition of iron and other Western goods as being valuable items often created friendly conditions for encounters. Metal tools were highly valued as they shortened the time required for the backbreaking traditional manual tasks. […] No one knows exactly how the Micronesians came to recognise [the value of] iron, though some have speculated that it was discovered…possibly [via]…unrecorded earlier [foreign] contacts”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R9BS52Q2\">[Puas 2021, pp. 87-88]</a> “[Referring primarily to the state of Woleai AKA Ulea or Oleai, a coral atoll in the western Caroline Islands, and its trade with Guam in the C19, also Woleai’s relationship to Truk in terms of trade] Chuukese desired iron and Woleai people traded proa for iron on Guam…Chuukese did not participate in the annual trading fleets to Guam, but traded cloth for iron with Woleai seafarers visiting Chuuk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PESQASI9\">[D'Arcy 2006, p. 160]</a> “[Referring to early evidence for the use of iron and steel tools acquired through trade with other islands] It appears that during this early period [inferred c.C18-19 and earlier], and for some time thereafter, the Trukese were in contact with Guam and other islands in the Marianas due to the fact that atoll islanders to the west of Truk regularly voyaged to Guam and back, taking with them items for trade in return for which they brought back iron and steel implements. The Trukese were thus in possession of iron tools at a very early date”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SC7KZS2V\">[LeBar 1964, p. 19]</a> “[Referring to methods of house construction in Truk c.C18-19 and earlier] The beams are not nailed since the old Truk people were unfamiliar with iron…The modern Truk people do use nails”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XV8IQ8W4\">[Bollig 1927, p. 206]</a> Iron; steel. “[Referring to local responses to early foreign visitors in Micronesia, including Truk] Many historians have claimed that the islanders’ recognition of iron and other Western goods as being valuable items often created friendly conditions for encounters”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R9BS52Q2\">[Puas 2021, p. 87]</a> “[Referring primarily to the state of Woleai AKA Ulea or Oleai, a coral atoll in the western Caroline Islands, and its trade with Guam in the C19, also Woleai’s relationship to Truk in terms of trade] Chuukese [people]…traded cloth for iron with Woleai seafarers visiting Chuuk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PESQASI9\">[D'Arcy 2006, p. 160]</a> Iron; steel. “[Referring to early evidence for the use of iron and steel tools acquired through trade with other islands] It appears that during this early period [inferred c.C18-19 and earlier], and for some time thereafter, the Trukese were in contact with Guam and other islands in the Marianas due to the fact that atoll islanders to the west of Truk regularly voyaged to Guam and back, taking with them items for trade in return for which they brought back iron and steel implements. The Trukese were thus in possession of iron tools at a very early date”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SC7KZS2V\">[LeBar 1964, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 37,
"polity": {
"id": 58,
"name": "fm_truk_2",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk",
"start_year": 1886,
"end_year": 1948
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Woleai; Guam",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "Iron; steel. “[Inferred as referring to the late C19] Colonisation had both negative and positive consequences for Micronesia…Many historians have claimed that the islanders’ recognition of iron and other Western goods as being valuable items often created friendly conditions for encounters. Metal tools were highly valued as they shortened the time required for the backbreaking traditional manual tasks. […] No one knows exactly how the Micronesians came to recognise [the value of] iron, though some have speculated that it was discovered…possibly [via]…unrecorded earlier [foreign] contacts”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R9BS52Q2\">[Puas 2021, pp. 87-88]</a> “[Referring primarily to the state of Woleai AKA Ulea or Oleai, a coral atoll in the western Caroline Islands, and its trade with Guam in the C19, also Woleai’s relationship to Truk in terms of trade] Chuukese desired iron and Woleai people traded proa for iron on Guam…Chuukese did not participate in the annual trading fleets to Guam, but traded cloth for iron with Woleai seafarers visiting Chuuk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PESQASI9\">[D'Arcy 2006, p. 160]</a> “[Referring to early evidence for the use of iron and steel tools acquired through trade with other islands] It appears that during this early period [inferred c.C19 and earlier], and for some time thereafter, the Trukese were in contact with Guam and other islands in the Marianas due to the fact that atoll islanders to the west of Truk regularly voyaged to Guam and back, taking with them items for trade in return for which they brought back iron and steel implements”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SC7KZS2V\">[LeBar 1964, p. 19]</a> “[Referring to methods of house construction in Truk c.C19 and earlier] The beams are not nailed since the old Truk people were unfamiliar with iron…The modern Truk people do use nails”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XV8IQ8W4\">[Bollig 1927, p. 206]</a> Iron; steel. “[Inferred as referring to the late C19] Colonisation had both negative and positive consequences for Micronesia…Many historians have claimed that the islanders’ recognition of iron and other Western goods as being valuable items often created friendly conditions for encounters”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R9BS52Q2\">[Puas 2021, p. 87]</a> “[Referring primarily to the state of Woleai AKA Ulea or Oleai, a coral atoll in the western Caroline Islands, and its trade with Guam in the C19, also Woleai’s relationship to Truk in terms of trade] Chuukese [people]…traded cloth for iron with Woleai seafarers visiting Chuuk…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PESQASI9\">[D'Arcy 2006, p. 160]</a> Iron; steel. “[Referring to early evidence for the use of iron and steel tools acquired through trade with other islands] It appears that during this early period [inferred c.C19 and earlier], and for some time thereafter, the Trukese were in contact with Guam and other islands in the Marianas due to the fact that atoll islanders to the west of Truk regularly voyaged to Guam and back, taking with them items for trade in return for which they brought back iron and steel implements”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SC7KZS2V\">[LeBar 1964, p. 19]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 38,
"polity": {
"id": 460,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_1",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon",
"start_year": 1589,
"end_year": 1660
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Bullion could refer to silver, gold, or both. “Historians no longer believe in mercantilism as a coherent system, but it remains a convenient shorthand for describing a loose collection of assumptions which underlay almost all economic thinking of the period. Crudely stated, these included the notions that the wealth of the kingdom could be increased through manufactures, whose exports would sustain the necessary imports of precious metals and other scarce commodities, while measures should be taken to minimize the the export of bullion and the importation of expensive luxury goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2KEIVTF\">[Briggs 1998, pp. 65-66]</a> Inferred absent due to scarcity. “Historians no longer believe in mercantilism as a coherent system, but it remains a convenient shorthand for describing a loose collection of assumptions which underlay almost all economic thinking of the period. Crudely stated, these included the notions that the wealth of the kingdom could be increased through manufactures, whose exports would sustain the necessary imports of precious metals and other scarce commodities, while measures should be taken to minimize the the export of bullion and the importation of expensive luxury goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2KEIVTF\">[Briggs 1998, pp. 65-66]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 39,
"polity": {
"id": 461,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon",
"start_year": 1660,
"end_year": 1815
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "P~A",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "P~A",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "P~A",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “Castelluccio traces the effect of European taste on oriental porcelain; not only were European patterns sent to China for special orders, but when a cup or bowl or vase arrived in France, it was often set in a mount of gold or silver, depending on the rank of the owner. When precious metals became scarce during the latter part of Louis XIV’s reign, copper was substituted.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9ZB7WHT\">[Castelluccio_Baghdiantz-McCabe 2014, p. 1336]</a> “Miniature replicas of the Santa casa, some no bigger than a thumb nail, were made of every conceivable type of material. These garnished the dwellings of rich and poor alike all over Europe, or were worn as jewelry. The description of the one owned by the very rich princess, Mlle de Guise, occupies several pages of the inventory of her household effects, because of the many precious stones encrusted on it. More interesting than the gold and rubies on the house itself, however, were the miniature cooking utensils, the andirons, the bed, the lamp-all made of gold and silver-that furnished the house. These chefs d'oeuvre of the silver and gold craft made it possible for the princess and her ladies in waiting to experience not ecstasy about the Virgin, but instead a playful wonderment prompted by the smallness, the beauty and the preciousness of these everyday household objects in miniature.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VDT9XDR7\">[Ranum 1991, pp. 209-210]</a> . \"Castelluccio traces the effect of European taste on oriental porcelain; not only were European patterns sent to China for special orders, but when a cup or bowl or vase arrived in France, it was often set in a mount of gold or silver, depending on the rank of the owner. When precious metals became scarce during the latter part of Louis XIV’s reign, copper was substituted.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9ZB7WHT\">[Castelluccio_Baghdiantz-McCabe 2014, p. 1336]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 40,
"polity": {
"id": 457,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_1",
"long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom",
"start_year": 987,
"end_year": 1150
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 606,
"name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2",
"long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II",
"start_year": 927,
"end_year": 1065
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Germany",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ “Other markers of aristocratic lifestyle and consumptionbetween the tenth and twelfth centuries included attitudes to the discard of objects and waste, and patronage of specialists working in precious metals. The discard strategies at Boves, Distré and Andone, between the early tenth and mid eleventh century, are especially instructive in this regard. The wealth and status of the occupants of the settlements is reflected principally in what they could afford to throw away as refuse. Large quantities of iron tools, weapons, fragments of armour and riding gear were all discarded in large quantities, relative to most other settlements of their day. Fine dress jewellery, such as an enamelled disc brooch from Andone, imported from either Anglo-Saxon England or Ottonian Germany in the late tenth century (Bourgeois and Biron 2009, 128 - 30); silver coinage - deniers and oboles - from regional mints (Dhenin 2009, 122 - 5) and glass vessel fragments were also incorporated into refuse deposits, and were not retrieved. Gold, Silver and ironworking evidence was also found at Boves and Andone.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5W4WVDW9\">[Loveluck 2013, pp. 256-257]</a> “We have concentrated on the use of a single brooch for clothing solutions as an identity-building element within the expanding Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, but in the eleventh and twelfth centuries above all, the social component of this clothing accessory came to the fore - as a layered society, with its clear division of labour, then establishing itself, with knights, peasants and the first urban burghers, all of whom were recognisable apart through their clothes and jewellery. It is conspicuous that brooches of silver and gold, but also now of tin/pewter, from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, come overwhelmingly from castles and towns.”.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 252]</a> \"Finedress jewellery, such as an enamelled disc brooch from Andone, imported from either Anglo-Saxon England or Ottonian Germany in the late tenth century (Bourgeois and Biron 2009, 128 - 30); silver coinage - deniers and oboles - from regional mints (Dhenin 2009, 122 - 5) and glass vessel fragments were also incorporated into refuse deposits, and were not retrieved. Gold, Silver and ironworking evidence was also found at Boves and Andone.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5W4WVDW9\">[Loveluck 2013, pp. 256-257]</a> “Other markers of aristocratic lifestyle and consumption between the tenth and twelfth centuries included attitudes to the discard of objects and waste, and patronage of specialists working in precious metals.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5W4WVDW9\">[Loveluck 2013, pp. 256-257]</a> “Other markers of aristocratic lifestyle and consumption between the tenth and twelfth centuries included attitudes to the discard of objects and waste, and patronage of specialists working in precious metals. The discard strategies at Boves, Distré and Andone, between the early tenth and mid eleventh century, are especially instructive in this regard. The wealth and status of the occupants of the settlements is reflected principally in what they could afford to throw away as refuse. Large quantities of iron tools, weapons, fragments of armour and riding gear were all discarded in largequantities, relative to most other settlements of their day. Fine dress jewellery, such as an enamelled disc brooch from Andone, imported from either Anglo-Saxon England or Ottonian Germany in the late tenth century (Bourgeois and Biron 2009, 128 - 30); silver coinage - deniers and oboles - from regional mints (Dhenin 2009, 122 - 5) and glass vessel fragments were also incorporated into refuse deposits, and were not retrieved. Gold, Silver and ironworking evidence was also found at Boves and Andone.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5W4WVDW9\">[Loveluck 2013, pp. 256-257]</a> “We haveconcentrated on the use of a single brooch for clothing solutions as an identity-building element within the expanding Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, but in the eleventh and twelfth centuries above all, the social component of this clothing accessory came to the fore - as a layered society, with its clear division of labour, then establishing itself, with knights, peasants and the first urban burghers, all of whom were recognisable apart through their clothes and jewellery. It is conspicuous that brooches of silver and gold, but also now of tin/pewter, from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, come overwhelmingly from castles and towns.”.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 252]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 41,
"polity": {
"id": 458,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian",
"start_year": 1150,
"end_year": 1328
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“When his grandson, Philip IV, succeeded in having Boniface VIII canonize Louis IX, he did not rebuild St-Denis yet again, but he did reshuffle the tombs of the seven centuries of kings to give pride of place to St Louis, so that he could use the sanctity of his grandfather to enhance the ‘religion’ of kingship with which he was trying to surround himself in his new palace.[...] Here was work for generations of masons and sculptors. The shrines, furthermore, provided a market for gold and jewels which the London and Paris goldsmiths sold to their respective kings for their adornment. It is difficult in the twenty-first century to envisage the richness of these royal shrines, since the reformation of England and the Revolution of France stripped them of their gems. The nearest thing to survive is that of Saint Mark, treated like an ancestor by the Venetian Republic. The most vulgarly gem-encrusted Pala d’Oro enables us to picture the reliquary-tombs these kings built for their ancestors and their own prestige.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 75]</a> “When his grandson, Philip IV, succeeded in having Boniface VIII canonize Louis IX, he did not rebuild St-Denis yet again, but he did reshuffle the tombs of the seven centuries of kings to give pride of place to St Louis, so that he could use the sanctity of his grandfather to enhance the ‘religion’ of kingship with which he was trying to surround himself in his new palace.[...] Here was work for generations of masons and sculptors. The shrines, furthermore, provided a market for gold and jewels which the London and Paris goldsmiths sold to their respective kings for their adornment. It is difficult in the twenty-first century to envisage the richness of these royal shrines, since the reformation of England and the Revolution of France stripped them of their gems. The nearest thing to survive is that of Saint Mark, treated like and ancestor by the Venetian Republic. The most vulgarly gem-encrusted Pala d’Oro enables us to picture the reliquary-tombs these kings built for their ancestors and their own prestige.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7ZCQTEW\">[Spufford 2006, p. 75]</a> “International trade, especially in luxury goods, flourished in a few places: Champagne, Flanders and the Mediterranean towns. The six annual fairs of Champagne, centred around Troyes, were supported by the count of Champagne and major religious establishments in the area, attracting major clientèle from as far afield as Scotland, Spain, Italy, Morocco, Constantiople, Sudan, Armenia and Palestine. Here, high-quality cloth was brought down from the low countries and Flanders and exchanged for exotic products from the south, such as spices, silks and damasks.[...] Far to the south, up to a month’s travel away on roads subject to tolls and rendered hazardous by bandits, towns on the Mediterranean coast acted as hubs for luxury long-distance trade in goods such as precious metals, silk, cloth of gold and jewels as well as consumables like spices, oil, rice wine and sugar. All these commodities were highly desirable to the élites of the north and merchants were prepared to take major risks to realise great rewards. Dominant amongst these cities were Marseilles and Montpellier, both outside France’s borders: Aigues-Mortes was conceived as a Capetian-controlled trading port to rival them. Artisan trades such as embroidery, metalworking, leatherworking and stone carving flourished in such centres, as did shipbuilding. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 282]</a> “Against a backdrop of slow inflation during the course of the thirteenth century, prices and wages remained, it seems, broadly stable in areas where traditional subsistence economy prevailed. In contrast, those places depending primarily on the new long-distance trading economy experienced at times a far greater prosperity, but also far more volatile and disruptive economic conditions as the prices of coth, grain, wine and dairy products tended to fluctuate. The economic context of the outbreak of violence by the pastoureaux in 1252 (p. 273) was a scarcity of grain for bread.” ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 283]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 42,
"polity": {
"id": 309,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire I",
"start_year": 752,
"end_year": 840
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 132,
"name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1",
"long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 946
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Quicksilver, Gold (in the display of wealth) “The end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth century marked for nearly a century, with the Arab conquest of Sicily, the Arab domination of the western Mediterranean. This did not exclude traffic and commerce over land, particularly with Spain and even with the Arabs themselves. Arles had an important role in it as intermediary as early as the beginning of the ninth century. The poet Theodulf, himself of Spanish origin, saw at Arles in 812 luxury goods, like leather from Cordoba, silk, jewels and also Arab coins, brought to that place by Arab merchants. Quicksilver, used for jewellery making in Western Europe, must also have been imported from Spanish mines.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U95RGM7Z\">[Verhulst 2004, p. 105]</a> '“The fictional Roland’s real-life suzerain Charlemagne was similarly spiced after his death in 814, and buried in the cathedral of Aachen. His body was perfumed and seated in a golden chair, dressed with a diadem and a gold chain, armed with a gold sword and carrying a golden gospel in his hands and knees, ‘and they filled the tomb with perfumes, spices, balsam and musk and treasures’. Though few could afford to go out in such style, Charlemagne’s burial typified the aspirations of the class he headed: the twin imperatives of piety - buried with a Bible in his hand - and luxury, in the form of gold and spices. Thus although the theological significance of the mortal remains had been downgraded, the need to demonstrate status remained as pressing as ever, and so to the usefulness of spices to that end.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MBSQH8EA\">[Turner 2005, pp. 102-103]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 43,
"polity": {
"id": 304,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Early Merovingian",
"start_year": 481,
"end_year": 543
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "A~P",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Archaeology can give us some clues about Frankish trade in this period. With luxury objects, of course, such as the Mediterranean bronze bowls found on a straight line all the way from Central Italy, across the Alps, along the Rhine and up into the Thames valley, one can never be sure that trade was the means of distribution; such prestige objects may well have reached their destination by way of war-booty, tribute or gift-exchange, rather than by trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a> “Swords were certainly traded. The swords used by the Franks were often of exceptional quality - hard, durable, yet extremely flexible: one can almost believe in the swords of the heroic literature [...] The technique used in the best swords is known as ‘pattern welding’: a number of bars of different qualities of iron and steel are welded [...] The technique is pre-Roman and Celtic in origin, but reaches its heights in the workshops of Francia; in the sixth and seventh centuries Frankish swords seem to have been exported to much of the Germanic world. In the two generations after Childeric these swords, and their scabbards, were often decorated with gold-foil and gold-and-garnet cloisonné work: that is, thin shaped sections of garnet held in place by cells or cloisons of gold. This technique originated much further east and was in Childeric’s day and international aristocratic fashion, but it became naturalized in the sixth century, and was used extensively in Francia [...]” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a> “Characteristically, aristocratic grave-goods, however, swords with gold-and-garnet cloisonné decorations for their scabbard, kidney-shaped buckle-plates, cloisonné purse fittings, horse-bits, and so on, such as are found with Childeric at Tournai [...].” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 220]</a> “Archaeology can give us some clues about Frankish trade in this period. With luxury objects, of course, such as the Mediterranean bronze bowls found on a straight line all the way from Central Italy, across the Alps, along the Rhine and up into the Thames valley, one can never be sure that trade was the means of distribution; such prestige objects may well have reached their destination by way of war-booty, tribute or gift-exchange, rather than by trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a> It is unclear at what point in the sixth century cloisonné and high-quality swords became naturalised “In the two generations after Childeric these swords, and their scabbards, were often decorated with gold-foil and gold-and-garnet cloisonné work: that is, thin shaped sections of garnet held in place by cells or cloisons of gold. This technique originated much further east and was in Childeric’s day and international aristocratic fashion, but it became naturalized in the sixth century, and was used extensively in Francia [...]” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 44,
"polity": {
"id": 306,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
"start_year": 543,
"end_year": 687
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold, silver, bronze. “The Saint-Denis excavations had resulted in an outstanding discovery: the identification of Queen Aregonde’s grave, thanks to a gold ring bearing the inscription “Arnegundis regine”. Aregonde was king Clotaire I’s wife (511/561), and Chilperic’s mother (537-539/584), and she died in 580-581 AD. Her high rank in the Merovingian hierarchy, as the wife of a king, and the mother of another, she rightfully deserved to be buried in luxurious attire. Her jewellery is testament to her status, with a long silver-gilt dress pin, a large belt buckle and garter fittings, among others found in the burial.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F6RZQVDU\">[Desrosiers_Rast-Eicher 2012, p. 1]</a> “In order to understand the peculiar nature of commerce in the merovingian world, we must first understand the circulation of goods in general in sixth century Francia. Much ink has been spilled in the debate over the relative vitality of the Western economy in the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries. On the one hand, numismatic evidence indicates the continued importance of gold coinage into the seventh century, and both archival and narrative sources mention merchants, import goods, and a functioning customs and tariff collection well into the eighth century. On the other hand, it often appears that precious metal was more important for display than for use as an exchange medium and the primary means of circulation of goods and prestige objects was not commerce but military expeditions and local plundering, or else the exchange of gifts.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TDTZCPGM\">[Geary_Geary 1988, p. 99]</a> “Archaeology can give us some clues about Frankish trade in this period. With luxury objects, of course, such as the Mediterranean bronze bowls found on a straight line all the way from Central Italy, across the Alps, along the Rhine and up into the Thames valley, one can never be sure that trade was the means of distribution; such prestige objects may well have reached their destination by way of war-booty, tribute or gift-exchange, rather than by trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGI3G4QD\">[James 1991, p. 202]</a> Consumption in the sense that it was bestowed, rather than being a usual part of daily display, as with elites. “Elites wore a great deal of wealth on their person, for effect: gold and gems on fine leather and silk clothing was common among aristocrats of both sexes, for example. When St Eligius of Noyon (d.660) was the court goldsmith for the Frankish king Dagobert in the 630s, he was so holy that he gave his gemmed silk clothes, his gold bracelet, and even his belt of office to the poor and to redeem captives. But he was not too holy to wear them, and when he gave them away the king gave him new ones. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M662X6H4\">[Wickham 2001]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 45,
"polity": {
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“Throughout the nineteenth century, jewelry was as essential to the fashionable Victorian woman as shawls, fabrics, cloaks, and scarves. The ornaments worn were generally made of precious or semi-precious stones and precious metals, many of which could be found in the Near East. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QIARVGW9\">[Chaudhuri_Chaudhuri_Strobel 1992, p. 236]</a> “By the outbreak of war in 1756, the chartered concern had trading bases at Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay, a posting station in Sumatra, and a significant interest at Canton in the China tea trade. 36 From these eastern locations, Company servants purchased tea, textiles, saltpeter, and other goods for import into Britain. Export cargoes to India comprised principally woolen goods, copper, lead, tin, iron, steel, and bullion.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6GCMW6A\">[Koehn 2018, p. 200]</a> “Parliament, equally impressed by the value of the spectacle in promoting loyalty, had granted the unprecedented sum of £240,000 to meet the cost, and George had taken the opportunity to provide what Scott was to describe as a ‘degree of splendour which [foreign visitors] averred, they had never seen paralleled in Europe’. Every costume had been specially designed on an Elizabethan and Jacobean theme to pick up the allusion to England’s great historic heritage…At his entry into Westminster Abbey he wore robes ‘of enormous size and richness’, heavily trimmed with gold and crowned with a black velvet hat adorned with a ‘monstrous plume of ostrich feathers, out of the midst of which rose a black heron’s plume’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGSQZBAD\">[Smith 1999, p. 246]</a> Empty_Description “In consequence, consumption of associated items for display boomed – clothes, furniture and, most notably, the favoured beverage of tea and the tools for serving it. Ownership of utensils in the forms of silver cutlery and porcelain dishes exploded among middling households in the eighteenth century, forming what historian Maxine Berg has aptly dubbed ‘the grammar of the polite table’.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7D2UIF7G\">[Bickham 2020, p. 67]</a> “London toy and goldsmiths shops were tourist attractions for Europe’s elites, and the city was also a major producer of toys and decorative metalwares.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMJC6WXA\">[Berg 2005, p. 13]</a> “Their producers spanned two worlds. They were located partly in the world of metropolitan luxuries— among the gold- and silversmiths, but they were also part of the provincial manufacturing regions—watch and clock part makers, fine tool and steel filemakers in the industrial villages of South Lancashire; they were the toymakers and japanners of Birmingham, and the cutlers and plated-ware makers of Sheffield. These goods might be small silver items bought as family keepsakes—cups, spoons, pepper castors, tea tongs, cream sauce pans, tankards, castors, ladles, and tumblers—and passed down to sons, daughters, nephews, and nieces. They were knives and forks, plated candlesticks or tea urns, steel buckles and enamelled buttons, or brass furniture fittings and small stove ware. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMJC6WXA\">[Berg 2005, p. 158]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 46,
"polity": {
"id": 113,
"name": "gh_akan",
"long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1701
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 113,
"name": "gh_akan",
"long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1701
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "‘‘‘ Gold; silver; brass; copper. “…the Wangara and Portuguese were viewed, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, primarily as purchasers of gold from the Akan.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 60]</a> “Vogt has suggested that in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries cloth accumulated for about 40 per cent of the business done at Sao Jorge, and metals for about 37 per cent.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 23]</a> “From the moment of their first known contact with the West, in 1471, the Akan people of Ghana have been recognised for their rich and captivating culture. In particular, the Akan can boast a vibrant artistic tradition of visual forms including, among other things, textiles, sculpture, gold and silver jewelry, and diverse styles of self decoration.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H3UTWDGN\">[Quarcoopome 1997, p. 135]</a> “The Akan metal-casting industry, which Garrard convincingly argues was established prior to the opening of the Elmina market, was heavily dependant on the import of brass and copper. A number of choice objects that escaped the melting-down process survive in Akan shrines and in collections of chiefly regalia and attest to the direction of early trade, for example, inscribed brass bowls of fourteenth and fifteenth-century Egyptian and Syrian manufacture, oil lamps perhaps of Coptic Egypt origin, and weapons of unknown Islamic provenance.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 23]</a> “Saharan salt, as we have seen, looms large in the early accounts of trade between the greater entrepots to the Western Sudan and the goldfields… Its commercial importance however should not be allowed to obscure the fact that the inventory of the traders was a much more extensive and varied one. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, for example, learned that, at Jenne [Akan trading town], ‘brass and copper are worth very much, as well as red and blue cloths and salt, and all is sold by weight except the cloths. And also cloves, pepper, saffron, fine silk threads and sugar are highly valued there.’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 22]</a> “…the Wangara and Portuguese were viewed, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, primarily as purchasers of gold from the Akan.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 60]</a> NB the following quote refers to more recent customs. We are inferring some degree of continuity with the period under consideration, though an expert should confirm. “Similarly, visual forms express collective values even when they are worn by the ruler, whose importance is defined and Accentuated by the works of his community’s artists. Generally, every Akan chief has a stool, linguist staff, umbrella, headgear, sandals, textiles, and ornaments. The elaborateness of the political emblems, which stand for their technical excellence and valuable materials, such as gold, depends on the rulers rank and wealth.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H3UTWDGN\">[Quarcoopome 1997, p. 135]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 47,
"polity": {
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Java; Indonesia; China; Malaysia",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. body ornaments, gongs and other goods of silver and brass and/or precious metals from which the latter were manufactured; silver currency. “[The following quote inferred as applicable to this period as referring specifically to the ‘pioneer’ settlement period pre-Brooke Raj and significant community members involved in the latter] After the death of Uyut [Badilang Besi], his son-in-law Renggi succeeded him…Renggi was a grandson of the chief Jantin (Moahari) of Padeh. His marriage to Pala, Uyut’s eldest daughter, is always remembered by their descendants due to the drian (bride price) which Uyut demanded from Renggi. It consisted of one valuable jar covered with a [brass] gong…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 40]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication; the initial ornament-focused quotes relate specifically to a description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Sugu pirak. Silver-mounted comb…Tenggak. Necklace of…silver coins, etc…Tumpa. Bracelet or rings of brass on the wrists…Rawai. Brass rings threaded upon rotan and worn like a corset round the body from armpit to midway between the waist and the fork. Kenyawir. A diamond-shaped metal ornament tied on the rawai. Ringgit. Dollar coins worn round the waist above the rawai. Segai. A silver, or a silver-coin belt…K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border…Sabit. Finely wrought brass chains worn from the waist to the border of the kain [petticoat]. S. pirak. Similar chains but of silver…Slong. Brass rings worn on the legs. […] Bendai or bebendai (bebebendai), a chanang (i.e. a brass instrument like a gong but with a boss in the centre). […] Chanang (bechanang), a species of gong with a brass boss (bunchol) in the centre. It is smaller and more shallow than the tetawak. […] Gong (begong), a sonorous instrument. […] Menyarai (bemenyarai), a kind of gong. […] Tawak (a short form of tetawak), a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. […] Tetawak or tawak, a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. It is made in Java and used both as a musical instrument and current coin [inferred as at the date of publication] by the Dyaks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 20]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 53]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 103]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 167]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 174]</a> “[Referring to trade for precious metal and metal goods over a long but unspecified period of time, inferred as likely applicable to this period] Despite…many upriver Iban express[ing] pride at their ability to be…almost completely self-sufficient…the desire of even far upriver Iban for many non-locally made products is undisputable and their dependence on…market items extends as far back into the past as does oral Iban history. Iban have always needed to trade for iron for the making of agricultural tools, hunting, fishing and war apparatus. Freeman states that: “our earliest historical accounts of the Iban describe a highly developed material culture based on the use of iron tools” and suggests that “it is probable that for many centuries the Iban have maintained economic relationships with Chinese and Malay traders, with metal objects, ceramics and beads as their principal purchases” (1970: 175)…Apart from iron and salt which were…necessary items, gongs and other brassware…are trade goods which have long been found in most Iban households. Heavier legal fines, imposed by […] both the Brooke government and indigenous arbitrators were often expressed in weights of brassware (Pringle 1970: 170n) and paid in brass vessels or gongs…Even the earliest known Iban migration leaders are said to have settled debts or paid fines with brassware…(Sandin 1967a: 9, 20)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBZ5P8TK\">[Padoch 1982, pp. 106-107]</a> High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. gongs and other brassware. “[The following quote inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication] Tetawak or tawak, a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. It is made in Java and used both as a musical instrument and current coin [inferred as at the date of publication] by the Dyaks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 174]</a> “[Referring to trade with foreigners for precious metal and metal goods over a long but unspecified period of time, inferred as likely applicable to this period] Despite…many upriver Iban express[ing] pride at their ability to be…almost completely self-sufficient…the desire of even far upriver Iban for many non-locally made products is undisputable and their dependence on…market items extends as far back into the past as does oral Iban history. Iban have always needed to trade for iron for the making of agricultural tools, hunting, fishing and war apparatus. Freeman…suggests that “it is probable that for many centuries the Iban have maintained economic relationships with Chinese and Malay traders, with metal objects, ceramics and beads as their principal purchases” (1970: 175)…Apart from iron and salt which were…necessary items, gongs and other brassware…are trade goods which have long been found in most Iban households”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBZ5P8TK\">[Padoch 1982, p. 106]</a> High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. brass gongs. “[The following quote inferred as applicable to this period as referring specifically to the ‘pioneer’ settlement period pre-Brooke Raj and significant community members involved in the latter] After the death of Uyut [Badilang Besi], his son-in-law Renggi succeeded him…Renggi was a grandson of the chief Jantin (Moahari) of Padeh. His marriage to Pala, Uyut’s eldest daughter, is always remembered by their descendants due to the drian (bride price) which Uyut demanded from Renggi. It consisted of one valuable jar covered with a [brass] gong…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 40]</a> High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. body ornaments, gongs and other goods of silver and brass and/or precious metals from which the latter were manufactured; silver currency. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication; the initial ornament-focused quotes relate specifically to a description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Sugu pirak. Silver-mounted comb…Tenggak. Necklace of…silver coins, etc…Tumpa. Bracelet or rings of brass on the wrists…Rawai. Brass rings threaded upon rotan and worn like a corset round the body from armpit to midway between the waist and the fork. Kenyawir. A diamond-shaped metal ornament tied on the rawai. Ringgit. Dollar coins worn round the waist above the rawai. Segai. A silver, or a silver-coin belt…K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border…Sabit. Finely wrought brass chains worn from the waist to the border of the kain [petticoat]. S. pirak. Similar chains but of silver…Slong. Brass rings worn on the legs. […] Tetawak or tawak, a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. It is made in Java and used both as a musical instrument and current coin [inferred as at the date of publication] by the Dyaks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 174]</a> “[Referring to trade for precious metal and metal goods over a long but unspecified period of time, inferred as likely applicable to this period] Despite…many upriver Iban express[ing] pride at their ability to be…almost completely self-sufficient…the desire of even far upriver Iban for many non-locally made products is undisputable and their dependence on…market items extends as far back into the past as does oral Iban history. Iban have always needed to trade for iron for the making of agricultural tools, hunting, fishing and war apparatus. Freeman states that: “our earliest historical accounts of the Iban describe a highly developed material culture based on the use of iron tools” and suggests that “it is probable that for many centuries the Iban have maintained economic relationships with Chinese and Malay traders, with metal objects, ceramics and beads as their principal purchases” (1970: 175)…Apart from iron and salt which were…necessary items, gongs and other brassware…are trade goods which have long been found in most Iban households. Heavier legal fines, imposed by […] both the Brooke government and indigenous arbitrators were often…paid in brass vessels or gongs”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBZ5P8TK\">[Padoch 1982, pp. 106-107]</a> Note that Iban society at this time was relatively egalitarian, suggesting that luxury goods were available to many.’Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U8X7Q5P\">[Davison_Sutlive_Sutlive 1991, p. 159]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 48,
"polity": {
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. body ornaments, gongs and other goods of silver and brass and/or precious metals from which the latter were manufactured; silver currency. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; the initial ornament-focused quotes relate specifically to a description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Sugu pirak. Silver-mounted comb…Tenggak. Necklace of…silver coins, etc…Tumpa. Bracelet or rings of brass on the wrists…Rawai. Brass rings threaded upon rotan and worn like a corset round the body from armpit to midway between the waist and the fork. Kenyawir. A diamond-shaped metal ornament tied on the rawai. Ringgit. Dollar coins worn round the waist above the rawai. Segai. A silver, or a silver-coin belt…K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border…Sabit. Finely wrought brass chains worn from the waist to the border of the kain [petticoat]. S. pirak. Similar chains but of silver…Slong. Brass rings worn on the legs. […] Bendai or bebendai (bebebendai), a chanang (i.e. a brass instrument like a gong but with a boss in the centre). […] Chanang (bechanang), a species of gong with a brass boss (bunchol) in the centre. It is smaller and more shallow than the tetawak. […] Gong (begong), a sonorous instrument. […] Menyarai (bemenyarai), a kind of gong. […] Tawak (a short form of tetawak), a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. […] Tetawak or tawak, a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. It is made in Java and used both as a musical instrument and current coin [inferred as at the date of publication] by the Dyaks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 20]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 30]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 53]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 103]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 167]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 174]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to an illustration of ‘A Dyak girl dressed in all her finery to attend a feast’] She has in her hair a comb decorated with silver filigree work…The rings round her body are made of hoops of cane, round which little brass rings are arranged close together so that none of the cane is visible. These hoops are worn next to the body above the waist, and over the petticoat below. The silver coins fastened to this brass corset, and worn as belts round it, are the silver coins of the country. […] [Referring to body adornment worn by men, occasion not specified] The ornaments worn on the arms and legs are brass rings, which vary among the Dyaks of different districts. […] [Referring to body adornment worn by women, occasion not specified] For ornaments the women wear finger-rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets, and often a girdle formed of silver coins, or of silver or brass chain…Among some tribes a peculiar corset, called the rawai, is worn by women. This is made of small brass rings strung closely together on hoops of rattan, which are connected with one another inside by a network of cane. […] [Referring to one of the bilik or separate family rooms in the long Iban village house] Round the three sides of this room are [ar]ranged the treasured valuables of the Dyaks…brass gongs, and guns. […] [Referring to the ‘wealth’ of an average Iban and their supposedly ‘frugal’ nature] If he happen to have an exceptionally good harvest, he may sell some paddy, and the money thus obtained is not lavishly squandered, but saved with the object of investing in gongs or other brassware…which do not decrease in value with age. […] Wealth among the Dyaks is not so much the accumulation of money as the possession of brass gongs, guns…Money is not used except by the inhabitants of the towns…Silver coins are used by the Dyaks for making belts and bangles, and are often attached to the edge of the petticoats worn by the women at feasts and on other special occasions, and are […] esteemed only as ornaments. Brass ware of all kinds is much valued, especially old brass guns and gongs. […] [Referring to the extensive body adornment worn by women in relation to marriage] For the wedding, and…the subsequent visit…the bride pays to her husband’s home, she decks herself out in all the finery she possesses or can borrow from her friends. […] Along the bottom edge [of her short petticoat wedding dress]…are sewed several rows of tinsel and…silver coins, below which…hang some rows of hawk-bells...Round her waist are several coils of brass or silver chain, and two or three belts made of dollars or other silver coins linked together. From her hips upwards, as far as her armpits, she wears a corset formed by threading upon split cane a great number of small brass rings, arranged so closely together as completely to hide the cane. To this corset may be fixed two or three bands of silver coins. Her armlets of brass or silver extend as far up as her elbow. As many rings as she possesses are on her fingers…and finished off with…a large number of big silver or brass buttons strung together round her neck. Her ears are decorated with filigreed studs of silver gilt...In her hair is a towering comb of silver filigree work, to which are attached a number of silver spangles…She wears her hair in a knot into which are stuck a number of large brass hair-pins decorated with beads and little tags of red and yellow and white cloth. […] [Referring to burial rites] It used to be the custom to place [items of high-value including] money, gold and silver ornaments, and brass utensils in the grave, but these articles were so often stolen that, nowadays [inferred as early C20 according to the date of publication] it is the practice to break in pieces all the utensils placed […] in the grave…brass gongs are not buried with the corpse, but placed on the grave. […] [Referring to an illustration of an Iban man in ‘gala costume’] His ears are decorated with lead pendants. Round his neck are…brass or silver buttons. He has…brass…rings on his arms…Round his waist is a belt of silver coins…This is the usual dress worn by a Dyak [man] at a feast”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 37-38]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 45]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 63]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 90-91]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 125-126]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, pp. 137-138]</a> “[Referring to trade for precious metal and metal goods over a long but unspecified period of time, inferred as likely applicable to this period] Many…frequently used market [i.e. trade] items can be found in households at Sungai Pelai, at Nanga Jela, in longhouses along the Kemena River, and in houses along the Baleh even in 1950…[including] brass gongs…silver and gold jewellery…Despite…many upriver Iban express[ing] pride at their ability to be…almost completely self-sufficient…the desire of even far upriver Iban for many non-locally made products is undisputable and their dependence on…market items extends as far back into the past as does oral Iban history. Iban have always needed to trade for iron for the making of agricultural tools, hunting, fishing and war apparatus. Freeman states that: “our earliest historical accounts of the Iban describe a highly developed material culture based on the use of iron tools” and suggests that “it is probable that for many centuries the Iban have maintained economic relationships with Chinese and Malay traders, with metal objects, ceramics and beads as their principal purchases” (1970: 175)…Apart from iron and salt which were and still are necessary items, gongs and other brassware…are trade goods which have long been found in most Iban households. Heavier legal fines, imposed by […] both the Brooke government and indigenous arbitrators were often expressed in weights of brassware (Pringle 1970: 170n) and paid in brass vessels or gongs…Even the earliest known Iban migration leaders are said to have settled debts or paid fines with brassware…(Sandin 1967a: 9, 20)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBZ5P8TK\">[Padoch 1982, pp. 106-107]</a> High-quality and high-value artefacts manufactured from precious metal i.e. body ornaments, gongs and other goods of silver and brass and/or precious metals from which the latter were manufactured; silver currency. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; the initial ornament-focused quotes relate specifically to a description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Sugu pirak. Silver-mounted comb…Tenggak. Necklace of…silver coins, etc…Tumpa. Bracelet or rings of brass on the wrists…Rawai. Brass rings threaded upon rotan and worn like a corset round the body from armpit to midway between the waist and the fork. Kenyawir. A diamond-shaped metal ornament tied on the rawai. Ringgit. Dollar coins worn round the waist above the rawai. Segai. A silver, or a silver-coin belt…K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border…Sabit. Finely wrought brass chains worn from the waist to the border of the kain [petticoat]. S. pirak. Similar chains but of silver…Slong. Brass rings worn on the legs. […] Tetawak or tawak, a kind of gong with a brass boss in the centre. It is made in Java and used both as a musical instrument and current coin [inferred as at the date of publication] by the Dyaks”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 174]</a> “[Referring to trade for precious metal and metal goods over a long but unspecified period of time, inferred as likely applicable to this period] Many…frequently used market [i.e. trade] items can be found in households at Sungai Pelai, at Nanga Jela, in longhouses along the Kemena River, and in houses along the Baleh even in 1950…[including] brass gongs…silver and gold jewellery…Despite…many upriver Iban express[ing] pride at their ability to be…almost completely self-sufficient…the desire of even far upriver Iban for many non-locally made products is undisputable and their dependence on…market items extends as far back into the past as does oral Iban history. Iban have always needed to trade for iron for the making of agricultural tools, hunting, fishing and war apparatus. Freeman states that: “our earliest historical accounts of the Iban describe a highly developed material culture based on the use of iron tools” and suggests that “it is probable that for many centuries the Iban have maintained economic relationships with Chinese and Malay traders, with metal objects, ceramics and beads as their principal purchases” (1970: 175)…Apart from iron and salt which were and still are necessary items, gongs and other brassware…are trade goods which have long been found in most Iban households. Heavier legal fines, imposed by […] both the Brooke government and indigenous arbitrators were often…paid in brass vessels or gongs”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBZ5P8TK\">[Padoch 1982, pp. 106-107]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 49,
"polity": {
"id": 50,
"name": "id_majapahit_k",
"long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom",
"start_year": 1292,
"end_year": 1518
},
"year_from": 1368,
"year_to": 1518,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
{
"id": 268,
"name": "cn_yuan_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Yuan",
"start_year": 1271,
"end_year": 1368
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“By the time of Majapahit, copper coins (either Chinese or similar to China's) had become the local currency not only in Java but in Sumatra's ports as well. Precious metals such as gold and silver were rarely used to facilitate exchange or make payments (a practice that had been common in the pre-Majapahit period). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6477FI45\">[A. 1992, p. 468]</a> “By the time of Majapahit, copper coins (either Chinese or similar to China's) had become the local currency not only in Java but in Sumatra's ports as well. Precious metals such as gold and silver were rarely used to facilitate exchange or make payments (a practice that had been common in the pre-Majapahit period). In Majapahit's realm gold and silver remained important not as currencies but as commodities and merchandise for the market” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PVMBXB8Z\">[Hall 1992, p. 226]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 50,
"polity": {
"id": 51,
"name": "id_mataram_k",
"long_name": "Mataram Sultanate",
"start_year": 1568,
"end_year": 1755
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "present",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Lux_precious_metal",
"which_metals": [],
"comment": "“By the time of Majapahit, copper coins (either Chinese or similar to China's) had become the local currency not only in Java but in Sumatra's ports as well. Precious metals such as gold and silver were rarely used to facilitate exchange or make payments (a practice that had been common in the pre-Majapahit period).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6477FI45\">[A. 1992, p. 468]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}