Crisis Consequence List
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{ "count": 169, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": -157, "year_to": -63, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_seleucid_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Seleucid Dynastic Wars", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The end of the empire was characterized by a decline from the former power of the kings, to the extent that after 129 BCE, when King Antiochus VII committed suicide, the kingdom became increasingly unstable and triggered the Seleucid Dynastic Wars between competing branches of the Seleucid royal household. After many years of civil war, assasinations, and usurping of the throne, between the descendants of Demetrius I Soter and Seleucus IV Philopater, Demetrius II Nicator eventually declared undisputed ruler of the Seleucid Kingdom in 145 BCE. However, he inherited a fractured empire which he was unable to control due to ongoing unrest from within the kingdom, such as the rebel warriors, the Maccabees, who had established their own independence from the Seleucid kingdom and a revolt raised by military commander Diodotus Tryphon in the name of Alexander Balas’ son, Antiochus VI Dionysus, who then murdered the child and declared himself king (141-138 BCE). Demetrius II was captured and imprisoned and his brother, Antiochus VII Sidetes (r.138– 129), took the throne and defeated Diodotus Tryphon in the same year. His reign was initially successful as he recaptured parts of the empire. However in 129 BCE he was ambushed and killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Ecbatana and all the territories he had recovered were taken by the Parthians. Meanwhile, in the west the Romans posed an ongoing threat. While the power within the Selecuid Empire had collapsed, the nobles continued to play kingmakers and partake in factional disputes and civil war, until the last remnants of the kingdom were finally overtaken by the growing Roman empire in 64/63 BCE.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p27§REF§ §REF§Kosmin, P. J. 2013.686. In, Potts, D. T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p686§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": -111, "year_to": -102, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_western_han_dyn@uprisings", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Series of Uprising, Revolts and Invasions", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During this period, the Han dynasty set about expanding their territories in a series of invasions on neighbouring kingdoms. In 111 BCE the naval Invasion of Nanyueh (Vietnam) gained them territory that would stay under Chinese rule for a thousand years. In 109 BCE the conquest of the Dian Kingdom and the 108 BCE conquest of Gojoseon and parts of the Korean penninsula gave the Han dynasty a monopoly over much of the eastern trade routes. However there were uprisings by the Yunnan tribes and along the silk road trade route in 105 BCE, after which the Han were forced to recognise the local chiefs. in 105-102 BCE the War of the Heavenly Horses was the result of trade disputes over the newly acquired Han territories, with the coalition of tribes, the Xiongnu, against the ultimately victorious Han dynasty.§REF§Zhao Xu (2018-05-26). \"The four-footed legends of the silk road\". China Daily. Retrieved 2020-04-04.§REF§ §REF§enjamin, Craig (2018), Empires of Ancient Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era, 100 BCE - 250 CE, Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": 1640, "year_to": 1656, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_ottoman_emp_2@17th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Seventeenth Century Crisis", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Dated 1656 for 5th Military Uprising; could be dated earlier (1622 for sultan assassination, 1628 for Giray Revlot)? No fine-grained demographic data available from Clio Infra (2016): overall, population increases from 1600 to 1700. However, White (2010) refers to \"sudden population loss\" during the 17th century, accompanied by numerous epidemics. Ruler assassination: Osman II murdered in 1622 (Tezcan 2009).§REF§Tezcan 2009: Tezcan, Baki. 2009. The History of a ‚ÄòPrimary Source‚Äô: The Making of T√ªgh√Æ‚Äôs Chronicle on the Regicide of Osman II.‚Äù Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 72 (1): 41-62.§REF§ §REF§White (2010): White, Sam. 2010. Rethinking Disease in Ottoman History.‚Äù International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (4): 549-67.§REF§ §REF§Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html§REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": 1140, "year_to": 1300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_chaco_bonito_3@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Site abandonment, internal conflict, increasing inequality", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "SU", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 583, "name": "us_chaco_mcelmo", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - McElmo phase", "start_year": 1141, "end_year": 1200 }, "comment": null, "description": "The reasons for the abandonment of the ancestral homes of the Puebloans is not entirely certain, however there may have been several factors which contributed to the site abandonment during the Pueblo III phase (1150-1300). There is archaeologial evidence for issues such as climate change, deforestation, topsoil erosion. And, around 1276-99 North America experienced the Great Drought which is likely to have caused crop failure as well as impacted wild foods that the Pueblo relied on. In addition, the population had increased so quickly between 700-1130 CE - through migration as well as birth rates - that it was also likely that there were hostilities between different groups, and religious and cultural changes. However, the archaeological record also shows that it was not unusual for the Ancestral Puebloans to move their settlements to adapt to climate change. Modern Pueblo peoples state that the Ancestral Puebloans simply moved further southwest for favourable weather and water sources.§REF§Sedig, Jakob W. The Decline and Reorganization of Southwestern Complexity: Using Resilience Theory to Examine the Collapse of Chaco Canyon.‚Äù In Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies, edited by Ronald K Faulseit, 237-61. Southern Illinois University Press, 2016.§REF§ §REF§Scheffer, Marten, Egbert H van Nes, Darcy Bird, R Kyle Bocinsky, and Timothy A Kohler. Loss of Resilience Preceded Transformations of Pre-Hispanic Pueblo Societies.‚Äù Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 18 (2021). https://www.pnas.org/content/118/18/e2024397118#sec-5.§REF§ §REF§Diamond, Jared (2005), Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed, London: Viking Penguin§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": 1524, "year_to": 1589, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_safavid_emp@16th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Sixteenth-century crisis in the Safavid Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "At the beginning of the reign of Shah Tahmāsp (r. 1524-1576), who was ten years old and true power was held by a group of regents, a struggle for power by the tribes began that escalated into a ten year civil war. Meanwhile Tahmāsp's reign also saw five invasions by the Uzbeks into the Safavid's eastern provinces and in 1532-1555 four attacks on Iran by the Ottomans. The Uzebeks were soundly defeated. However in the Ottoman 1553-54 attack, they captured Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan, and destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and, as the Ottomans proved too great a force for Tahmāsp to dare go to battle with, territory was handed over to them and the Peace of Amasya ended the ongoing war. In 1545 Tahmāsp assisted Humayan in regaining the Mughal territories that he had lost 15 years previously. Humayan gave the region of Kandahar to Tahmāsp, but they later fought when Humayan seized it again on the death of its Safavid governor in 1558. in 1556 Tahmāsp had his son Ismail imprisoned for apparently plotting a coup against his father. When Tahmāsp died in 1576, Iran was in a relatively calm state, however, two of his nine sons were considered for succession, and their support was divided largely by ethnicities: Ismail was supported by the Turkmen tribes and Haydar received support from the Georgians. 30,000 people turned out to support Ismail and release him from prison. He was enthroned Ismail II in August 1576 and days later his brother, Haydar was executed. Ismail II went on to kill everyone in his family who might pose a threat to his power, except for his older brother, Mohammad Khudabanda (who was blind and therefore not considered a serious contender to the throne) as well as many of his previous supporters. He also changed the official religion back to orthodox Sunni Muslim. In 1577 he was murdered, potentially poisoned by his half-sister, Pari Khān Khānum, who had originally supported him in the succession crisis. Upon his death his brother, Mohammad Khudabanda, was selected from three potential candidates for the throne. Court intrigues began with the murder of Pari Khān Khānum, then the murder of Mohammad's wife, Mahd-i ‘Ulyā, who was implicated in the death of Pari Khān Khānum and/or having an affair, both of which resulted in ethnic unrest and in turn, warfare, most notably by the Ottomans who ended the Peace of Amasya and went to war with Iran, conquering substantial territory until 1590. §REF§Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§ §REF§Farrokh, Kaveh (2011). Iran at War: 1500-1988. Bloomsbury Publishing§REF§ §REF§Savory, Roger (2007). Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence, eds. (1986). The Timurid and Safavid Periods. The Cambridge History of Iran. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press§REF§ §REF§Roemer, H. R. (1986). \"The Safavid Period\". The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189-350.§REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": 1650, "year_to": 1650, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ru_sakha_late@epidemic", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Smallpox Epidemic", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Between 1642 and 1682 the Sakha population is estimated to have declined by 70% mainly due to smallpox epidemics and other diseases.§REF§Richards, John F. (2003). The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World. University of California Press.§REF§ §REF§Mark Levene; Penny Roberts, eds. (1999), The massacre in history.§REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "mx_aztec_emp", "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1519, "year_to": 1521, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "mx_aztec_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1519 Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, landed in Yucatán and immediately began to incite violence against and between different city states, rulers and indigenous people in order to bring down the Aztec Empire. Cortés formed alliances with the Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs on his journey to the Basin of Mexico, and fabricated lies to justify the killings of some people and rulers in whose towns and cities they stayed in en route. In 1520 there was a smallpox outbreak in the Tenochtitlan after an assault by the Spaniards and their allies. This first smallpox outbreak killed more than 50% of the regions population. While the region was dealing with the devestation of the disease, Cortés and his army marched back into the Basin of Mexico, and through a series of battles and sieges with local groups, he conquered many city-states. In 1521 Cortés laid siege to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, and after several months his final devestating assault on the city defeated the Aztecs and brought down the empire.§REF§Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1576), Cambridge, MA, Da Capo Press, 2003.§REF§ §REF§Hern√°n Cort√©s, 1843. The Dispatches of Hernando Cort√©s, The Conqueror of Mexico, addressed to the Emperor Charles V, written during the conquest, and containing a narrative of its events. New York: Wiley and Putnam§REF§ §REF§Smith, Michael (1984). \"The Aztec Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?\". Ethnohistory. 31 (3): 153-168.§REF§" }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": 1727, "year_to": 1757, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mo_alawi_dyn_1@crisis", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Succession Crisis", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 585, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_2", "long_name": "Alawi Dynasty", "start_year": 1728, "end_year": 1912 }, "comment": null, "description": "Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729–1734, 1736, 1740–1741, 1741–1742, 1743–1747 and 1748–1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, beame sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. (Hamel 2014: 213)§REF§Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). \"The 'Alawid or Filali Sharifs\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§ §REF§Wilfrid, J. Rollman (2009). \" øAlawid Dynasty\". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Terrasse, Henri (2012). \" øAlawƒ´s\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.§REF§ §REF§Chouki El Hamel, Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam (Cambridge University Press, 2014).§REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": 1528, "year_to": 1537, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ml_songhai_2@16th_c_cw", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Succession Crisis", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1529 Askia Mohammad I's sons overthrew and imprisoned him , and one of the brothers, Askia Musa, seized the throne with the help of the ulama. Musa began killed several of his rival brothers between 1539-1531. Musa in turn then fell out of the ulama's favour and and was deposed and killed in a plot by his brothers. On the same day Mohammad Benkan, a relative of the dynasty and the highest ranking captain in the empire, took the opportunity to seize power and was declared Askia on the same day. In 1537 after a series of military failures, Benkan was himself overthrown in a coup by Askiya Isma'il, who freed his imprisoned father, Askia Mohammad I, but did not conceed the throne.§REF§Molefi Kete Asante. 2007. The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony. Routledge. New York.§REF§ §REF§Hunwick, John O. (2003), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill.§REF§ §REF§David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.§REF§" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": 1200, "year_to": 1200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tm_khwarezmid_emp@succession_crisis", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Tekish dies", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The death of Shah Ala al-Din Tekish in 1200 CE (of the Khwarazmian dynasty) triggered revolts, uprisings and massacres. The people of Jibal and Samarkand rose up and massacred as many of the Karakhanid dynasty family members (who had previously been conquered by Tekish) that they could find. There were many revolts. There was also a widespread massacre of the Khwarazmian Turkic soldiers who were stationed in Iran.§REF§Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ §REF§Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": 235, "year_to": 284, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "it_roman_principate@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Third Century Crisis", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The crisis period began in 235 CE when Emperor Severus Alexander was assasinated by his own troops. In the 50 years that followed the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes. Internally the Principate was plagued by peasant rebellions (Bagaudae) wich were violently surpressed, and political instabilty with competitors vying to be emperor. The Plague of Cyprian hit the Principate between 249-262 CE, devestating entire regions and leading to famine due to the shortage of workers. This was exacberated by long-term weather variability which saw extreme weather and dry summers. Externally, the Romans faced invasions and warfare against the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. In 268 CE Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain as the Principate split into three competing states. Under Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) however, all territory was recovered and under Diocletian's rule (r. 284-305) the crisis ended with a series of administrative and economic reforms which inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire.§REF§Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Kyle Harper (2017). \"Chapter 4: The Old Age of the World\". The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press§REF§" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": 1598, "year_to": 1613, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn@cw", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Time of Troubles", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "This was a period of political crisis which began after the fall of the Rurik dynasty whic Tsar Fyodor's death in 1589 and lasted until the ascension of the Romanov dynasty in 1613. The suceededing tsar was Fyodor's brother-in-law Boris. The country faced famine in 1601-03. There was a pretender to the throne who claimed to be Dmitry the half-brother of Fyodor. When Boris died in 1605, the mob killed his son and heir, and made “Dmitry” tsar. However Dmitry was assasinated in May 1606 when the boyars (upper elite in Russian society and high-office) realised they could not control him. A nobleman, Vasily Shuysky, was then placed on the throne, but his rule was plagued by revolts and a peasant rebellion and a second false-Dmitry who was supported by the Polish, Russian landholders and peasants who wanted radical change, and later many of the boyars. The second Dmitry beseiged Moscow for two years, however, Shuysky gained aid from Sweden and drove Dmitry's forces out. In September 1609 the Polish king, Sigismund III, attacked Russia and defeated Shuysky’s forces in June 1610. Shuysky was deposed by the boyars and Władysław (son of the Polish king) was named tsar-elect, though Sigismund wanted direct control of Russia so continued his invasion. The Russians reunited to prevent this, defeating Polish forces in October 1612 and electing a new tsar, Michael Romanov, in 1613. It is estimated that some areas of Russian experienced population declines of 50% with the death toll randing from 1-1.2million.§REF§Turchin, Peter. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton University Press. pp. 256-258.§REF§ §REF§Dunning, Chester, S. L. 2001. Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty. Pennsylvania State University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": 1467, "year_to": 1467, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_ashikaga@sengoku", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Transition to Sengoku period", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "No fine-grained demographic data available for this period, so population decline is possible but difficult to prove. Epidemics of small pox, measles and influenza common in the years between 1450 and 1540; less severe afterwards (Farris 2009: 172). Civil war lasting over a century, including territorial fragmentation: \"Rivalry between contending daimyo, or provincial warlords, causes increasing instability, which culminates in the Ōnin War (1467–77). With the resulting destruction of Kyoto and the collapse of the shōgunate’s power, the country is plunged into a century of warfare and social chaos known as the Sengoku, the Age of the Country at War\" (Metropolitan Museum of Art 2002). Reorganization and elite downward mobility due to interelite conflict of the Ōnin War and Sengoku period: feudal system collapsed (Lu 2020). Ruler assassination: Ashikaga Yoshinori assassinated in 1441 (Streich 2013: 257).§REF§Farris 2009: Farris, William Wayne. 2009. Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Lu 2020: Chen, Lu. 2020. Retelling the History of the Sengoku Period and the Era Name System: The Year in Japan.‚Äù Biography 43 (1): 109-13. https://doi.org/10.1353/bio.2020.0017.§REF§ §REF§Metropolitan Musem of Art 2002: Japan, 1400-1600 A.D.‚Äù In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=08®ion=eaj (October 2002)§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": 1363, "year_to": 1388, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "no_norway_k@succession_crisis", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Unions and Disunities", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The union between the Scandanavian countries was made possible through Margaret of Denmark. Margaret was the daughter of Valdemar IV of Denmark and wife of Haakon VI of Norway (who in turn was on of Magnus IV of Sweden). Her son, Olaf inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway in 1376 and 1380 respectively, but died in 1380, at which point Margaret became regent of both countries and adopted her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania as heir. In 1388 Swedish nobles called on Margaret to overthrow their king, Albert, and on her victory, Eric was prounounced King of Norway. He was also elected King of Denmark and Sweden in 1396 and crowned in Kalmar. The Kalmar Union was also favoured by the ruling elite as a way to prevent the German Hanseatic League, who had previously taken advantage of the struggles between the Scandanavian countries to gain territory, from expanding further into the Baltic region.§REF§Karlsson, Gunnar (2000). The History of Iceland§REF§ §REF§Harald Gustafsson, \"A State That Failed?\" Scandinavian Journal of History (2006) 32: 3.§REF§ §REF§Norman, L. T.. \"Margaret I.\" Encyclopedia Britannica, October 24, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-I.§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": 1153, "year_to": 1214, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_later_jin_dyn@uprising", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Unrest & flooding", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "This period was marked by decades of warfare with the Southern Song and Mongols, rebellions, and assasination, as well as economic inflation and flooding. Wanyan Liang usurped the throne and came to power in 1150, which was shortly followed by unrest and war. Liang killed Jurchen nobles and 155 princes to supress any dissent against him. In 1161 he attacked the Southern Song dynasty in an attempt to gain control over the entire of China, though this was unsuccessful. At the same time two rebellions were raised; one by Liang's cousin, Wanyan Yong, and the other by the Khitan tribe. At this point Liang was forced to pull back troops from the south in order to quell the uprisings and the Song defeated the remaining troops in battle. Liang and his son were assasinated by his own generals in 1161. In the same year Wanyan Yong became Emperor Shizong. The Khitan rebellion was not fully supressed until 1164 and due to the weakened military, a peace negotiation with the Southern Song was established. This led to 40 years of peace which was broken in 1207 by the Song with an attempted invasion, though they were repelled by the Jin. the the beginning of the thirteenth century, after being vassals of the Jin for centuries, the Mongols under Ghengis Khan began to attack Jin terrority. This culminated in the invasions of Jin in 1211, when Khitan and Jurchen rebels were absorbed into the Mongols, and victories were won over the Jin armies. This led to twenty years of violence at the hands of the Mongols who won overall victory and ended the Jin dynasty in 1234.§REF§Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Beck, Sanderson. \"Liao, Xi Xia, and Jin Dynasties 907-1234\". China 7 BC To 1279.§REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": 990, "year_to": 1019, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "id_medang_k@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Unrest and Collapse of Medang", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 990 a campaign against Srivijaya began with a naval invasion led by king Dharmawangsa. Though unsuccesful in capturing Palembang, the unrest led the Maharaja of Srivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa, to seek protection from China. In 1006 Srivijaya's mandala alliance repelled a Javanese invasion. In retaliation, Srivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt between 1016-1017, attacking and destroying the Medang palace. With the death of Dharmawangsa, and most of the royal family, as well as the fall of the Medang capital, the Medang Kingdom collapsed. With no ruler, provincial warlords rebelled against the government and established their own local dynasties. Airlangga, a nephew of King Dharmawangsa and the son of the king of Bali, had fled into exile in the chaos and years later raised popular support and reunited the fragmented lands as the Kingdom of Kahuripan in 1019.§REF§Muljana, S., Sriwijaya, Yogyakarta: PT LKiS Rainbow Literacy, 2006.§REF§ §REF§Hall, K.R., ‚ÄòEconomic History of Early Southeast Asia‚Äô, in Tarling, N., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 1: From Early Times to c.1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.§REF§ §REF§Duthel, H. 2015. Duthel Thailand Guide II. Education In Thailand. 16th Edition.§REF§ §REF§C≈ìd√®s, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": 1455, "year_to": 1487, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gb_england_plantagenet@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Wars of the Roses", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Wars of the Roses was a series of dynastic civil wars between the English houses of Lancester and York, both of which claimed descendancy through the sons of Edward III who had died in 1377. The Lancastrians had occupied the throne since 1399, however, the reign of Henry VI (first reign 1422-1461, second reign 1470-1471) saw political and royal instability as he suffered from mental illnesses, and was generally considered a weak leader and pliable king, who was dominated by his wife, Margaret of Anjou and his top advisor, Duke of Somerset. Poor leadership, broken treaties and battles with France had lost England almost all territory in France and left English forces weak and disparate. While Henry VI was suffering a complete mental breakdown the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal John Kemp died in March 1454, however as Henry was unable to name a successor, the governement could not function under constitutional law. A Regency Council was created and Richard of York - second cousin to Henry VI and a powerful member of the nobility who had a competing claim to the throne - was made Lord Protector. Richard of York removed Somerset from his position due to his failures in France, and imprisoned him in the Tower of London. In 1455 Henry made a recovery, freed Somerset, and exile Richard from court. From this point there were constant skirmishes between the Lancastrian and York armies and a power struggle between Henry VI, who was constantly captured and recaptured by the opposing sides, and Richard of York, who had made his ambitions to rule clear and was backed by any powerful allies. But in a battle in 1460 Richard was killed and his eldest son, Edward, inherited the Dukedom of York and with it the claim to the throne. Edward was popular and considered a good choice for king (especially in contrast to Henry VI who was physically and mentally frail) and after a victorious battle Edward, along with his closest advisor and cousin, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick ('The Kingmaker') marched to London where he was proclaimed Edward IV of England 4th March 1461. On 28th March the largest and bloodiest battle in England's history was fought between the two sides which resulted in a decisive victory for Edward IV and broke the Lancastrian troops in the north with the majority of their leaders either being killed or fleeing into exile. Edward IV was confirmed the uncontested ruler of England. He secretly married Elizabth Woodville, a non-royal who was the widow of a Lancastrian noble, while Warwick had been in negotiations with France for a marriage between Edward and the king's daughter. This caused damage to Warwick's reputation and relationship with Edward, while the Woodville family became increasingly powerful at court. This was despised by many royals including Warwick, and Edwards brother George, Duke of Clarence, who was attempting to secure a marriage contract with Warwick's daughter Isabel Neville, which Edward denied. Warwick instead had them married secretly in France and it became clear that he wished to deposed Edward, put George on the throne and keep power for himself. In a complete reversal, Warwick then joined forces with Margaret of Anjou, married his other daughter Anne Neville to her son Edward of Westminster and raised a rebellion against Edward IV. Edward was forced to flee to Flanders with his brother Richard, and was dethroned, while Henry was restored to the throne with Warwick in full control, and George was made Duke of York. However in-fighting was rife on the now Lancastrian-Warwick side, given the deaths that had come of so many in previous battles at the hands of Warwick, and George who had now become politcally disadvantaged on both sides decided to defect back to his brother. Edward raised his army, and despite Warwick being severly weakened without Margaret's troops, the two met in battle on 14th April 1417, where Warwick was killed, his troops destroyed and Edward was reinstated as king. Henry was once again imprisoned in the Tower of London. A final unsuccessful campaign by Margaret of Anjou saw her imprisoned, her son Edward of Westminster killed in battle, and afterward Henry VI died, though it is generally believed that Edward IV ordered his murder to quell further uprisings. In the years that followed George continued to abuse his power and fell out of favour with Edward, while Richard married Anne Neville. The two brothers had acquired many rich estates through their marriages which were untouchable by Edward as they were not gifted by him, but inherited through Warwick. Eventually George's bad favour and persistent rumours that he was plotting to revolt against Edward led to his imprisonment and execution in February 1478. Meanwhile, Richard who had always been loyal to Edward, had become a powerful and popular noble, particularly in the north and York. Edward fell ill in 1483 but before he died he named Richard as Lord Protector to act as regent over his twelve year old son and successor, Edward, until he came of age. There was backlash from the Woodville family who had thought they would look after the young king and Elizabeth sent her brother, Anthony with the king and an escort of 2,000 men to London, even though Richard had intended to escort the king. With support from powerful nobles, Richard had Anthony and their brother Richard Grey, and chamberlain Thomas Vaughan sent north and despite promises, he later had them executed in June 1483. In the meantime he had Edward and his younger brother, Richard of Shrewbury made residents of the Tower of London and kept stalling on Edward's coronation despite the king's councillors urging him to do so. Richard later accused Lord chamberlain the Baron of Hastings, a staunch supporter of Edward, of treason and had him executed, and he believed rumours that Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville's married was void and therefore Edward V and his siblings would be illigetimate. So, on 22nd June, the date on which Edward V was supposed to be coronated, Richard ordered a sermon to be preached ourside St Paul's cathedral which declared him the righful king and he was crowned Richard III on 6th July 1983. During this time, the princes in the tower had not been seen and had disappeared by the time of Richards coronation. Their fate remains a mystery but it is widely believed that Ricahrd had them murdered to cement his claim to the throne. Betrayed, alone and stripped of her titles and power, Elizabeth Woodville attempted to ally with the Lancastrian Margaret Beaufort, whose son was a great-great-great-grandson of Edward III and so had a tenous claim to the throne, which Woodville proposed to be strengthened if he married her own daughter, Elizabeth. With this alliance and many disaffected nobles abandoning Richard, Henry's claim was supported and he raised an army from Brittany where he had been exiled for protection since Edward IV had regained the throne in 1471. The first uprising was unsuccessful and Henry was forced to retreat back to France. However, Charles VIII of France supported his claim, gave him refuge and resources to prepare for a second attack. In the meantime King Richard's wide, Anne Neville, dies and rumours spread that she had been murdered so that Richard could marry his niece, Elizabeth and stop the Tudor plans. Finally the Tudor forces from both England and France gathered against Richard's army on 22 August 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth, where Richard's army was decisively defeated. King Richard was killed in battle and Henry claimed the throne by the right of conquest. Shortly after he and his troops arrived back in London, the 'Sweating Sickness' broke out - possibly brought back from being spread at the battlefield - which killed thousands of people by late October. Many people believed that the sickness was sent by God as punishment for supporting Henry's reign. Regardless, he was crowned Henry VII of England on 30th October 1485. He married Elizabeth of York on 18th January 1486, which united the houses of Lancaster and York as their children would be descendants of both dynasties.§REF§Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars Of The Roses. Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Pollard, A. J. (2001), Pollard, A. J. (ed.), \"The Causes of the Wars\", The Wars of the Roses, British History in Perspective, London: Macmillan Education UK. 41-67.§REF§ §REF§Grummitt, David (30 October 2012). A Short History of the Wars of the Roses. I.B. Tauris.§REF§ §REF§Carpenter, Christine (1997). The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437-1509. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Roberts, L (1945). \"Sweating Sickness and Picardy Sweat\". British Medical Journal. 2 (4414): 196§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 799, "name": "de_empire_2", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1254 }, "year_from": 1198, "year_to": 1215, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "de_empire_2@throne_dispute", "is_first_100": false, "name": "German throne dispute", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IP", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "IP", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 807, "name": "de_empire_2_sub", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen Faction", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1215 }, "comment": null, "description": "The German throne dispute, spanning from 1198 to 1215, was a significant political conflict within the Holy Roman Empire, primarily between the House of Hohenstaufen and the House of Welf. The dispute arose following the death of Emperor Henry VI, leading to a prolonged 17-year struggle over his succession. The contention centered around two primary candidates: Philip of Swabia from the House of Hohenstaufen and Otto of Brunswick, representing the House of Welf.§REF§Peter Csendes, Philipp von Schwaben: Ein Staufer Im Kampf Um Die Macht (Darmstadt: Primus Verlag, 2003).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L7ELHNJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: L7ELHNJU</b></a>§REF§\r\nPhilip of Swabia was elected king by princes sympathetic to the Hohenstaufens in Mühlhausen, Thuringia, on March 8, 1198. His election, however, lacked the customary participation of key ecclesiastical electors, challenging the legitimacy of his rule. In response, anti-Hohenstaufen princes elected Otto of Brunswick as the counter-king on June 9, leading to a situation where two kings claimed legitimacy simultaneously. Otto was crowned with a substituted set of regalia in the traditional locations of Cologne and Aachen, while Philip was crowned by Archbishop Aymon II of Tarentaise in a non-customary location and without the archbishop of Cologne, further complicating the legitimacy of their claims.§REF§Frenz, Papst Innozenz III., Weichensteller Der Geschichte Europas.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WK3JZRQ4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WK3JZRQ4</b></a>§REF§\r\nPope Innocent III played a crucial role in the dispute, initially maintaining neutrality but ultimately siding with the Welfs due to political interests and the inability of Philip to align with the papacy's view on the feudal dependence of Sicily. Innocent III's support for Otto was decisive, and the conflict saw various shifts in power, alliances, and even excommunications until Philip's murder in 1208 fundamentally altered the course of the dispute. Otto IV, without a counter-king and intent on marrying Philip's eldest daughter, became the undisputed ruler. However, Otto's attempts to recover estates transferred to the Papacy led to his excommunication and the need for a new heir to the throne, which eventually favored Frederick of Sicily from the Hohenstaufen family.§REF§Frenz, Papst Innozenz III., Weichensteller Der Geschichte Europas.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WK3JZRQ4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WK3JZRQ4</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 799, "name": "de_empire_2", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1254 }, "year_from": 1254, "year_to": 1273, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "de_empire_2@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Great Interregnum", "decline": "IA", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IP", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "IP", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 800, "name": "de_empire_3", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Fragmented Period", "start_year": 1255, "end_year": 1453 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Great Interregnum (1254-1273) in the Holy Roman Empire was a period marked by the absence of a universally recognized emperor, leading to significant political fragmentation and competition among the regional princes. The death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250 left a power vacuum that plunged the empire into a state of disorder, as no single candidate could secure widespread acceptance for the imperial crown. This period underscored the limitations of the Empire's electoral system and highlighted the growing power of individual territorial rulers.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Interregnum, Geschichte Kompakt (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2002).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FWPLADJG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FWPLADJG</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe electoral system's lack of firm rules prior to the Golden Bull of 1356 contributed to the double elections of 1257 and 1314, further complicating the succession process. Each new king exploited his reign to enhance his territory's autonomy, leading to resentment among those who supported defeated candidates. This cycle of contentious elections and strategic territorial enhancement continued until the election of Rudolf I of Habsburg in 1273, who sought to consolidate imperial authority by initiating a policy of 'Revindication' to recover crown lands dissipated since the 1240s.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Interregnum, Geschichte Kompakt (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2002).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FWPLADJG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FWPLADJG</b></a>§REF§\r\nDespite Rudolf's efforts, the Great Interregnum fundamentally altered the balance of power within the Empire, increasing the autonomy of regional princes and diminishing imperial control over the German lands. The period set a precedent for the future fragmentation of the Empire and the rise of territorial princes as key political players, a condition that would persist into the modern period.§REF§Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3VKQVTUM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM</b></a>§REF§" } ] }