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{
"id": 1,
"polity": {
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 137,
"name": "af_durrani_emp",
"long_name": "Durrani Empire",
"start_year": 1747,
"end_year": 1826
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The Abdali tribesmen who dominated the new empire established patronage networks with merchants and agriculturalists in Multan, providing them with favorable conditions for expansion of agricultural trade. The expansion of the Durrani Empire in the lands between central and south Asia, empowered the trade networks of Afghani merchants in South Asia. The author investigates the process of transformation in manufacturing and exchange of indigo dye, horse trade, silk yarn, and cotton cloth. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FSCZ4HAU\">[Khaliyarov 2023, p. 283]</a> The following suggests that luxury fabrics were NOT imported into this polity from other polities in the time period under consideration. “Previous restrictions on imports from India had disappeared by the 1830s, making Indian cloth, indigo, cotton and sugar, as well as European manufactures Kabul’s chief imports. By the early 1830s, it was claimed Kabul imported Rs. 3,00,000 worth of British goods and Rs. 2,00,000 worth of Russian goods, although Leech claimed the Lohanis alone imported Rs. 6,00,000 annually from India. These goods were carried to Kabul in caravans of between 600 and 2000 camels, almost exclusively driven by the Lohanis”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M94XDPKV\">[Hopkins 2008, p. 147]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 2,
"polity": {
"id": 134,
"name": "af_ghur_principality",
"long_name": "Ghur Principality",
"start_year": 1025,
"end_year": 1215
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "‘Despite the civil unrest of 1199, al-Juzjani paints a picture of vibrant, sophisticated urban life at Firuzkuh in its heyday, with court patronage of poets, respect for religious law and theological debates, and the distribution of largesse at festivals and banquets, including gold and silver vessels, embroidered silks, perfumed leather (which Raverty comments must have been ‘extremely valuable in those days’), precious stone (including pearls and diamonds) and slaves acquired during the ‘holy wars’.22 The treasury reputedly contained 400 camel loads of gold in 800 chests, although al-Juzjani’s numbers need to be treated with a degree of scepticism.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEN89ESZ\">[Thomas_Bennison_Gascoigne 2007, p. 118]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 3,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "\"One of the interesting features of the burial tradition is the use of a silk face veil, which covered the face and head of the deceased. Its width was equal to the width of silk fabric – 22-23 cm; its length was 43 - 44.5 cm. The veils had no holes for eyes and mouth. The same veils were found at two sites in Eastern Turkestan (Astana and Karakhoja). Veils were used only for burial and not for everyday life. Another important aspect was also observed - the use of pillows under the head; in some of the burials there were pillows, made of bind-weed under the skull.532 Litvinsky does presume that one part of the Hephthalites – the Red Hions living in this region, can be connected with Ferghana.533’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 129]</a> ‘The silk clothes of the king, according to the Chinese traveler, and his wife were richly decorated. [...] Song Yun also noted that the country of the Hephthalites had large carpets’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CD5KQTU\">[Kurbanov 2010, p. 132]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 4,
"polity": {
"id": 127,
"name": "af_kushan_emp",
"long_name": "Kushan Empire",
"start_year": 35,
"end_year": 319
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Chinese silk. ‘Frustratingly, we lack comparable consumption contexts that can be definitively linked with the Kushan king and court. Here, we can somewhat generously interpret two significant if problematic examples for insights into taste and consumptive capacity among the royal court. First, if we take the standalone ‘royal pavilion’ at Khalchaian not as a ‘palace’ proper but a monument of the early Kushan Empire to host receptions and ceremonies (such as feasts) or conduct ancestor worship, finds of fragments of (presumably) Chinese silk and Roman glass in one of the edifice’s storerooms most likely reflect the expanding transregional reach and scope of courtly consumption.' <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 165]</a> Chinese silk. ‘Frustratingly, we lack comparable consumption contexts that can be definitively linked with the Kushan king and court. Here, we can somewhat generously interpret two significant if problematic examples for insights into taste and consumptive capacity among the royal court. First, if we take the standalone ‘royal pavilion’ at Khalchaian not as a ‘palace’ proper but a monument of the early Kushan Empire to host receptions and ceremonies (such as feasts) or conduct ancestor worship,23 finds of fragments of (presumably) Chinese silk and Roman glass in one of the edifice’s storerooms24 most likely reflect the expanding transregional reach and scope of courtly consumption.' <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 165]</a> RA’s note: Some of the elite would have lived in the royal court, hence, I presume they would have used the possible Chinese silk found at the ‘royal pavillion’. ‘Frustratingly, we lack comparable consumption contexts that can be definitively linked with the Kushan king and court. Here, we can somewhat generously interpret two significant if problematic examples for insights into taste and consumptive capacity among the royal court. First, if we take the standalone ‘royal pavilion’ at Khalchaian not as a ‘palace’ proper but a monument of the early Kushan Empire to host receptions and ceremonies (such as feasts) or conduct ancestor worship,23 finds of fragments of (presumably) Chinese silk and Roman glass in one of the edifice’s storerooms24 most likely reflect the expanding transregional reach and scope of courtly consumption.' <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RE52VX8J\">[Morris_Reden 2022, p. 165]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 5,
"polity": {
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 409,
"name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
"long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
"start_year": 1338,
"end_year": 1538
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "\" “Bengal imported silver from Malacca in exchange for high-quality cotton and silk textiles which were abundantly produced in the region. Every year about four or five big ships of Bengal touched the shores of Malacca. Bengal’s cloth fetched high prices in Malacca and was in great demand all over East Asia and Europe.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5CB7RH4N\">[Hussain 2013, p. 286]</a> “Due to its several varieties of ine cotton textiles, rice, sugar and other minor items of trade, Bengal maintained a positive trade balance even with upper India.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5CB7RH4N\">[Hussain 2013, p. 286]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 6,
"polity": {
"id": 780,
"name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
"long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
"start_year": 900,
"end_year": 1050
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "suspected unknown",
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Tarafdar himself admits that epigraphic records prepared during Deva, Chandra and Varman rule give no indication of trade, which renders impossible the determination of the extent of commercialisation of the contemporary society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 202]</a> “Not a single new commercial centre sprang up in Bengal between the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. and it appears that this region had hardly a place in external trade for at least 500 years.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2SPVKQ8S\">[Thakur 1987, p. 206]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 7,
"polity": {
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 781,
"name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
"long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
"start_year": 1717,
"end_year": 1757
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The Company procured cotton, silk, and mixed cotton and silk textiles in Bengal. Among the cotton textiles, the principal division was between the muslins and the calicoes. Of the two, muslins were more loosely woven and, on an average, were made of finer yarn.'The best quality muslins were produced in the district of Dacca, where a particularly well-known centre of production was sonargaon, situated at a distance of about fifteen miles east of the city of Dacca. The other important manufacturing centres were the Maida district aand Santipur in Nadia District. Comparatively less fine varieties were also produced in patna in Bihar and Balasore in Orissa.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MEE5IXEU\">[Lama_Mandal 2016, p. 163]</a> “But considering the evidence of the periods before and after the sultan regime: ' in Bengal, complete stoppage of silk production during the; rule of. the sultans does not seem to be possible; even if it had happened, it was absolutely a very short-term set back to the industry. On the other· hand, the prohibitions led to the introduction of special Maldehi mixed fabrics {woven with silk and cotton) known as mashru or sufi, the·latter word meaning permitted. These mixed textiles became a speciality of Malda region for centuries to come [...] It is interesting to note that silk or cotton-mixed-silk fabrics were of consistently good demand from the merchants. Silk fabrics were' exported from the ports of Bengal, and these ports had connection through local traders with a vast area of primary producers”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H5H2KFUX\">[Mukhopadhyay 1991, p. 18]</a> \" “The Muslim aristocratic ladies' dress consisted of a chola and a daman (petticoat) reaching the heals and lines with the most gaudy silk and adorned with lace. They also wore an ‘orna’ (scarf) of fine piece of muslin. The Hindu ladies put on fine cotton and silk saries. Nilambari saris and saris set with gold and jewel were highly prized by them. They used Kanchuli (tight-breast) as an upper garment. Sometimes ghaguries (skirt) were worn by them in place of ‘saris’. On festive occasions, the Hindu ladies, particularly of the upper class, would put on ghaguries, jam, nibibandh (belt) and orna like the Muslim ladies of the time. Silk cloth, handkerchiefs and shawls were generally used by the rich. Leather slippers were occasionally used”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9K3SUGBC\">[Khan 2012, p. 28]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 8,
"polity": {
"id": 619,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red I",
"start_year": 701,
"end_year": 1100
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 9,
"polity": {
"id": 617,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red II and III",
"start_year": 1100,
"end_year": 1400
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 10,
"polity": {
"id": 618,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Red IV",
"start_year": 1401,
"end_year": 1500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 11,
"polity": {
"id": 613,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
"start_year": 100,
"end_year": 500
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 12,
"polity": {
"id": 622,
"name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
"long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
"start_year": 501,
"end_year": 700
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The lack of evidence for trade provides a sharp contrast to contemporary Iron Age societies in northern Burkina Faso, whose sites contained items connected with the trans-Saharan trade (Magnavita 2009; Magnavita et al. 2002), as well as sites in the Inland Niger Delta like Jenne-Jeno (Mcintosh 1995), whose very position in a flood- plain environment required extensive trading net- works even for basic materials (iron ore, sand- stone for grinding tools). However, it should be noted that the primary commodities historically traded in western Burkina Faso, including mineral salt and textiles, would likely not appear archaeologically.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PCGIB556\">[Dueppen 2012, p. 26]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 13,
"polity": {
"id": 690,
"name": "bu_burundi_k",
"long_name": "Burundi",
"start_year": 1680,
"end_year": 1903
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 690,
"name": "bu_burundi_k",
"long_name": "Burundi",
"start_year": 1680,
"end_year": 1903
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Bark cloth. “That ordinary people wore animal skins has been well documented by travelers’ reports and local oral testimony. Elite individuals, by contrast, wore garments of pounded, softened tree bark. Highland Burundi, graced with rich forests, was a major producer of these garments, which commanded a high cost in local trade.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKP4IB6W\">[Wagner 1993, pp. 158-159]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 14,
"polity": {
"id": 470,
"name": "cn_hmong_1",
"long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing",
"start_year": 1701,
"end_year": 1895
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The Book of Qian, Tian Wen [Qing Dynasty]: The Flower Hmong: Men and women weave their clothes from strips of discarded fabric, creating garments without collars or openings that simply slip over the head. They wrap their heads in blue indigo cloth… A Survey of Miao Defense, Yan Ruyi [Qing Dynasty]: Unmarried Hmong girls part their hair and braid it down the back, decorating it with tin bells, seashells, glass pearls, and make ornaments out of all above. Even in the biting cold of winter, they wear only three or four layers of thin clothing, no quilts or padding, their figures hunched as they walk through the wind and rain,regardless of their family's wealth. (黔書 （清）田雯: 花苗 男女拆敗布緝條以織，衣無衿竅而納諸首，以青蘭布裹頭。 苗防備覽 （清）嚴如熠 苗女未嫁者，額髮中分結辮，垂后以錫鈴、海蚆、藥珠為飾，深冬嚴寒三兩重單衣，不衣絮綿，傴偻彳亍風雨中，貧富如。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3NM386Q\">[Zhang 2018, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3NM386Q\">[Zhang 2018, p. 163]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 15,
"polity": {
"id": 471,
"name": "cn_hmong_2",
"long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese",
"start_year": 1895,
"end_year": 1941
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“According to a record of the missionary Chen Xinzhuan in the early Republic of China, the Hmong people in Xiangxi, \"Now, regardless of whether they are Hmong or Yi, the men who are close to the Han people or live close to them are already similar to the Han people.\" “However, those who live in remote mountains and rarely enter the city are slightly different. They all like to wrap their heads with blue or flowered cloth, and wear blue and green large cloth full-breasted or large-breasted clothes; sometimes they can still be seen with neck rings and collars, and red copper bracelets on their right arms. For women, it is said that in the past forty or fifty years... poor families, all use blue and green fabrics for it; the rich have even more local silk, Hangzhou silk, brocade, satin, and lambskin for it.\"（据民国初年传教士陈心传记载，湘西苗族，“今无论苗、仡，察其男子之凡与汉族接近或居处接近者，已多与汉民同”。“惟僻处深山而少入城市者则略异。皆喜裹青布或花布头巾，著青兰大布满襟或大襟衣；间或可见仍有颈环项圈、右臂围以红铜手钏者。妇女，或闻其近四五十年以来……贫寒之家，皆系以青兰布匹为之；富者则更有以土绸、杭绸即绫、缎、羔皮为之者。”) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQ69GKQ8\">[Wu 2017, p. 364]</a> “Local Hmong people, Yang Hanxian, who graduated from the Sociology Department of West China University, wrote: \"The Hmong society of Weining in modern times was full of serious ethnic and class contradictions. The Yi ethnic minority landlords, who accounted for a very small number of the population, ruled and oppressed the vast majority of Hmong people... According to Hmong elders in the early 20th century, under the rule of the Yi 'nuo' (landlord),... (the above four classes are all Yi ethnic minorities) and those at the bottom of the society, or called the people under the ground, are the 'Miao (Hmong)'.\" ... In modern times, the feudal landlord system with the nature of slavery still existed in the Wumeng Mountains, and the Hmong tenant farmers were strongly dependent on the Yi ethnic minority landlords. In the Qing Dynasty, historian Zhao Yi served as an official in Shuixi. Based on his own observations, he wrote: \"The relationship between the local officials and the local people is the most severe between master and servant... \"The Hmong people wear clothes that they weave themselves from hemp, coarse hemp and worn cloth. They wear a grass belt around their waists, tie their legs with bandages, and wear straw shoes. The old records say that they \"lack clothes, sleep without beds or bedding, cook without pots and cauldrons, and have no food for the next day at home.\"（当地苗族，华西大学社会学系毕业的杨汉先写道：“近代的威宁苗族社会，充满着严重的民族和阶级的矛盾。占人口极少数的彝族土目地主，统治和压迫着广大的苗族劳苦大众……据二十世纪初期苗族老人说，在彝族’诺’（大地主）的统治下……（上述四等人皆为彝族）而处在最底层的或叫地底下的人，即’苗子’。”近代乌蒙山区还残存着带有奴隶制度性质的封建领主制，苗族佃农的人身强烈地依附于彝族土目地主。清代史学家赵翼在水西为官，以其亲见亲历写道：“凡土官之于土民，其主仆之分最严……”苗族穿的衣服是自己绩麻，粗葛败布自己纺织。腰系草带，腿裹绑带，足登草鞋。旧志说他们“身缺衣覆，寝无床被，炊缺锅釜，家无隔夜之粮。”）” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VF523UN9\">[Zhang 2009, p. 30]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 16,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "‘\" silk “The complexity of the relationship between agricultural laborers and the ruling classes is suggested by the Hu ding bronze inscription (dated to 899 BCE), which has been the focus of spirited debate. Hu, a diviner in the Royal Household, submitted a grievance to a high official, Jing Shu, accusing another noble, Xiaofu, of failing to make good on his promised exchange of five bondservants in return for horses and silk. Jing Shu negotiated a settlement in which Hu agreed to pay a hundred measures of bronze metal in lieu of the original payment in horses and silk. The five bondservants over whom Hu assumed overlordship remained on the lands which they previously tilled; thus the produce of the land was transferred to Hu as well. Apparently the bondservants remained in close proximity to Xiaofu, who is told that he must allow the bondservants “to live in the village (yi) in which they have lived, and farm the land which they have farmed.” At the same time Jing Shu enjoined Hu not to stir up animosity between the bondservants and their former master, Xiaofu. The bondservants are also described as “the king’s men” (wangren), suggesting that they had been members of the royal retinue before having been bestowed on Xiaofu. Their status as “the king’s men” probably limited the authority that their new master Hu exercised over them, but in what way remains uncertain. At the conclusion of the transaction Hu provided a feast of mutton and wine along with gifts of silk to the five bondservants to signify his new status as their lord. … The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord; no doubt they also made hemp clothes for their own families. Bronze ritual vessels exhibit remarkable homogeneity in design and decoration across the Zhou ecumene, suggesting that metallurgical knowledge was widely shared. Pottery artifacts, in contrast, display marked regional variation.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVEUQ58W\">[von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36]</a> “The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord... ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVEUQ58W\">[von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36]</a> “The “Seventh Month” song depicts rural women spinning silk yarn and weaving and dyeing silk fabrics for the use of their lord; no doubt they also made hemp clothes for their own families. Bronze ritual vessels exhibit remarkable homogeneity in design and decoration across the Zhou ecumene, suggesting that metallurgical knowledge was widely shared. Pottery artifacts, in contrast, display marked regional variation...Markets did not exist in the Western Zhou. All of the exchanges recorded in bronze inscriptions consisted of personal transactions between aristocratic lineages. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVEUQ58W\">[von_Glahn 2016, pp. 35-36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVEUQ58W\">[von_Glahn 2016, p. 39]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 17,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Silk production during the Ming Dynasty was centered around three major weaving regions: Jiangning, Suzhou, and Hangzhou in Jiangnan. However, other notable silk production centers existed in places like Luanfu (modern-day Changzhi, Shanxi), Baoning (Sichuan), Guangzhou (Guangdong), Fuzhou, Quanzhou, and Zhangzhou (Fujian)... Silk, as a luxury material for clothing, played a significant role in both the material and cultural aspects of society... Recent archaeological discoveries have yielded a wealth of silk garments, with a significant concentration found during the summer of 1958 in the underground palace of the Dingling Mausoleum in Beijing. This discovery included funerary clothing belonging to Ming Emperor Wanli, along with garments worn by his two empresses, Empress Xiaoduan and Empress Xiaojing. This collection consisted of over two hundred silk pieces and high-quality satin fabrics… Satin, known for its smooth and lustrous surface, was commonly used for ceremonial purposes... Luo, a medium-thickness silk fabric featuring woven patterns, was also highly regarded. The \"History of the Ming Dynasty\" reports that the Emperor's ceremonial robes were made from white luo, while the Empress wore red luo for her ceremonial attire. Additionally, various ranks, from the crown prince to officials, used luo fabric for their ceremonial robes and sacrificial garments. In the third year of the Hongwu era (1370), a decree was issued prohibiting commoners, farmers, and merchants from wearing luo fabric… From the Dingling underground palace, other findings included embroidered silk robes adorned with sash ties (sahuan) and embellished with dragon patches… In the Nanlai Weizi grave at Beijing's Nanyuan… There was also the discovery of luo garments with concealed patterns. These garments underscore the significance of patterned luo fabric as a material associated with the upper cladd in society. (明代丝绸以江南三织造——江宁、苏州、杭州地区为中心。此外，山西潞安府（今山西长治）、四川保宁、广东广州、福建福州、泉州、漳州等地也各有著名的丝织品生产……丝绸作为高级的服饰用料，是与社会物质生活及精神生活有直接关系的……近年各地明墓中出土的丝绸衣物也不少，最集中的是1958年夏季在北京定陵地下宫殿出土明神宗万历皇帝（明朝第十三帝朱翊钧）和他的两位皇后——孝端皇后和孝靖皇后的随葬衣物，其中有丝绸衣物和高级锦缎二百数十件之多……缎是表面光洁明亮的丝织品……罗是利用纠经组织出罗纹的中型厚度的丝织品。《明史·舆服志》记载，皇帝衮服有白罗大带。皇后大带以红线罗为之，常服有红罗长裙。此外郡王长子朝服、辅国中尉公服、郡王长子夫人至县主冠服、文武官朝服、祭服也用罗。洪武三年，规定庶人、农人、商贾不得穿罗……定陵地下宫殿曾出土四合如意洒线绣四团龙补罗袍……北京南苑苇子坑明墓曾出土……暗花罗朝袍。这些服装可以说明提花罗织物是一种高贵的服用材料。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J6MRQE59\">[Chen 1992, p. 71]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 18,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The early court celebrated the Manchu character of furs with formal dances at the palace, where groups of attendants dressed in leopard-skin robes and sable-fur hats and sang of the founding of the dynasty. The writer Tan Qian (1593–1657) witnessed the spectacle and described the “Manchu dance” in his diary in detail: Twenty to thirty people dressed in leopard-skin costumes waved fans as four others dressed in sable-fur costumes danced with poles. In winter, Qing emperors wore hats fashioned from black sable pelts, and in the last two months of the lunar year they donned hats of black fox fur. Atop such hats stood a three-tiered finial studded with Manchurian freshwater pearls. Their win- ter jackets matched: Qing emperors wore black sable in early winter and black fox in the two months before New Year’s. In other winter months the emperors wore dragon robes trimmed with sea otter fur (see Figure 1.1). In summer, such furs went into storage, but freshwater Manchurian pearls re- mained prominent parts of their ensemble, including on hat ornaments and in their prominent 108-bead, Buddhist pearl rosaries. Imperial princes dressed with similar elements: sable, sea otter, and Manchurian pearls… fur remained a flashpoint well after the Qing conquest. Tan Qian, writing in his Record of Travels North (Beiyou lu) a decade after the Manchus’ arrival in Beijing, found himself in a new and frightening world. In a journal entry from March 15, 1654—the Shunzhi emperor’s birthday—he recorded how officials at the Board of Rites honored the occasion by spending a week dressed in either sable- or fox- fur coats. To Tan Qian, it was enough to drive a poor bureaucrat to ruin. “I heard the emperor dressed in a black fox-fur robe, valued upwards of 3000 jin, and that all the various ministers wore black robes worth no less than a 1000 jin.” Yet nothing could be done about such waste: Fur was the new order… Tribute in furs, especially the highly-prized sable and black fox pelts, was presented at stipulated times in token of submission to the Ch’ing throne. Occasionally they were permitted to do so in Peking, in which case the tribute missions fell under the jurisdiction of the Li-fan Yüan, but by and large the tribesmen brought their tribute to certain designated collection points, mainly San-hsing, Deren or the Muren, where Ch’ing revenue officials sorted the acceptable pelts from the unacceptable ones and released the sub-standard furs for sale. As a result, these tribute collection points had developed into periodic fairs to which both Chinese and Mongols regularly came for trade. The imperial return gifts that the tribesmen received in acknowledgement of their tribute were luxuries on the Manchurian frontier, and their value on the market was high; so the tribal chiefs commonly sold them.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 23]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 105-109]</a> “Tribute in furs, especially the highly-prized sable and black fox pelts, was presented at stipulated times in token of submission to the Ch’ing throne. Occasionally they were permitted to do so in Peking, in which case the tribute missions fell under the jurisdiction of the Li-fan Yüan, but by and large the tribesmen brought their tribute to certain designated collection points, mainly San-hsing, Deren or the Muren, where Ch’ing revenue officials sorted the acceptable pelts from the unacceptable ones and released the sub-standard furs for sale. As a result, these tribute collection points had developed into periodic fairs to which both Chinese and Mongols regularly came for trade. The imperial return gifts that the tribesmen received in acknowledgement of their tribute were luxuries on the Manchurian frontier, and their value on the market was high; so the tribal chiefs commonly sold them.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 105-109]</a> “In 1644, a year before the queue proclamation, the Qing court issued new sumptuary laws for proper dress at court, ordering all aristocrats to wear both Manchurian pearls and furs according to rank. In 1651, it further mandated that all visitors to the palace use fur floor mats in win- ter. Fur would symbolize rank: princes of the first rank would use mats of sable, princes of the second degree sable-trimmed lynx, princes of the third degree unadorned lynx, and so on down to the lowest-ranking visitors, who would sit on goat pelts and deerskin mats (see Table 1.1). The regulations held until 1765, when the Qianlong emperor slightly modified the law and ordered princes of the first rank to use lynx fur trimmed with sable and princes of the second degree to use sable trimmed with lynx.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 36-37]</a> “the Qing court began gifting fur pelts, robes, and jackets to favored Chinese officials, particularly those involved in successful military campaigns...In a similar spirit, the Kangxi emperor began awarding sable pelts to exceptional soldiers he inspected during his imperial tour of 1704, as did the Yongzheng (r. 1722–1735) and Qianlong emperors on their own tours of 1728 and 1739. Indeed, most decorated military men received comparable gifts until the end of the dynasty. From the Dzungar campaigns and expansionary wars of the eighteenth century to the civil wars and rebellions of the nineteenth, honored soldiers received precious furs: otter-fur “war-skirts,” black fox-fur hats, and sable riding gowns and floor mats. At the same time, the number and type of civilians receiving gifts of fur expanded. The Yongzheng emperor began a new tradition of gifting furs to Qing subjects who lacked any association to the military or the inner court whatsoever.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 37-38]</a> “Fur in time became a favored symbol of filial piety. The Yongzheng emperor set yet another precedent when he gifted four sable pelts to an elderly matriarch on her one hundredth birthday. Thereafter, the Qianlong emperor took up the practice with gusto and similarly awarded such pelts to prominent moms: One governor’s mother received four pelts, another ninety-one-year-old mother received ten, and many more received pelts on the occasion of their hundredth birthdays. The practice crossed conventional boundary lines: In 1781, news of a 108-year-old Muslim woman in Xinjiang received a gift of sable and satin; in 1787 a 106-year-old Kyrgyz woman received the same. And although venerable mothers were the most common beneficiaries, after 1751 the occasional elderly father also received a package of sable and silk, bundled up in the wrapping and seal of the Qing court.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 38-39]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 19,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“At the same time, the Qing court began gifting fur pelts, robes, and jackets to favored Chinese officials, particularly those involved in successful military campaigns…From the Dzungar campaigns and expansionary wars of the eighteenth century to the civil wars and rebellions of the nineteenth, honored soldiers received precious furs: otter-fur “war-skirts,” black fox-fur hats, and sable riding gowns and floor mats… At least one manual, the Rules for Fine Furs (Lun piyi cuxi maofa), published in 1843, specialized entirely in fur appraisal. The text lists dozens of types of furs, divided into animal types (marmot, fox, steppe fox, Solon gray squirrel, imported squirrel, and so on) and parts of the animal (whole pelts, underbelly fur, leg fur), then provides information on the number of units necessary for producing a robe (Ch: pao), gown (Ch: tao), jacket (Ch: magua), coat (Ch: dahu), or overcoat (Ch: waitao). Vivid details of fashion and craft emerge from the text. We learn that most animal pelts figured exclusively in robes, gowns, and jackets, but some, such as western fox, steppe wolf, and black fox, were used mostly in jackets and overcoats. We learn that gowns and overcoats were relatively lavish: It generally required twice as many pelts to make a gown or overcoat than a jacket. Full-length robes (see Figure 1.2), however, usually required 30 percent more pelts than a gown or overcoat. The results could be extrava- gant: 180 fox-heads, 180 Solon squirrels, or 160 leopard pelts per robe.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 44-45]</a> “According to the terms of their incorporation into the empire, each year the Tannu Uriankhai presented nine types of fur to the court: sable, river otter, lynx, wolf, marten, fox, corsac fox, snow leopard, and squirrel. The regularity of their tribute was remarkable: Every winter between 1758 and 1910, Uriankhai hunting parties set off for the forests, flintlocks in hand; every spring, they offered a portion of their captured pelts to the Qing court… The fur trade at Canton went bust: In 1806, Canton imported 17,446 sea otter pelts; in 1816 it imported 4,300; in 1831 it imported 329. As supply failed to meet demand, prices rose, and the average price per pelt quadrupled between 1806 and 1831. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 130]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 133]</a> “In 1644, a year before the queue proclamation, the Qing court issued new sumptuary laws for proper dress at court, ordering all aristocrats to wear both Manchurian pearls and furs according to rank. In 1651, it further mandated that all visitors to the palace use fur floor mats in win- ter. Fur would symbolize rank: princes of the first rank would use mats of sable, princes of the second degree sable-trimmed lynx, princes of the third degree unadorned lynx, and so on down to the lowest-ranking visitors, who would sit on goat pelts and deerskin mats (see Table 1.1). The regulations held until 1765, when the Qianlong emperor slightly modified the law and ordered princes of the first rank to use lynx fur trimmed with sable and princes of the second degree to use sable trimmed with lynx… According to the terms of their incorporation into the empire, each year the Tannu Uriankhai presented nine types of fur to the court: sable, river otter, lynx, wolf, marten, fox, corsac fox, snow leopard, and squirrel. The regularity of their tribute was remarkable: Every winter between 1758 and 1910, Uriankhai hunting parties set off for the forests, flintlocks in hand; every spring, they offered a portion of their captured pelts to the Qing court… The fur trade at Canton went bust: In 1806, Canton imported 17,446 sea otter pelts; in 1816 it imported 4,300; in 1831 it im- ported 329. As supply failed to meet demand, prices rose, and the average price per pelt quadrupled between 1806 and 1831.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, pp. 36-37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 130]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 133]</a> “Indeed, a sea change occurred in eighteenth-century China: Frontier products like fur became markers of elite Chinese fashion. By 1800, visitors to Beijing marveled at what the city had to offer: marten and ermine jackets, steppe mushrooms from Mongolia, freshwater pearls from Manchuria, vendors of game meat, men and women in “horse-hoof” cuffs, and sometimes live elephants, tigers, and bears.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJZKD2JG\">[Schlesinger 2017, p. 18]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 20,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Bai Gui (fl. c. 370–300 BCE), a Wei merchant, reaped a great fortune from his dealings in grain, silk, and lacquer. Bai Gui’s mercantile acumen prompted the Wei ruler to recruit him for high office. As prime minister of Wei, Bai Gui is said to have pursued strongly pro-commercial policies, such as reducing the customs duty on commercial goods from 10 to 5 percent. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SVEUQ58W\">[von_Glahn 2016, p. 64]</a> “The Warring States period witnessed significant advancements in the sericulture sector… Meng Ke (Mencius) used his persuasion skills when conversing with King Hui of Wei, highlighting the benefits by saying, \"Plant mulberry trees on a five acre land, and by the time one reaches fifty, they'll have an abundance of silk garments\" (from \"Mencius: King Hui of Liang, Part 1\"). This progress was a direct result of the thriving silk industry in the area. (到战国时代，蚕桑事业更有发展……孟轲游说魏惠王，也说到“五亩之宅，树之以桑，五十者可以衣帛矣”（《孟子·梁惠王上篇》），就是因为这里蚕丝业发达。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APSFEM2C\">[Yang 1998, p. 74]</a> “The commoners, often referred to as \"cloth wearers,\" relied on hemp and ramie fabrics for their clothing. In contrast, silk and bo (a type of silk fabric that is plain, unpatterned, and elegantly white, woven from pure silk threads) attire was a symbol of privilege and reserved for the nobility.(麻布及葛布是庶民的主要衣料，所以庶民又可称为“布衣”。而穿着丝帛，则为贵族的特权。)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TUQM9JGB\">[Xu 2004, p. 33]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 21,
"polity": {
"id": 268,
"name": "cn_yuan_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Yuan",
"start_year": 1271,
"end_year": 1368
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The ordinary people wore coarse cloth robes, often cinched with vibrant ribbons. Those poorer people were often with \"black spotted fur jackets” that were made from plain lambskin. Emperors and nobles had themselves in luxurious sable furs. Yuan royalty and high ministers worn \"zhisun fu,\" garments crafted from a treasure trove of materials - gold-woven brocade and the plush embrace of sheared fur - which were tributes from the Western Regions. (普通人穿的是粗布袍，腰系杂彩绦；穷苦人穿的是“黑花山羊羔答忽（袄子daqu）”，帝王贵族则着十分珍贵的貂鼠答忽，元朝诸帝及大臣们所穿的质孙服则是从西域进献的纳失失，即金丝锦缎、怯绵里即剪茸等为质料的一色服……)” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CESRU2E9\">[ 2014, p. 694]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 22,
"polity": {
"id": 197,
"name": "ec_shuar_2",
"long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian",
"start_year": 1831,
"end_year": 1931
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Cotton is of the male gender, so men must spin thread and make their own “itipis” and also the “tarachi,” or garments worn by the women.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 185]</a> “The local people were not at all anxious to dispose of what little they had, but occasionally we persuaded them to part with a basket of yuca or bananas in exchange for cloth or other trade goods.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MF532MK2\">[Dyott 1926, p. 217]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 23,
"polity": {
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 367,
"name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate",
"long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate",
"start_year": 1171,
"end_year": 1250
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Cotton; silk; linen; possibly other fabrics; carpets[?]. “…the bulk of goods came over shorter distances, including ceramics, metalwork and textiles…The city [Dvin] also had its own local manufacturing expertise. It was famed for its red cloth…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSSSMMNG\">[Eastmond 2017, p. 160]</a> “High quality textiles and carpets, with geometric, animal and human designs, were made…Once the caravans reached a city, they [travellers] would find suqs (markets) selling an impressive range of goods: silk, perfume, jewellery, gold, spices, glassware, metalwork and ceramic vessels…textile production in Syria and the Jazira flourished during the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods. Etymologically, seen by the continued use of the term “Muslin”, an extremely fine fabric made in Mosul and the Damascene textile known in the West as “Damasco [Damask?]”, an embroidered type…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a> “In the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo, some linen textiles embroidered with coloured silk threads attributed to the Ayyubid period…The Ayyubid Egypt was also famous for making pure silks, as evidenced by the historical sources referring to the gifts sent by Salah al-Din to his master Nur al-Din Mahmoud in 569 AH / 1173 AD (Abdul-Razik, 2003)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CGNBQ76G\">[Ezzeldin_Ahmed_Abdulrahman_Alzahrani 2022, p. 16]</a> “…the bulk of goods came over shorter distances, including ceramics, metalwork and textiles…The city also had its own local manufacturing expertise”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSSSMMNG\">[Eastmond 2017, p. 160]</a> “…textile production in Syria and the Jazira flourished during the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods. Etymologically, seen by the continued use of the term “Muslin”, an extremely fine fabric made in Mosul and the Damascene textile known in the West as “Damasco [Damask?]”, an embroidered type”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/53A8W2KU\">[Abdal-Razzaq_et_al 2015]</a> Silk; possibly other fabrics. “Historical sources indicated that Salah al-Din and his successors bestowed luxury textiles to some states-men (Abdul-Razik, 2003)…The Ayyubid Egypt was also famous for making pure silks, as evidenced by the historical sources referring to the gifts sent by Salah al-Din to his master Nur al-Din Mahmoud in 569 AH / 1173 AD (Abdul-Razik, 2003)”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CGNBQ76G\">[Ezzeldin_Ahmed_Abdulrahman_Alzahrani 2022, p. 16]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 24,
"polity": {
"id": 521,
"name": "eg_kushite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period",
"start_year": -747,
"end_year": -656
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Luxury fabrics and associated forms of adornment including shawls; sashes; headdresses; wigs [absent]; amulets; wall hangings; cotton. “[Referring to Kushite Queens represented in art] Kushite queens…look much less “Egyptian” than their male counterparts. Except for the vulture headdress, the double-feather crown, and the double-feather crown with sun disc and cow horns…there are no Egyptian elements. A large shawl was wrapped around the body below the armpits or around the hips. A second shawl which could be fringed or decorated with woven stripes was worn over the first. Sometimes women draped a sash over the shoulder. A small tab-like element hangs below the hem of a dress to reach the ground. This diagnostic element has been described as a “little tail”. […] The wearing of decorative amulets…at the calves is also known from representations of Nubians in the New Kingdom…Possibly Kushite women tied an animal tail [possibly fox], as an amulet insuring fertility, to their knee or calf, and it hung down below the dress worn over it…By contrast [to the variety of wigs worn by Egyptian royal women], Kushite women did not wear wigs. Depictions of their natural bobbed hair are sometimes detailed to show small, tight curls. […] Kushite royal [women] are seldom depicted wearing the vulture headdress. Often a fillet that served to secure a lotus blossom at the forehead and/or a uraeus was tied around the head. The most frequently documented headgear consists of double plumes with sun disc and cow horns. The headdress is short and squat by comparison to its Egyptian prototype. The “Kushite headdress”, unusual headgear known only from representations of Kushite women, consists of as many as four components, shaped like tiny figures of goddesses or papyrus umbels, attached to a fillet. Band-like elements spring upward from these “supports” to arch down over the back of the head…Perhaps the “bands” are intended to depict feathers. Hofmann (1977: 109) would interpret this head-gear to identify a member of the royal harim. Kendall [1982], also, presumes that different kinds of headdresses [reflected] differing status among royal women. Only royal women of higher rank were entitled to wear crowns and the uraeus; for royal women of lower rank, the Kushite head-dress was used”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RNZ7W877\">[Lohwasser 2001, pp. 62-64]</a> “For lack of publications, the remarkable achievement of the late Meroitic workshops producing a wide variety of patterned textiles, among them pieces with fine figural decoration indicating the use of wall hangings in temples, cannot be discussed here…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 527]</a> Luxury fabrics and associated forms of adornment including shawls; sashes; headdresses; wigs [absent]; amulets. “[Referring to Kushite Queens represented in art] Kushite queens…look much less “Egyptian” than their male counterparts. Except for the vulture headdress, the double-feather crown, and the double-feather crown with sun disc and cow horns…there are no Egyptian elements. A large shawl was wrapped around the body below the armpits or around the hips. A second shawl which could be fringed or decorated with woven stripes was worn over the first. Sometimes women draped a sash over the shoulder. A small tab-like element hangs below the hem of a dress to reach the ground. This diagnostic element has been described as a “little tail”. […] The wearing of decorative amulets…at the calves is also known from representations of Nubians in the New Kingdom…Possibly Kushite women tied an animal tail [possibly fox], as an amulet ensuring fertility, to their knee or calf, and it hung down below the dress worn over it…By contrast [to the variety of wigs worn by Egyptian royal women], Kushite women did not wear wigs. Depictions of their natural bobbed hair are sometimes detailed to show small, tight curls. […] Kushite royal [women] are seldom depicted wearing the vulture headdress. Often a fillet that served to secure a lotus blossom at the forehead and/or a uraeus was tied around the head. The most frequently documented headgear consists of double plumes with sun disc and cow horns. The headdress is short and squat by comparison to its Egyptian prototype. The “Kushite headdress”, unusual headgear known only from representations of Kushite women, consists of as many as four components, shaped like tiny figures of goddesses or papyrus umbels, attached to a fillet. Band-like elements spring upward from these “supports” to arch down over the back of the head…Perhaps the “bands” are intended to depict feathers. Hofmann (1977: 109) would interpret this head-gear to identify a member of the royal harim. Kendall [1982], also, presumes that different kinds of headdresses [reflected] differing status among royal women. Only royal women of higher rank were entitled to wear crowns and the uraeus; for royal women of lower rank, the Kushite head-dress was used”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RNZ7W877\">[Lohwasser 2001, pp. 62-64]</a> Wall hangings. “For lack of publications, the remarkable achievement of the late Meroitic workshops producing a wide variety of patterned textiles, among them pieces with fine figural decoration indicating the use of wall hangings in temples, cannot be discussed here…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J9FB64ZQ\">[Torok 2015, p. 527]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 25,
"polity": {
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 239,
"name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
"long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
"start_year": 1412,
"end_year": 1517
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“…ceremonial textiles from Alexandria had a special status in the composition of Mamluk diplomatic gifts, being mentioned alongside military objects and horse trappings as a major and a regular item in all gift packages.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 11]</a> “The importance of wraps should not be underestimated. Documents and manuscripts are described as being wrapped in silk and silk brocaded textiles, and the wrap of the royal saddle made of gold and leather belonged to the insignia of royalty. Saddles offered as gifts were also presented in a special silk wrap” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 25]</a> “The Alexandrian textiles are usually described as products of the 152Alexandrian royal manufacture the Dar al-Tiraz. Since the Fatimid period, Alexandria had been a major centre for textile production of silk, linen and cotton, and the seat of Dar al-Tiraz, where the ceremonial gowns with embroidered inscription bands were woven” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 11]</a> “The tiraz industry that flourished under the Fatimids served not only the regal custom of bestowing robes of honour on dignitaries, but also seemed to serve the role of supplying the general market with inscribed textiles.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 11]</a> “He emphasises the lavish robes and headgear of embroidered silk brocade from the exclusive royal production of Dar al-Tiraz of Alexandria, mentioning the amount of gold that was woven into them. On one occasion the gold embroidered in an ermine-lined robe weighed more than 100 mithqals” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 13]</a> “Hierarchy was also to be signalled in the elaboration of the silver belts worn by the emirs, which increased in value according to rank.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 13]</a> \"The tiraz industry that flourished under the Fatimids served not only the regal custom of bestowing robes of honour on dignitaries, but also seemed to serve the role of supplying the general market with inscribed textiles.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 11]</a> “According to Maqrizi, fur became so widespread under the subsequent sultans that even ordinary soldiers and minor bureaucrats would wear garments with sable (sammur), lynx (washq), ermine (qaqum) and squirrel (sinjab). He adds: ‘one may say that there is not a single woman of the well-to-do class who does not wear sable and other furs, and nowadays people use fur on a very large scale’.[121] This had not been the case in the fourteenth century, when fur was far less affordable and ermine was worn only by the sultan and his wives. The new fashion introduced by Barquq, the first Circassian sultan and the one who henceforth shifted the recruitment of mamluks from the Crimea to the Caucasus, suggests that fur-adorned costume may have become associated with Circassian Mamluk identity.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXH6NK7D\">[Behrens-Abouseif 2016, p. 14]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 26,
"polity": {
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 203,
"name": "eg_saite",
"long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
"start_year": -664,
"end_year": -525
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Linen; papyrus. “Naukratis was part of the complex trade network that linked the Mediterranean and connected the two civilisations of Greece and Egypt, with Greek ships docking at Naukratis to trade such goods as silver, wine and oil in exchange for grain, linen, papyrus and natron”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8TBVWFGD\">[Forshaw 2019, p. 91]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 27,
"polity": {
"id": 647,
"name": "er_medri_bahri",
"long_name": "Medri Bahri",
"start_year": 1310,
"end_year": 1889
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "unknown",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "unknown",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"elite_consumption": "unknown",
"elite_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"common_people_consumption": "unknown",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "SSP",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "‘‘‘ Based on the literature consulted, Eritrean history appears to be especially obscure. No information could be found on the topic of trade or consumption habits in Eritrea in any era before the late 19th century.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 28,
"polity": {
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 84,
"name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
"long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
"start_year": 1516,
"end_year": 1715
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Wool; cotton; silk; linen. “The main industry was the wool trade, with Spanish wool going principally to northern Europe. In return the peninsula imported many of its basic necessities, especially textiles… […] [Referring to the role of foreign bankers in controlling money and other commodities during the Spanish Empire] The Cortes at Valladolid in 1548 protested that: ‘a consequence of Your Majesty’s [Charles V] loans in Germany and Italy is that a great number of foreigners have come here. They are not satisfied just with their profits from banking…but are buying up all the wool, silk…’ […] Castile…had a small but active commercial economy, based principally on the wool trade and the merchant community of Burgos. As the principal export of the region, wool was the basis on which a small number of northern Castilian merchants traded and became financiers, both in the peninsula and in the ports of Western Europe. […] [the wool trade in the early C16]…had been the pride of Castile and the backbone of its merchant elite. From about 1560 the Italians and other foreigners came to dominate Castilian wool exports. Between 1560 and 1612 the proportion of wool shipped by foreigners from the north coast of Spain rose from fourteen to sixty-nine per cent”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 7]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 288]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 295]</a> “In a pre-industrial economy most industry consisted of the transformation of the fruits of the earth into…the clothing of people. The great variety of regional dress…reflected the dispersal of the clothing trades. In the little kingdom of Valencia one could recognise the peasant of the lowlands by his canvas breeches, whereas the men of the sierras generally dressed in wool…Segovia, close to the shearing stations of the Mesta and therefore to the best merino wool, increased its production dramatically over the sixteenth century from around 3,000 to as many as 16,000 cloths a year, each cloth measuring some 33.4 metres in length. These woollens were finely woven, packing 2,200 threads into the warp (as compared […] with 1,800 or less for common varieties)…At the same time Cordoba was producing some 17,000-18,000 cloths, which would place her, with Segovia and perhaps Cuenca among the great European centres of woollen production in the sixteenth century. Other cities - Toledo, Granada, Valencia - had developed a luxury in silk. So great is the silk industry in Granada, wrote Pedro de Medina, that ‘almost all the common people earn their living from it’. In later seventeenth-century Valencia, a city of 50,000 people, some 4,000 were employed directly in the silk manufacture and another 12,000 - ‘including many widows and poor girls’ - indirectly through spinning at home, according to the calculations of the silk guild itself…Much of this [the initial twisting of the thread] was done by peasant families, who…aimed to finish and sell the thread by Saint John’s Day (24 June) when they would need cash to pay their landlord…[Referring to the decline of industry] The dire straits of the great old woollen manufactures of Castile seem to be well documented. From 600 looms at its peak around 1580 Segovia dropped to 300 by the middle of the seventeenth century and half that figure by the beginning of the next. There were similar complaints of decline in Cordoba around 1600, and in Cuenca as early as the Cortes of 1577. Ponz found the woollen industry of Baeza just a memory by the end of the old regime, the sleepy little town cluttered with the monuments of past glory, while in Cordoba only common baize survived of the great woollen and silk manufacture of the sixteenth century. In Segovia, once the heartland of Castilian industry, only 5,000 pieces of cloth were still being turned out, barely a third of the old total. ‘Perhaps half of Toledo is in ruins’, observed Ponz of the former capital of Castilian silk-weaving…Not all was gloom. Valencia had recovered from her seventeenth-century woes and was a major silk manufacturer again…Significantly, almost all of the production was destined for the Spanish market; only a tiny proportion - 50,000 of 2,300,000 yards - could be exported, and that just to the Spanish colonies. […] [Referring to the old Roman road linking Mérida and Zaragoza with Toledo] Goods from the Indies…came up naturally along this route from Mérida and Seville, to meet one of Spain’s chief imports from northern Europe, the fine linen of Flanders and France. […] Return commodities from the Indies included [x]…and, after the discovery of the route from Acapulco to the Philippines in 1564, Chinese silks (until these were banned from Spain in 1617). […] …trade embargoes proved very difficult to enforce. The government…had to issue contraband licences…allowing in fine linen (of which Spain was so short) from France…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, pp. 61-62]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 68]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 73]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 76]</a> Wool; silk; linen. “The main industry was the wool trade, with Spanish wool going principally to northern Europe. In return the peninsula imported many of its basic necessities, especially textiles… […] Castile…had a small but active commercial economy, based principally on the wool trade…As the principal export of the region, wool was the basis on which a small number of northern Castilian merchants traded and became financiers…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 7]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 288]</a> “Segovia, close to the shearing stations of the Mesta and therefore to the best merino wool, increased its production dramatically over the sixteenth century. […] At the same time Cordoba was producing some 17,000-18,000 cloths, which would place her, with Segovia and perhaps Cuenca among the great European centres of woollen production in the sixteenth century. Other cities - Toledo, Granada, Valencia - had developed a luxury in silk. So great is the silk industry in Granada, wrote Pedro de Medina, that ‘almost all the common people earn their living from it’. In later seventeenth-century Valencia, a city of 50,000 people, some 4,000 were employed directly in the silk manufacture and another 12,000 - ‘including many widows and poor girls’ - indirectly through spinning at home, according to the calculations of the silk guild itself…The dire straits of the great old woollen manufactures of Castile seem to be well documented. From 600 looms at its peak around 1580 Segovia dropped to 300 by the middle of the seventeenth century and half that figure by the beginning of the next. There were similar complaints of decline in Cordoba around 1600, and in Cuenca as early as the Cortes of 1577. Ponz found the woollen industry of Baeza just a memory by the end of the old regime…while in Cordoba only common baize survived of the great woollen and silk manufacture of the sixteenth century. In Segovia, once the heartland of Castilian industry, only 5,000 pieces of cloth were still being turned out…‘Perhaps half of Toledo is in ruins’, observed Ponz of the former capital of Castilian silk-weaving…Valencia had recovered from her seventeenth-century woes and was a major silk manufacturer again…Significantly, almost all of the production was destined for the Spanish market; only a tiny proportion - 50,000 of 2,300,000 yards - could be exported, and that just to the Spanish colonies. […] [Referring to the old Roman road linking Mérida and Zaragoza with Toledo] Goods from the Indies…came up naturally along this route from Mérida and Seville, to meet one of Spain’s chief imports from northern Europe, the fine linen of Flanders and France. […] Return commodities from the Indies included [x]…and, after the discovery of the route from Acapulco to the Philippines in 1564, Chinese silks (until these were banned from Spain in 1617). […] …trade embargoes proved very difficult to enforce. The government…had to issue contraband licences…allowing in fine linen (of which Spain was so short) from France…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, pp. 61-62]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 68]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 73]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 76]</a> Wool; silk. “[Referring to the role of foreign bankers in controlling money and other commodities during the Spanish Empire] The Cortes at Valladolid in 1548 protested that: ‘a consequence of Your Majesty’s [Charles V] loans in Germany and Italy is that a great number of foreigners have come here. They are not satisfied just with their profits from banking…but are buying up all the wool, silk…’ […] Castile…had a small but active commercial economy, based principally on the wool trade and the merchant community of Burgos. As the principal export of the region, wool was the basis on which a small number of northern Castilian merchants traded and became financiers, both in the peninsula and in the ports of Western Europe. […] …in the early sixteenth century [the wool trade]…had been the pride of Castile and the backbone of its merchant elite”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 288]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R6DHVMR5\">[Kamen 2003, p. 295]</a> Wool; cotton. “In a pre-industrial economy most industry consisted of the transformation of the fruits of the earth into…the clothing of people. The great variety of regional dress…reflected the dispersal of the clothing trades. In the little kingdom of Valencia one could recognise the peasant of the lowlands by his canvas breeches, whereas the men of the sierras generally dressed in wool…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PAHMG3MR\">[Casey 1999, p. 61]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 29,
"polity": {
"id": 652,
"name": "et_harar_emirate",
"long_name": "Emirate of Harar",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1875
},
"year_from": 1800,
"year_to": 1875,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Locally woven clothes, which according to Burton (ibid, 194) surpassed the produce of England’s manufactures in beauty and durability[…] were also brought to Harar and then exported to different parts of the world (Harris, 1844: 222, Burton, 1966: 193 Pankhurst, 1968:53-55). […] Others hunted elephant in the valleys south of Harar and brought the ivory to the amir, who monopolized this trade; in exchange, they received cloth imported from India or perhaps the finer variety which was woven in the town from locally grown cotton.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a> ‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that only a relatively small number of items were a royal monopoly, which suggests that many luxurious items were broadly accessible to anyone who could afford them, regardless of social extraction. “Even though the trading of ivory, ostrich feathers, and other items were monopolized by some Amirs and their families; the basic value related to property right was respected i.e. economic freedom: the rights to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property. ” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B493QJ9U\">[Abubaker 2013]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 30,
"polity": {
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 636,
"name": "et_jimma_k",
"long_name": "Kingdom of Jimma",
"start_year": 1790,
"end_year": 1932
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Ethiopian Kingdom",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Silk, finely spun cotton. “Borelli describes Abba Jifar’s retinue when he delivered the tribute in 1886: ‘Finally the king comes, mounted on a magnificent mule; at his right is a favourite on a horse. A servant holds a white silk parasol over his head and near him another carries one of green. He is all dressed in white under an ample mantle of black silk. […]’” […] “Weavers came to the palace and took away cotton thread which certain of the king’s female slaves had spun. ([…] Abba Jifar had brought Amhara women to teach to do fine spinning.) The weavers returned with cloth and clothing which the king used for his household, kept in his storehouses, and sometimes sent to Addis Ababa along with other tribute.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, pp. 97-98]</a> “Manufactured products, such as perfumes, drugs and rifles, articles of clothing, such as Abujadid and a red woolen cloth known as Abukoton, colored silks, muslin (shashi), different curtains, trousers, and coats, were brought from Addis Ababa and sold in Hirmata and the surrounding markets (HASSEN 1990:140; NASSIR 1973:30-40).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6DXVMD6A\">[Seifu_Záhorík 2017, p. 55]</a> “Weavers came to the palace and took away cotton thread which certain of the king’s female slaves had spun. ([…] Abba Jifar had brought Amhara women to teach to do fine spinning.) The weavers returned with cloth and clothing which the king used for his household, kept in his storehouses, and sometimes sent to Addis Ababa along with other tribute.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 98]</a> “Borelli describes Abba Jifar’s retinue when he delivered the tribute in 1886: ‘Finally the king comes, mounted on a magnificent mule; at his right is a favourite on a horse. A servant holds a white silk parasol over his head and near him another carries one of green. He is all dressed in white under an ample mantle of black silk. […]’” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NRZVWSCD\">[Lewis 2001, p. 97]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 31,
"polity": {
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Luxury cloth. “[Referring largely in the publication to ‘pre-Christian’ traditions in Truk i.e. prior to the introduction of Christianity in the 1870s] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…cloth (mangaak)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 32,
"polity": {
"id": 58,
"name": "fm_truk_2",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk",
"start_year": 1886,
"end_year": 1948
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 57,
"name": "fm_truk_1",
"long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1886
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Luxury cloth. “[Referring to the diagnosis of illness by knot divination, as per information sourced in the C20] To fetch…a specialist such as a diviner, the person requesting his services presented him with a gift of cloth or similar object of value (Mahony 1970: 39). The gift [of value, for example cloth] was made to insure that the diviner would be pleased to defer whatever else he might be wanting to do and come to his task with a positive attitude. […] [Referring to information gathered by various sources including the author prior to and around 1947 to 1948] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…cloth (mangaak)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 216]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a> Luxury cloth. “[Referring to information gathered by various sources including the author prior to and around 1947 to 1948] Those who had acquired knowledge of itang [the second level of recognised grades of knowledge, meaning one was fully qualified but with less knowledge than the highest level] but who were not in the direct line of descent…were aché…(‘payment makers’…)...numerous among the aché were the purchasers…of itang knowledge and their descendants. For an itang to reveal the special meanings of itang talk to someone not eligible by descent to learn it would result in his own or his sister’s son’s death, unless appropriate payment was made. The payment for such knowledge was called the ‘hundred goods’ (ipwúkú pisek) and covered the entire range of items [i.e. objects of material culture and other luxury manufactured goods] of value. […] [Chapter endnote 20] These goods included…cloth (mangaak)…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 305]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 318]</a> Luxury cloth. “[Referring to the diagnosis of illness by knot divination, as per information sourced in the C20] To fetch…a specialist such as a diviner, the person requesting his services presented him with a gift of cloth or similar object of value (Mahony 1970: 39). The gift [of value, for example cloth] was made to insure that the diviner would be pleased to defer whatever else he might be wanting to do and come to his task with a positive attitude”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKAPJESV\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 216]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 33,
"polity": {
"id": 460,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_1",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon",
"start_year": 1589,
"end_year": 1660
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 460,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_1",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon",
"start_year": 1589,
"end_year": 1660
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "The following quote suggests that the fabrics used to make fashions could have been made in France, but is unclear if any aspects of the manufactures were imported. “In the days of Louis XIV, fashions had been set by the king, who shrewdly understood that by setting and then modifying the dress standards, his example would be taken up by the people at the court, followed by the Parisian middle classes, and this would promote French luxury industries. But even Louis could not control every aspect of fashion, and the impetus gradually shifted to leading court ladies and socialites.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 358]</a> Middle classes “In the days of Louis XIV, fashions had been set by the king, who shrewdly understood that by setting and then modifying the dress standards, his example would be taken up by the people at the court, followed by the Parisian middle classes, and this would promote French luxury industries. But even Louis could not control every aspect of fashion, and the impetus gradually shifted to leading court ladies and socialites.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 358]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 34,
"polity": {
"id": 461,
"name": "fr_bourbon_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon",
"start_year": 1660,
"end_year": 1815
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“In the 1770s and 1780s Marie Antoinette herself became the nation’s leading fashion plate, under the influence of her dressmaker, Rose Bertin, who met with her weekly to keep her wardrobe up to date. Bertin opened a shop in Paris and started a business designing and peddling frivolous new styles to aristocratic ladies and prominent actresses.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZL9YB2F9\">[Beik 2009, p. 359]</a> “The most conspicuous changes occurred in the volatile and symbolically charged area of clothing. The value of wardrobes in the Parisian working population multiplied over the course of the century: for women of the upper working classes it increased sixfold, for domestics fourfold, for professionals and their wives three- or fourfold. As with furnishings, garments became more varied and cheerful: cotton and silk supplemented wool and broadcloth; bright colors and pastels gained ground; stripes, checks, and patterns proliferated. Everyone above the poorest level of society owned more clothes, women especially (it was in the eighteenth century that fashion became decisively associated with femininity). The function of clothing evolved over the course of the century: where garments had once primarily marked a person’s status, they became increasingly (for women especially) a sign of taste and fashion.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K6CGKKVT\">[Maza 1997, p. 215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 35,
"polity": {
"id": 457,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_1",
"long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom",
"start_year": 987,
"end_year": 1150
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“A rich source for the early Middle Ages, thegrave-goods and clothing components in graves start to dry up in the Carolingian period.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 248]</a> “We have concentrated on the use of a single brooch for clothing solutions as an identity-building element within the expanding Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, but in the eleventh and twelfth centuries above all, the social component of this clothing accessory came to the fore - as a layered society, with its clear division of labour, then establishing itself, with knights, peasants and the first urban burghers, all of whom were recognisable apart through their clothes and jewellery. It is conspicuous that brooches of silver and gold, but also now of tin/pewter, from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, come overwhelmingly from castles and towns.”.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 252]</a> “We have concentrated on the use of a single brooch for clothing solutions as an identity-building element within the expanding Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, but in the eleventh and twelfth centuriesabove all, the social component of this clothing accessory came to the fore - as a layered society, with its clear division of labour, then establishing itself, with knights, peasants and the first urban burghers, all of whom were recognisable apart through their clothes and jewellery. It is conspicuous that brooches of silver and gold, but also now of tin/pewter, from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, come overwhelmingly from castles and towns.”.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 252]</a> “Wehave concentrated on the use of a single brooch for clothing solutions as an identity-building element within the expanding Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, but in the eleventh and twelfth centuries above all, the social component of this clothing accessory came to the fore - as a layered society, with its clear division of labour, then establishing itself, with knights, peasants and the first urban burghers, all of whom were recognisable apart through their clothes and jewellery. It is conspicuous that brooches of silver and gold, but also now of tin/pewter, from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, come overwhelmingly from castles and towns.”.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DDR55KSX\">[Felgenhauer-Schmiedt_et_al 2007, p. 252]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 36,
"polity": {
"id": 458,
"name": "fr_capetian_k_2",
"long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian",
"start_year": 1150,
"end_year": 1328
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "Italy",
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The Italian textile designers exposed to these new currents adopted Chinese motifs, characterized by animated plumage, foliage, and landscape motifs, and inserted these into the prevailing Gothic styles of decoration. The narrative content of these lengths of silk was not unlike that in scenes of the margins in many books of hours of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which were populated by hybrid animals, incongruous spatial relations, pseudo-Kufic inscriptions, and abundant, obviously private jokes. With their graphic emphasis, these “marginal” textiles generally had fewer and lighter colors than the previous roundel style. They usually featured a metallic, gilt-silver thread, and were often executed in the novel lampas technique that allowed more than one weave structure or texture to be seen on the face of the fabric. The figured fabrics so prominently depicted in the costumes of the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century paintings and in manuscript illumination can be presumed to illustrate this silk quality.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJSVHTU9\">[Koslin_Koslin_Snyder 2002, p. 240]</a> “Throughout the medieval period in Europe, textile production and its adjunct industries were the lifeblood of medieval life and economics. [...] The urban centers of Europe grew around the ports and places of textile manufacture, and many cloth merchants became rich and powerful in city governance and as suppliers to the courts. Surviving documents, especially trade accounts and inventories, allow an understanding of the direct relations between luxury consumption and the demands of ceremonial circumstance. For instance, massive expenditures to purchase precious textiles were incurred for royal or ecclesiastical investitures, and for the matrimonial and funerary requirements of medieval society’s elite.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJSVHTU9\">[Koslin_Koslin_Snyder 2002, p. 233]</a> “International trade, especially in luxury goods, flourished in a few places: Champagne, Flanders and the Mediterranean towns. The six annual fairs of Champagne, centred around Troyes, were supported by the count of Champagne and major religious establishments in the area, attracting major clientèle from as far afield as Scotland, Spain, Italy, Morocco, Constantiople, Sudan, Armenia and Palestine. Here, high-quality cloth was brought down from the low countries and Flanders and exchanged for exotic products from the south, such as spices, silks and damasks.[...] Far to the south, up to a month’s travel away on roads subject to tolls and rendered hazardous by bandits, towns on the Mediterranean coast acted as hubs for luxury long-distance trade in goods such as precious metals, silk, cloth of gold and jewels as well as consumables like spices, oil, rice, wine and sugar. All these commodities were highly desirable to the élites of the north and merchants were prepared to take major risks to realise great rewards. Dominant amongst these cities were Marseilles and Montpellier, both outside France’s borders: Aigues-Mortes was conceived as a Capetian-controlled trading port to rival them.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\">[Hallam_West 2019, p. 282]</a> “The labour- intensive nature of medieval textile production involved a great many people in society, with the largest number of contributors at its very lowest rungs. [...] Wool was by far the most important textile material, followed by linen and hemp. Together they made up the great majority of medieval textiles for clothing and domestic purposes - silk, seen in disproportionate numbers in representations and surviving medieval textiles, accounted for only a small fraction of the total. [...] Toward the top of the labour pyramid of medieval textile manufacture are those employed in after-treatments that added value and quality, such as dyers, fullers, and shearers, while the merchants of cloth, dyes and luxury textiles represented the pinnacle. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJSVHTU9\">[Koslin_Koslin_Snyder 2002, p. 234]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 37,
"polity": {
"id": 309,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire I",
"start_year": 752,
"end_year": 840
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 132,
"name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1",
"long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I",
"start_year": 750,
"end_year": 946
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“[...] while the cope of Charlemagne (presented by Hurun al-Rashid in the ninth century), though dating from the Arab period, still has the ancient Persian motifs of eagles and griffins. The majority of silks distributed through the west in the Middle Ages were decorated with animals, often in pairs facing each other and sometimes enclosed within endlessly repeating medallions: unicorns, peacocks, eagles, ducks, elephants, tigers, and leopards - exotic animals for the most part, which had never been seen by Europeans.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W47M8BGQ\">[Boulnois 2004, p. 186]</a> It seems reasonable to infer that such goods arrived in France through Arab merchants: “The end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth century marked for nearly a century, with the Arab conquest of Sicily, the Arab domination of the western Mediterranean. This did not exclude traffic and commerce over land, particularly with Spain and even with the Arabs themselves. Arles had an important role in it as intermediary as early as the beginning of the ninth century. The poet Theodulf, himself of Spanish origin, saw at Arles in 812 luxury goods, like leather from Cordoba, silk, jewels and also Arab coins, brought to that place by Arab merchants. Quicksilver, used for jewellery making in Western Europe, must also have been imported from Spanish mines.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U95RGM7Z\">[Verhulst 2004, p. 105]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 38,
"polity": {
"id": 311,
"name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Carolingian Empire II",
"start_year": 840,
"end_year": 987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Based on the literature consulted, it is not clear what of the listed luxury items continued to be imported at the end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth centuries “The end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth century marked for nearly a century, with the Arab conquest of Sicily, the Arab domination of the western Mediterranean. This did not exclude traffic and commerce over land, particularly with Spain and even with the Arabs themselves. Arles had an important role in it as intermediary as early as the beginning of the ninth century. The poet Theodulf, himself of Spanish origin, saw at Arles in 812 luxury goods, like leather from Cordoba, silk, jewels and also Arab coins, brought to that place by Arab merchants. Quicksilver, used for jewellery making in Western Europe, must also have been imported from Spanish mines.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U95RGM7Z\">[Verhulst 2004, p. 105]</a> Based on the literature consulted, is not clear what of the listed luxury items continued to be imported at the end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth centuries “The end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth century marked for nearly a century, with the Arab conquest of Sicily, the Arab domination of the western Mediterranean. This did not exclude traffic and commerce over land, particularly with Spain and even with the Arabs themselves. Arles had an important role in it as intermediary as early as the beginning of the ninth century. The poet Theodulf, himself of Spanish origin, saw at Arles in 812 luxury goods, like leather from Cordoba, silk, jewels and also Arab coins, brought to that place by Arab merchants. Quicksilver, used for jewellery making in Western Europe, must also have been imported from Spanish mines.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U95RGM7Z\">[Verhulst 2004, p. 105]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 39,
"polity": {
"id": 306,
"name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
"long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
"start_year": 543,
"end_year": 687
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 72,
"name": "tr_east_roman_emp",
"long_name": "East Roman Empire",
"start_year": 395,
"end_year": 631
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "The following quote seems to suggest that France received luxury fabrics from Byzantium at this time; possibly other polities in the Eastern Mediterranean and farther into Asia, but more information is needed in that regard. “Byzantine / eastern Mediterranean and Oriental imports are very often seen as ‘luxury’ items indicating the high social status of those people who have been buried with them. Some of the above-mentioned object groups are obviously of high value, especially splendour swords, helmets, silver spoons, silk textiles, etc., and it is an interesting though expectable result that they belonged mainly to the grave furnishings of high-status burials.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRDPUGMF\">[Sarti_et_al 2019, p. 11]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 40,
"polity": {
"id": 587,
"name": "gb_british_emp_1",
"long_name": "British Empire I",
"start_year": 1690,
"end_year": 1849
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Lady Lovetoy explains how the new skills of upwardly mobile ladies included shopping and knowing to ‘Buy all their Silks at India house, their Looking-glass at Gumly’s, and all the Tea at Phillips’s’ – all recognized venues to the leisured London shopper. The displays and variety of goods in London’s elite shopping districts was most impressive.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7D2UIF7G\">[Bickham 2020, p. 59]</a> “Holland’s estimate for the first stage of the work on Carlton House in 1784 amounted to £30,250 – the equivalent possibly of £1.5–£2 million in today’s money…The room was ‘hung with rich silk Damask manufactured in Spitalfields’ and the floor covered by ‘a rich Moorfields carpet’. In 1790 a bill came in for upholstery materials in green, white and yellow lustring, rose-coloured Italian mantua, and rich crimson satin ground tissue for the backs and seats of twenty-three chairs.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TGSQZBAD\">[Smith 1999, p. 53]</a> “Contemporary observers estimated that two-thirds of all transactions involved credit rather than cash. As goods and services markets became wider and more integrated, so too did the credit markets, formal and informal. A Leicester shopkeeper purchased silk from a Spitalfields wholesaler and paid for it with a bill of exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6GCMW6A\">[Koehn 2018, p. 44]</a> Note: the case that a shopkeeper could purchase silk might be indirect evidence of the common people consuming specialty fabrics.",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 41,
"polity": {
"id": 113,
"name": "gh_akan",
"long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti",
"start_year": 1501,
"end_year": 1701
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": "foreign",
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Cloth; silk; linen. “Vogt has suggested that in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries cloth accumulated for about 40 per cent of the business done at Sao Jorge, and metals for about 37 per cent.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 23]</a> “The decision to build the forst of Sao Jorge at Elmina was taken in the belief that other Portuguese-manufactured produce – ‘silk, woollen and linen cloths, and other domestic goods’ – would find a ready market there. Certainly objects of copper and brass did, whether shaving bowls, urinals, chamber pots, water jugs, bells, boxes, or bracelets (manilhas).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2MY9LKN8\">[Wilks_Internet_Archive 1993, p. 23]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 42,
"polity": {
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 153,
"name": "id_iban_1",
"long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke",
"start_year": 1650,
"end_year": 1841
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Woven blankets and other high-quality and high-value fabrics, inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus] All better-class Dayak women are expected to be good at weaving…blankets (pua). [Referring to an illustration in-text] The design of this blanket is called Buah Terabai, based on the design on a shield. [Referring to another illustration in-text] The design of this woven blanket is ‘Tangga Beji, ‘Beji’s Ladder’. Beji lived at Ketapang to the east in Kalimantan Barat many generations ago…In his anxiety to meet God in the latter’s own house, he erected the tallest ladder ever known; fragments of it fell into all the rivers along which the Iban migrated across Borneo. […] [Referring to the endnotes to part three of the publication, following the description of a mother carrying a child in this type of ‘luxury’ fabric] 59. Lebor api is the name of a type of very fine Iban pua or blanket; the literal meaning is ‘flame’”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 133]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel… […] Lebur-api (belebur-api), the best Dyak-made petticoat or blanket. [Example of how might be used in a sentence, inferred as emphasising high-quality of manufacture] Pua lebur-api mansau tisi nilah kendawang. The blanket lebur-api is red at the edges in imitation of the tongue of the kendawang snake. […] Paya (bepaya), as sirat paya, an especial kind of waist-cloth”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 119]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the focus of the article and the several references to relevant ‘luxury’ fabrics dating to the mid-C19 or earlier; referring specifically in the following quotes to different types of ‘luxury’ fabrics including a single lebur api or sungkit textile potentially dating to pre-1841, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban textiles called pua’ sungkit…Its principal role was to receive a newly taken trophy head. The taking of trophy heads by Iban men was the apogee of achievement of the Iban up until the Second World War…The lebur api was also used to cradle heads that had already been taken in the past, but their ritual power was called upon in grand festivals like the gawai burung. Such heads were removed from the baskets in which they hung above a bedilang (hearth) in the communal gallery of a longhouse, each one then wrapped in a lebur api individually by senior women of the community… […] Lebur apis were woven by experienced weavers under strict weaving rules in the days when headhunting was practised. They were only started when their men folk went off to war…lifting the supplementary weft thread of a lebur api with a bodkin was akin to stabbing the eyes of the enemies and blinding them. With every bodkin-lift of the supplementary weft, the weaver would utter a curse against the enemy. It was her part in assisting her men folk who had gone off on a raid… […] Lebur apis were the apogee of a woman demonstrating her skills during the time of OKP, and therefore the pool of weavers able to do them was relatively small…Lebur apis were also never sold nor gifted during OKP’s time - which in itself makes this ‘gift’ rather particular…When a weaver wove a lebur api, she only wove the body of the cloth to receive one trophy head. The adding of borders occurred only if a head in fact was taken, and the cloth used. […] The British Museum’s lebur api would be called a lebur api mekang in the Saribas, as it lacks the added-on borders that embellish a lebur api that had received a trophy head and shows no signs of any previous attachments on the selvedges [plain coloured vertical strips or borders called ara]…The lebur api was principally used in a short festival lasting a whole day and a night […] known as the gawai enchabuh arung (literally “festival of opening a channel”) which was to celebrate the introduction of a new trophy head into the longhouse, besides its use at the grand gawai burung. […] The pivotal moment in the gawai enchabuh arung would climax with the trophy heads being wrapped by the women within their lebur apis, ensuring that the ends of their textiles which displayed no white supplementary wefts would show. […] Almost all lebur apis of the time [inferred as referring to the C19 and earlier], whether woven in the Saribas, Lupar, Skrang or Batang Ai, seem to have followed the same conventions. This singular uniformity in an otherwise diverse assembly of Iban weaving traditions and plethora of design inventory possibly suggests a common genesis for the lebur api class of textiles dating back to antiquity when the Iban were living in Kalimantan prior to migrating into the various regions of Sarawak…While the provenance of the British Museum’s lebur api remains inconclusive, we can be certain that lebur apis were woven by Saribas women. Any proficient weaver who knew the method of the discontinuous supplementary weft technique would have had the technical competence to have woven a lebur api, and the Saribas was certainly not short of such weavers… […] The other textile used in the Saribas to receive trophy heads when a lebur api was not available was the pua’ belantan, a long plainly woven scarf-like textile coloured white with ends worked in sungkit…This white based pua’ belantan is a uniquely Saribas creation which is not found in other river systems populated by the Iban. Heppell [2013: 52-62] presents a persuasive and compelling case that white based cloths preceded cloths dyed red… […] [Referring to several lebur api and pua’ belantan textile examples dating to the early to mid-C19] Both orders of cloths…followed the conventional order of the highest status cloths and designs of the time of OKP. […] Based on the analyses of the designs of two different lebur apis from…circa 1760s to 1850s…we can conclude that the central theme that recurs in…lebur api, and…white pua’ belantan…is unmistakable: a vivid celebration of trophy heads and headhunting on cloth, with the overt message of meransang or incitement by weavers to their menfolk - “Bring us trophy heads so that we and the land shall continue to be fertile, and our community prosperous!” [for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 210-215]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 221]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 226-227]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 230]</a> Woven blankets and other high-quality and high-value fabrics, inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus] All better-class Dayak women are expected to be good at weaving…blankets (pua). [Referring to an illustration in-text] The design of this blanket is called Buah Terabai, based on the design on a shield. [Referring to another illustration in-text] The design of this woven blanket is ‘Tangga Beji, ‘Beji’s Ladder’. […] [Referring to the endnotes to part three of the publication, following the description of a mother carrying a child in this type of ‘luxury’ fabric] 59. Lebor api is the name of a type of very fine Iban pua or blanket; the literal meaning is ‘flame’”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 36]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 133]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’, inferred as all locally manufactured] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery [inferred as all locally manufactured] which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel… […] Lebur-api (belebur-api), the best Dyak-made petticoat or blanket. [Example of how might be used in a sentence, inferred as emphasising high-quality of manufacture] Pua lebur-api mansau tisi nilah kendawang. The blanket lebur-api is red at the edges in imitation of the tongue of the kendawang snake. […] Paya (bepaya), as sirat paya, an especial kind of [Iban-manufactured] waist-cloth”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 119]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the focus of the article and the several references to relevant ‘luxury’ fabrics dating to the mid-C19 or earlier; referring specifically in the following quotes to different types of ‘luxury’ fabrics including a single lebur api or sungkit textile potentially dating to pre-1841, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban [manufactured-] textiles called pua’ sungkit… […] Lebur apis were woven by experienced [female Iban] weavers under strict weaving rules in the days when headhunting was practised. They were only started when their men folk went off to war… […] Lebur apis were the apogee of a woman demonstrating her skills during the time of OKP, and therefore the pool of weavers able to do them was relatively small…When a weaver wove a lebur api, she only wove the body of the cloth to receive one trophy head. The adding of borders occurred only if a head in fact was taken, and the cloth used. […] The British Museum’s lebur api would be called a lebur api mekang in the Saribas, as it lacks the added-on borders that embellish a lebur api that had received a trophy head and shows no signs of any previous attachments on the selvedges [plain coloured vertical strips or borders called ara]… […] Almost all lebur apis of the time [inferred as referring to the C19 and earlier], whether woven in the Saribas, Lupar, Skrang or Batang Ai, seem to have followed the same conventions. This singular uniformity in an otherwise diverse assembly of Iban weaving traditions and plethora of design inventory possibly suggests a common genesis for the lebur api class of textiles dating back to antiquity when the Iban were living in Kalimantan prior to migrating into the various regions of Sarawak…While the provenance of the British Museum’s lebur api remains inconclusive, we can be certain that lebur apis were woven by Saribas women. Any proficient weaver who knew the method of the discontinuous supplementary weft technique would have had the technical competence to have woven a lebur api, and the Saribas was certainly not short of such weavers… […] The other textile used in the Saribas to receive trophy heads when a lebur api was not available was the [Iban manufactured-] pua’ belantan, a long plainly woven scarf-like textile coloured white with ends worked in sungkit…This white based pua’ belantan is a uniquely Saribas creation which is not found in other river systems populated by the Iban. Heppell [2013: 52-62] presents a persuasive and compelling case that white based cloths preceded cloths dyed red… […] Based on the analyses of the designs of two different lebur apis from…circa 1760s to 1850s…we can conclude that the central theme that recurs in…lebur api, and…white pua’ belantan…is unmistakable: a vivid celebration of trophy heads and headhunting on cloth, with the overt message of meransang or incitement by weavers to their menfolk - “Bring us trophy heads so that we and the land shall continue to be fertile, and our community prosperous!” [for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 210-213]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 221]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 226]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 230]</a> Woven blankets of high-quality and high-value, inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing. “[The following quote inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus] All better-class Dayak women are expected to be good at weaving…blankets (pua) [inferred as potentially also consumed by high-ranking Iban women]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 36]</a> Woven blankets and other high-quality and high-value fabrics, inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quote inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the publication focus; referring specifically in the quote to the endnotes to part three of the publication, following the description of a mother carrying a child in this type of ‘luxury’ fabric] 59. Lebor api is the name of a type of very fine Iban pua or blanket…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UCWP6S4F\">[Sandin 1967, p. 133]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the early date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as likely applicable to this period according to the focus of the article and the several references to relevant ‘luxury’ fabrics dating to the mid-C19 or earlier; referring specifically in the following quotes to different types of ‘luxury’ fabrics including a single lebur api or sungkit textile potentially dating to pre-1841, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban textiles called pua’ sungkit…Its principal role was to receive a newly taken trophy head. The taking of trophy heads by Iban men was the apogee of achievement of the Iban up until the Second World War…The lebur api was also used to cradle heads that had already been taken in the past…Such heads were removed from the baskets in which they hung above a bedilang (hearth) in the communal gallery of a longhouse, each one then wrapped in a lebur api individually by senior women of the community… […] The lebur api was principally used in a short festival lasting a whole day and a night […] known as the gawai enchabuh arung (literally “festival of opening a channel”) which was to celebrate the introduction of a new trophy head into the longhouse… […] The pivotal moment in the gawai enchabuh arung would climax with the trophy heads being wrapped by the women within their lebur apis…[for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 210]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 213-215]</a> Note that Iban society at this time was relatively egalitarian, suggesting that luxury goods were available to many. ’Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U8X7Q5P\">[Davison_Sutlive_Sutlive 1991, p. 159]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 43,
"polity": {
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 154,
"name": "id_iban_2",
"long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial",
"start_year": 1841,
"end_year": 1987
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": null,
"ruler_consumption_tag": null,
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": "present",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "Woven blankets and other high-quality and high-value fabrics potentially including trade cloth(?), inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel… […] Lebur-api (belebur-api), the best Dyak-made petticoat or blanket. [Example of how might be used in a sentence, inferred as emphasising high-quality of manufacture] Pua lebur-api mansau tisi nilah kendawang. The blanket lebur-api is red at the edges in imitation of the tongue of the kendawang snake. […] Paya (bepaya), as sirat paya, an especial kind of waist-cloth”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 119]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to items of fabric apparel beyond the everyday]…the men sometimes wear a sleeveless jacket, or klambi. These are often woven by the Dyak women, either from yarn spun from cotton of their own growing or from imported yarn of a finer texture. More often in the present day [inferred as referring to around the date of publication] they are made of cloth of European manufacture. The patterns of the Dyak-woven klambi are various, but those of a particular type can only be worn by men who have succeeded in securing a human head when on the warpath. The lower edge of this jacket is ornamented with beads, shells, and buttons, and bordered by a fringe. […] [Referring to the ‘wealth’ of an average Iban and their supposedly ‘frugal’ nature] He plants each year what he supposes will produce sufficient rice to supply his own needs - a portion of this is for family consumption, a portion for barter for such simple luxuries as…cloth [unclear whether referring to an indigenous-manufactured cloth or trade cloth]… […] The costume a Dyak wears when going on the warpath consists of…a sleeveless skin jacket, or in place of it a sleeveless quilted cotton jacket, and the usual Dyak costume of the waist-cloth (sirat). […] [Referring to an illustration of an Iban man in ‘gala costume’] He is wearing [among other body adornments] the Dyak waistcloth and…a sarong on his right shoulder. This is the usual dress worn by a Dyak [man] at a feast”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 63]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 78]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 326]</a> “[Referring to a lebur api or sungkit textile, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban textiles called pua’ sungkit…Its principal role was to receive a newly taken trophy head. The taking of trophy heads by Iban men was the apogee of achievement of the Iban up until the Second World War…The lebur api was also used to cradle heads that had already been taken in the past, but their ritual power was called upon in grand festivals like the gawai burung. Such heads were removed from the baskets in which they hung above a bedilang (hearth) in the communal gallery of a longhouse, each one then wrapped in a lebur api individually by senior women of the community… […] Lebur apis were woven by experienced weavers under strict weaving rules in the days when headhunting was practised. They were only started when their men folk went off to war…lifting the supplementary weft thread of a lebur api with a bodkin was akin to stabbing the eyes of the enemies and blinding them. With every bodkin-lift of the supplementary weft, the weaver would utter a curse against the enemy. It was her part in assisting her men folk who had gone off on a raid… […] Lebur apis were the apogee of a woman demonstrating her skills during the time of OKP, and therefore the pool of weavers able to do them was relatively small…Lebur apis were also never sold nor gifted during OKP’s time - which in itself makes this ‘gift’ rather particular…When a weaver wove a lebur api, she only wove the body of the cloth to receive one trophy head. The adding of borders occurred only if a head in fact was taken, and the cloth used. […] The British Museum’s lebur api would be called a lebur api mekang in the Saribas, as it lacks the added-on borders that embellish a lebur api that had received a trophy head and shows no signs of any previous attachments on the selvedges [plain coloured vertical strips or borders called ara]…The lebur api was principally used in a short festival lasting a whole day and a night […] known as the gawai enchabuh arung (literally “festival of opening a channel”) which was to celebrate the introduction of a new trophy head into the longhouse, besides its use at the grand gawai burung. […] The pivotal moment in the gawai enchabuh arung would climax with the trophy heads being wrapped by the women within their lebur apis, ensuring that the ends of their textiles which displayed no white supplementary wefts would show. […] Almost all lebur apis of the time [inferred as referring to the C19 to C20 and earlier], whether woven in the Saribas, Lupar, Skrang or Batang Ai, seem to have followed the same conventions. This singular uniformity in an otherwise diverse assembly of Iban weaving traditions and plethora of design inventory possibly suggests a common genesis for the lebur api class of textiles dating back to antiquity when the Iban were living in Kalimantan prior to migrating into the various regions of Sarawak…While the provenance of the British Museum’s lebur api remains inconclusive, we can be certain that lebur apis were woven by Saribas women. Any proficient weaver who knew the method of the discontinuous supplementary weft technique would have had the technical competence to have woven a lebur api, and the Saribas was certainly not short of such weavers… […] The other textile used in the Saribas to receive trophy heads when a lebur api was not available was the pua’ belantan, a long plainly woven scarf-like textile coloured white with ends worked in sungkit…This white based pua’ belantan is a uniquely Saribas creation which is not found in other river systems populated by the Iban. Heppell [2013: 52-62] presents a persuasive and compelling case that white based cloths preceded cloths dyed red… […] [Referring to several lebur api and pua’ belantan textile examples dating to the early to mid-C19] Both orders of cloths…followed the conventional order of the highest status cloths and designs of the time of OKP. […] Based on the analyses of the designs of two different lebur apis from…circa 1760s to 1850s…we can conclude that the central theme that recurs in…lebur api, and…white pua’ belantan from around [the] 1890s, is unmistakable: a vivid celebration of trophy heads and headhunting on cloth, with the overt message of meransang or incitement by weavers to their menfolk - “Bring us trophy heads so that we and the land shall continue to be fertile, and our community prosperous!” [for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 210-215]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 221]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 226-227]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 230]</a> Woven blankets and other high-quality and high-value fabrics potentially including trade cloth(?), inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’, inferred as all locally manufactured] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery [inferred as all locally manufactured] which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel… […] Lebur-api (belebur-api), the best Dyak-made petticoat or blanket. [Example of how might be used in a sentence, inferred as emphasising high-quality of manufacture] Pua lebur-api mansau tisi nilah kendawang. The blanket lebur-api is red at the edges in imitation of the tongue of the kendawang snake. […] Paya (bepaya), as sirat paya, an especial kind of [Iban-manufactured] waist-cloth”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 90]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 119]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to items of fabric apparel beyond the everyday]…the men sometimes wear a sleeveless jacket, or klambi. These are often woven by the Dyak women, either from yarn spun from cotton of their own growing or from imported yarn of a finer texture. More often in the present day [inferred as referring to around the date of publication] they are made of cloth of European manufacture. The patterns of the Dyak-woven klambi are various…The lower edge of this jacket is ornamented with beads, shells, and buttons, and bordered by a fringe. […] [Referring to the ‘wealth’ of an average Iban and their supposedly ‘frugal’ nature] He plants each year what he supposes will produce sufficient rice to supply his own needs - a portion of this is for family consumption, a portion for barter for such simple luxuries as…cloth [unclear whether referring to an indigenous-manufactured cloth or trade cloth]… […] [Referring to an illustration of an Iban man in ‘gala costume’] He is wearing [among other Iban-manufactured body adornments] the Dyak waistcloth and…a sarong on his right shoulder”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 63]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 326]</a> “[Referring to a lebur api or sungkit textile, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban [manufactured-] textiles called pua’ sungkit… […] Lebur apis were woven by experienced [female Iban] weavers under strict weaving rules in the days when headhunting was practised. They were only started when their men folk went off to war… […] Lebur apis were the apogee of a woman demonstrating her skills during the time of OKP, and therefore the pool of weavers able to do them was relatively small…When a weaver wove a lebur api, she only wove the body of the cloth to receive one trophy head. The adding of borders occurred only if a head in fact was taken, and the cloth used. […] The British Museum’s lebur api would be called a lebur api mekang in the Saribas, as it lacks the added-on borders that embellish a lebur api that had received a trophy head and shows no signs of any previous attachments on the selvedges [plain coloured vertical strips or borders called ara]… […] Almost all lebur apis of the time [inferred as referring to the C19 to C20 and earlier], whether woven in the Saribas, Lupar, Skrang or Batang Ai, seem to have followed the same conventions. This singular uniformity in an otherwise diverse assembly of Iban weaving traditions and plethora of design inventory possibly suggests a common genesis for the lebur api class of textiles dating back to antiquity when the Iban were living in Kalimantan prior to migrating into the various regions of Sarawak…While the provenance of the British Museum’s lebur api remains inconclusive, we can be certain that lebur apis were woven by Saribas women. Any proficient weaver who knew the method of the discontinuous supplementary weft technique would have had the technical competence to have woven a lebur api, and the Saribas was certainly not short of such weavers… […] The other textile used in the Saribas to receive trophy heads when a lebur api was not available was the [Iban manufactured-] pua’ belantan, a long plainly woven scarf-like textile coloured white with ends worked in sungkit…This white based pua’ belantan is a uniquely Saribas creation which is not found in other river systems populated by the Iban. Heppell [2013: 52-62] presents a persuasive and compelling case that white based cloths preceded cloths dyed red… […] Based on the analyses of the designs of two different lebur apis from…circa 1760s to 1850s…we can conclude that the central theme that recurs in…lebur api, and…white pua’ belantan from around [the] 1890s, is unmistakable: a vivid celebration of trophy heads and headhunting on cloth, with the overt message of meransang or incitement by weavers to their menfolk - “Bring us trophy heads so that we and the land shall continue to be fertile, and our community prosperous!” [for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 210-213]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 221]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 226]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 230]</a> High-quality and high-value fabrics potentially including trade cloth(?), inferred as ‘luxury’ fabrics owing to their being manufactured by women of high-standing and/or utilised as clothing or for other purposes on special occasions. “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to the description of a ‘Gala costume of a Dyak Lady’] Kain. Petticoat. K. tating. Petticoat with small brass bells (grunong) hung on to its lower border. K. sungkit. An embroidered petticoat. Tisi kain. Edging of the petticoat worked with gold thread…Selampai or Kain besai. A cloth worn round the throat with the ends hanging down the back. Kalambi. A jacket. Baju sungkit. A jacket with a square embroidered on the back. B. tabor or B. ara. A jacket embroidered with gold at back and down part of the front. […] [Referring to the Gawai Antu feast ending all mourning of the dead] In the evening…follows the abolishment of the mourning tie (ngetas ulit). The relatives of the dead are still clothed in mourning garments…Bundles of finery which have been tied up and put away are brought forth and the bereaved then hasten to don their best apparel…”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 17]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHG4BZ2V\">[Howell_Bailey 1900, p. 48]</a> “[The following quotes inferred as applicable to this period according to the date of publication; referring specifically in the first quote to items of fabric apparel beyond the everyday]…the men sometimes wear a sleeveless jacket, or klambi…The patterns of the Dyak-woven klambi are various, but those of a particular type can only be worn by men who have succeeded in securing a human head when on the warpath. […] [Referring to the ‘wealth’ of an average Iban and their supposedly ‘frugal’ nature] He plants each year what he supposes will produce sufficient rice to supply his own needs - a portion of this is for family consumption, a portion for barter for such simple luxuries as…cloth [unclear whether referring to an indigenous-manufactured cloth or trade cloth]… […] The costume a Dyak wears when going on the warpath consists of…a sleeveless skin jacket, or in place of it a sleeveless quilted cotton jacket, and the usual Dyak costume of the waist-cloth (sirat). […] [Referring to an illustration of an Iban man in ‘gala costume’] He is wearing [among other body adornments] the Dyak waistcloth and…a sarong on his right shoulder. This is the usual dress worn by a Dyak [man] at a feast”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 37]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 63]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 78]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2XPHUITP\">[Gomes 1911, p. 326]</a> “[Referring to a lebur api or sungkit textile, provenance unproven, possibly the one given to Rajah James Brooke at the sealing of the Saribas Treaty in 1849 by Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana Bayang (OKP), leader of the Saribas Iban, in surrender to Brooke after Iban defeat at Betin Maro; British Museum object number: As.3426, described in the caption in-text as a Pua’ sungkit blanket made of cotton textile, donated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1866, field collection by Rajah James Brooke, 1800-1860s] Lebur apis fall under a general rubric of Iban textiles called pua’ sungkit…Its principal role was to receive a newly taken trophy head. The taking of trophy heads by Iban men was the apogee of achievement of the Iban up until the Second World War…The lebur api was also used to cradle heads that had already been taken in the past…Such heads were removed from the baskets in which they hung above a bedilang (hearth) in the communal gallery of a longhouse, each one then wrapped in a lebur api individually by senior women of the community… […] The lebur api was principally used in a short festival lasting a whole day and a night […] known as the gawai enchabuh arung (literally “festival of opening a channel”) which was to celebrate the introduction of a new trophy head into the longhouse… […] The pivotal moment in the gawai enchabuh arung would climax with the trophy heads being wrapped by the women within their lebur apis…[for further details regarding the gawai enchabuh arung festival and the role of the lebur api in the latter, in addition to the specific motifs on the aforementioned lebur api and other examples of lebur apis and pua’ belantan, see pp.213-219 and pp.219-230]”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, p. 210]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9SEQF3P\">[Kedit 2017, pp. 213-215]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 44,
"polity": {
"id": 50,
"name": "id_majapahit_k",
"long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom",
"start_year": 1292,
"end_year": 1518
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Higher status recipients wore finer, more professionally woven, lighter and brighter colored fabrics than the ikat mainstream.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CA6ZIQSA\">[Hall 2000, p. 74]</a> “The Majapahit court's gifting reciprocities are institutionalized and are more symbolic and economically less valuable. This transition begins in the eleventh century inscriptions, which emphasize the court's grant of privileges (whang) to members of slma communities rather than on their financial benefits. (28) There is permission to eat \"royal food,\" to possesses specified ritual objects, to build ritual edifices, to wear boreh-type cosmetics (jhu) in rituals, and to use certain classes of cloth - with specific patterns and cloths decorated in specific ways - either in connection with ritual or as insignia of rank.“ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CA6ZIQSA\">[Hall 2000, p. 61]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 45,
"polity": {
"id": 111,
"name": "in_achik_1",
"long_name": "Early A'chik",
"start_year": 1775,
"end_year": 1867
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly state that luxury fabrics were available to the Achik either locally or through frontier markets. Some sources do say that the Achik sought items of clothing from markets, and perhaps some of these were seen as luxury goods, but, again, the sources do not confirm this, and in any cases clothes fall into the “luxury manufactured goods” category, not “luxury fabrics”, which is reserved for textiles before they are processed. “In the field of clothing the frontier markets provided the Garos with great variety of garments during the colonial period to suit their taste and style. Thus cotton clothes of varying descriptions, tailored clothes such as shorts and shirts for men and dresses for small girls and untailored ones including the plain blue cloth adored by the Garos, large number of old uniforms, frock-coats and cotton sheets were displayed at the haats which were selected by the Garos in exchange for their hill produce.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 723]</a> ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 46,
"polity": {
"id": 112,
"name": "in_achik_2",
"long_name": "Late A'chik",
"start_year": 1867,
"end_year": 1956
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "absent",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "absent",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"elite_consumption": "absent",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "The literature consulted does not explicitly state that luxury fabrics were available to the Achik either locally or through frontier markets. Some sources do say that the Achik sought items of clothing from markets, and perhaps some of these were seen as luxury goods, but, again, the sources do not confirm this, and in any cases clothes fall into the “luxury manufactured goods” category, not “luxury fabrics”, which is reserved for textiles before they are processed. “In the field of clothing the frontier markets provided the Garos with great variety of garments during the colonial period to suit their taste and style. Thus cotton clothes of varying descriptions, tailored clothes such as shorts and shirts for men and dresses for small girls and untailored ones including the plain blue cloth adored by the Garos, large number of old uniforms, frock-coats and cotton sheets were displayed at the haats which were selected by the Garos in exchange for their hill produce.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/95A2TRRK\">[Kar_Marak_Chaudhuri 2020, p. 723]</a> ‘They visited markets at bordering plains with their produce from the hills like raw cotton, chillies, ginger, wax, rubber, lac and other things to barter for essential items such as salt, dried fish and jewellery of all kinds and most important metal implements and weapons which they needed so desperately.’ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CS3PXEIH\">[Marak 1997, p. 45]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 47,
"polity": {
"id": 397,
"name": "in_chola_emp",
"long_name": "Chola Empire",
"start_year": 849,
"end_year": 1280
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 397,
"name": "in_chola_emp",
"long_name": "Chola Empire",
"start_year": 849,
"end_year": 1280
},
{
"id": 221,
"name": "tn_fatimid_cal",
"long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate",
"start_year": 909,
"end_year": 1171
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The Chola princes were said to wear only cotton. Their robes were made with cotton and gold thread woven in. Chola soldiers also wore quilted cotton fabrics. Early Tamil literature gives abundant evidence of this rich produce from the Chola region. For example, Porunararuppadai, an early Tamil classic, mentions cotton cloths, thin like the slough of the snake with floral designs. Silapadikaram, another early Tamil poem, refers to Puhar (the capital of the Cholas at that time) where streets were lined with weavers dealing in fine fabrics of silk, fur, and cotton.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q39XXRNW\">[Devare_et_al 2009, p. 179]</a> “Early Tamil literature gives abundant evidence of this rich produce from the Chola region. For example, Porunararuppadai, an early Tamil classic, mentions cotton cloths, thin like the slough of the snake with floral designs. Silapadikaram, another early Tamil poem, refers to Puhar (the capital of the Cholas at that time) where streets were lined with weavers dealing in fine fabrics of silk, fur, and cotton.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q39XXRNW\">[Devare_et_al 2009, p. 179]</a> “Interestingly, a Geniza letter dated 1139 A.D. notes that Egyptian silk was selling well in south Indian markets. This suggests that fine quality imported merchandise, whatever its source, had a ready market despite the fact that certain commodities were also produced locally.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E8DS4TUP\">[Hall 1978, p. 77]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 48,
"polity": {
"id": 698,
"name": "in_cholas_1",
"long_name": "Early Cholas",
"start_year": -300,
"end_year": 300
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": null,
"elite_consumption_tag": null,
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The imports to South India [from the Mediterranean], several of which are known from the Periplus, consisted of coin, topaz, coral, thin clothing and figured linens, antimony, copper, tin and lead, wine, realgar and orpiment and also wheat, the last mentioned probably for the Graeco-Romans in the Tamil ports.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, pp. 187-188]</a> “The Roman contact was an important factor in the external trade of the Tamil country from about the times of Augustus (27 Bc to AD 14), although a considerable antiquity has been assigned to the commerce between the Tamil country and the west. It perhaps started as a mere ‘trickle’ or sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and other ‘oriental’ exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other assorted articles for well over two centuries.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 179]</a> “luxury goods such as horses, gold, gems etc. […] were meant for elite consumption and not for local exchange.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W6P5HEX3\">[Champakalakshmi 1996, p. 190]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 49,
"polity": {
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 135,
"name": "in_delhi_sultanate",
"long_name": "Delhi Sultanate",
"start_year": 1206,
"end_year": 1526
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"common_people_consumption": null,
"common_people_consumption_tag": null,
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“Cotton textile and silk industry flourished under the Delhi Sultanate. Sericulture was introduced on a large scale, thereby India became less dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk30. Influence of Persia on spinning wheel is accounted for by many researchers and improved production of textiles in India in medieval times. Miftah-ulFuzala, a 15th century dictionary, clearly mentions and illustrates the spinning wheel and treadles in horizontal looms16. The unique silk and brocade textiles flourished in the courts of the Khaljis (1290– 1320) and Tughlaqs (1320–1413). As mentioned in Khaza-in-ul-Futuh (History of Sultan Alauddin Khalji), Khaljis had market and price control policy for textiles (including silks). In their time, muslin was weaved so finely to pass the eye of a needle, and yet the point of the needle can pierce through it with difficulty and look transparent and light as pure water. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9PB3JG96\">[Kumar_et_al 2021, p. 414]</a> “The Sultan of Delhi Muhammad bin Tughlak brought some Persian weavers to weave Jamdani for Muslims in the 14th century in this sub-continent. As ecological climate such as temperature, level of humidity, quality of water with minerals, is very important for producing Jamdani, all weavers from Persia therefore carefully chosen the area in and around Dhaka in this sub-continent due to its specific geographic and ecological context. Sonargaon, the old capital of Dhaka was considered as uniquely important not only for ecological climate, but because of many reasons. It was also served as an important inland port connected Bengal with the Middle East and Far Eastern countries. Thus, Sonargaon and Narayanganj region was considered as a thriving center of trade and commerce according to numerous early travelers like Ibn Battuta”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VEBFRJ95\">[Yasmin_Saha_Akhter 2021, p. 24]</a> “It is believed that the early weavers used to weave Jamdani for Muslims as they used to use motifs and patterns made up of geometric representations of non-animal images like flowers, and leaves, as to use images of animal is forbidden in Islam. The Sultan of Delhi Muhammad bin Tughlak brought some Persian weavers to weave Jamdani for Muslims in the 14th century in this sub-continent” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VEBFRJ95\">[Yasmin_Saha_Akhter 2021, p. 24]</a> “With pace of time, Jamdani became popular in and around present Bangladesh. It catches the eyes of sophisticated, stylish, and elegant women of upper class of the society as Jamdani was symbol of aristocracy of that time. Jamdani became popular regardless of religion and became popular among all the women of this sub-continent”. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VEBFRJ95\">[Yasmin_Saha_Akhter 2021, p. 24]</a>",
"description": null
},
{
"id": 50,
"polity": {
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
"year_from": 386,
"year_to": 534,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"coded_value": "present",
"place_of_provenance_pol": [
{
"id": 255,
"name": "cn_eastern_jin_dyn",
"long_name": "Eastern Jin Dynasty",
"start_year": 317,
"end_year": 420
},
{
"id": 388,
"name": "in_gupta_emp",
"long_name": "Gupta Empire",
"start_year": 320,
"end_year": 550
},
{
"id": 258,
"name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn",
"long_name": "Northern Wei",
"start_year": 386,
"end_year": 534
}
],
"place_of_provenance_str": null,
"ruler_consumption": "present",
"ruler_consumption_tag": "TRS",
"elite_consumption": "present",
"elite_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"common_people_consumption": "absent",
"common_people_consumption_tag": "IFR",
"name": "Luxury_fabrics",
"comment": "“The silk industry was very well developed technically, and we read of silk woven with a fine pattern of figures of swans, certain fabrics also came from China to meet the aristocratic demand. However, silken garments were popularly used at marriage ceremonies and in religious festivals. The ladies of the rich used to wear red silken garments, in winter; and the aristocratic lads were also seen using silken garments. Thus we see that the silk that the silk was commonly used, at least by the richer section of society.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 113]</a> NB during the time of the Gupta Empire, China was divided into several polities, and the literature consulted does not clarify which of these polities exported fine fabrics to the Gupta Empire. We have tentatively selected two of the more dominant polities from this period, the Eastern Jin and Northern Wei. Awaiting expert confirmation. “The silk industry was very well developed technically, and we read of silk woven with a fine pattern of figures of swans, certain fabrics also came from China to meet the aristocratic demand.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 113]</a> “Ajanta paintings express the picture of pompous lives of kings and their nobles. […] They used luxuriant furnishings, rich carpets from Persia - spread overs mattresses, large cylindrical bolsters often ornamented and brocaded. The dress they used were costly as far as material is concerned. These were cotton painted or embroidered, silk stripped or plain, or embroidered velvets and brocade etc. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPFM5M8P\">[Girotra 1994, p. 151]</a> “Fa-hsien also mentions that the rich people used to wear haircloth in Ladak, which is one of the coldest places in India in winter. Even today, shawls woven from Kashmiri goat-hair are most popular throughout India. The weaving of this cloth was so well developed that it was manufactured as fine as silk. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 113]</a> “Very fine fabric was manufactured for the richer section of the society, and coarse cloth was used by the poor people. Kālidāsa also refers to fine cloth which can be easily blown by the breath. A kind of coarse cloth was also used for tents and screen.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 115]</a> \"A majority of women of non-elite class belonged to cultivator class and however wore short saris. The dress of common man consisted of dhoti, duppatta, and turban. The common crowd is shown in one of the paintings of 'Vassantra Jātaka', in Ajanta Cave XVII. Men are depicted in short dhotis, full dhotis, Kamarband, or lion clothes with chadar, covering the upper part of the body.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7F7D9RG\">[Maity 1957, p. 158]</a>",
"description": null
}
]
}