Crisis Consequence List
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{ "count": 169, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 1, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": 1200, "year_to": 1250, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_cahokia_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Abandoment of Cahokia Mounds", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "SU", "successful_revolution": "SU", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "comment": null, "description": "Cahokian agriculture, population, public works, architecture and politics developed rapidly between the 11th - 13th centuries. Created and added to during the Lohmann Stirling phase (1050-1250), the Cahokia mounds were being constructed even throughout the population decline in the later Stirling period. The population appears to have spread outwards into rural areas and away from Cahokia. It is not known exactly why this happened, and so quickly. Some authors posit that the stresses put on resources in the surrounding region by the rapid development, and the political stresses on the population, meant that Cahokia could no longer support itself. There is also evidence for flooding and droughts. Disease may have contributed to the abandonment but there is no definitive evidence for this. By the end of the 13th century, Cahokia was abandoned and did not fall back into use until the 18th century.§REF§https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsc.2019.00006/full§REF§ §REF§Milner, G R. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville.§REF§ §REF§Kelly, John (2009). Contemplating Cahokia's collapse. In: Global Perspectives on the Collapse of Complex Systems. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology. pp. 147-168.§REF§ §REF§Henderson, Harold. \"The Rise and Fall of the Mound People\". Chicago Reader.§REF§" }, { "id": 2, "polity": { "id": 560, "name": "bo_tiwanaku_2", "long_name": "Late Tiwanaku", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1149 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1150, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "bo_tiwanaku_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Tiwanaku Empire", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "SU", "successful_revolution": "SU", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "SU", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "IP", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 580, "name": "bo_titicaca_early_pacajes", "long_name": "Titicaca Basin - Early Pacajes phase", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1450 }, "comment": null, "description": "From 1000 CE Tiwanaku ceramics were no longer being produced. Within a few decades the capital, Tiwanaku and the largest colony, Moquegua, were abandoned. More recent theories about the collpase of the Tiwanaku Empire suggest that there were internal conflicts and struggles within the social dynamics of the polity. Parts of the capital and monoliths such as the Gateway of the Sun were intentionally damaged or destroyed, however there is no solid evidence to show whether this happened before or after the collapse. The fall of Tiwanaku led to mass migration southwards into Chile. Extreme climate drying leads to a collapse of some societies such as Tiwanaku. This changed the society in the sense that people moved out to more agriculturally viable areas, and may have moved more frequently, and there may not have been an 'elite' centre, but it was not the case that they 'died out'.§REF§Owen, Bruce (2005). \"Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The Two Stages of the Tiwanaku Diaspora in the Osmore Drainage\". Latin American Antiquity. 16 (1): 45-81.§REF§ §REF§Dillehay, Tom D.; Pino Quivira, Mario; Bonzani, Ren√©e; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007) Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change. Antiquity 81 (2007): 949-960§REF§ §REF§Personal communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22.§REF§" }, { "id": 3, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": 1350, "year_to": 1450, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_hohokam_culture@collapse", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Hohokam collapse", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "IP", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "SU", "successful_revolution": "SU", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "SU", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "SU", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "IA", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The end of the Hohokam Classic Period saw the fall of the Hohokam culture. Although it is unclear why this once flourishing culture collapsed, it is believed that the Great Drought of 1276-99 followed by a century of unpredictable and low rainfall led the Hohokam to abandon their settlements in the region. Not much is known about this culture, but a decline and collapse of the population is inferred and fragmentation coded present due to the evidenced site abandonmet §REF§Abbott, David R., ed. Centuries of decline during the Hohokam classic period at Pueblo Grande. University of Arizona Press, 2003.§REF§ §REF§https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hohokam-culture§REF§ §REF§https://www.nps.gov/articles/hohokam-culture.htm§REF§" }, { "id": 4, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": 706, "year_to": 725, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "kh_chenla@8th_c_dyn_conflict", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Chenla Dynastic Conflict", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "IA", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During the early eigth century there was a dynastic dispute among the Chenla royal family. According to Chinese sources, The New Book of Tang, this resulted in the divison of the kingdom into two seperate polities after 706 CE: Land (or Upper) Chenla and Water (or Lower) Chenla. These seperate kingdoms both reverted to anarchic states as they had been before unification unde the kings of Funan, and then the kings of Chenla. Some scholars of the Chinese transcripts believe that Chenla began to disintergrate during the 700s also due to attacks by the Shailendra dynasty of Java.§REF§Sternstein, Larry (1964). \"An Historical Atlas Of Thailand\". Journal of the Siam Society. 3 (1-2).§REF§ §REF§Vickery, Michael (1994), What and Where was Chenla? Recherches nouvelles sur le Cambodge, Paris§REF§ §REF§West, B. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, Volume 1. Facts On File.§REF§" }, { "id": 5, "polity": { "id": 562, "name": "mx_maya_classic", "long_name": "Classic Maya", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 950 }, "year_from": 800, "year_to": 900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_maya_classic@collapse", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Classic Maya collapse", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "IP", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "IA", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 581, "name": "gt_tikal_terminal_classic", "long_name": "Terminal Classic Tikal", "start_year": 870, "end_year": 950 }, "comment": null, "description": "Many theories have been put forward to explain the collapse of Classic Maya, including over-population, drought, inter-city warfare and incompetant rulers, however these issues were not uniform across the entire region and were dependant on location, though they are generally accepted as contributing factors. Monument building had increased steadily by 750 CE, with around forty monuments being built per year, however, it quickly declined after this, returning to approximately ten per year by 800 CE and zero builds by 900 CE. The population followed a similar pattern, such as in the Copan Valley, where numbers peaked between 750-800 CE when it is estimated to have been 28,000, but by 900 CE the population fell to around 15,000. §REF§David L. Webster, Ann Corinne Freter, Nancy Gonlin. 2005. Copan: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. Wadsworth Publishing Company.§REF§ §REF§Acemoglu, Robinson, Daron, James A. (2012). Why Nations Fail. pp. 143-9.§REF§ §REF§Nichols et al. The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford University Press, 2012.§REF§" }, { "id": 6, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 600, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7@teotihuacan_collapse", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Crisis at Teotihuacan", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "IP", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "comment": null, "description": "At the beginning of the sixth century Teotihuacan began its period of decline due to natural disasters and civil unrest. The severe climate change of 535-536, Volcanic Winter, is likely to have contributed to or begun the crisis period. The Volcanic Winter led to extended droughts, famine and overall malnutrition, which led to a decline in the population and the eventual collpase of Teotihuacan. With Teotihuacan weakened, other nearby sites such as Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla would have competed to fill the power vacuum that it was creating with its decline. There is also later evidence that the decline of the city was hastened by increased social stratification, power struggles and civil strife, as many of the elite housing complexes around the Street of the Dead, show signs of burning and damage. §REF§Kaufman, Terrence (2001). \"Nawa linguistic prehistory\". Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. p4§REF§ §REF§Nichols, Deborah L. (2016). \"Teotihuacan\". Journal of Archaeological Research. 24 (1): 1-74.§REF§ §REF§Luj√°n, Leonardo L√≥pez; Nadal, Laura Filloy; Fash, Barbara W.; Fash, William L.; Hern√°ndez, Pilar (2006). \"The Destruction of Images in Teotihuacan: Anthropomorphic Sculpture, Elite Cults, and the End of a Civilization\". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 49-50 (49/50): 12-39.§REF§" }, { "id": 7, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 1000, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_monte_alban_5_a@10th_c_frag", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fragmentation of Monte Albán state", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "SU", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "comment": null, "description": "The unified valley under the Zapotec state had gone by this period, replaced by around 15-20 smaller polities which were often fighting one another (as suggested by the widespread use of fortifications and descriptions in the ethnohistoric records), but the overall population of the valley continued to increase to the highest number yet reached in the valley. The Monte Alban state had previously dominated inside and outside the Oaxaca Valley, but by this period rulers from other centres were asserting their autonomy, and by 900-1000 CE Monte Alban was largely abandoned. §REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385-7§REF§ §REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362.§REF§ §REF§Blanton, Richard E.; Gary M. Feinman; Stephen A. Kowalewski; Linda M. Nicholas (1999). Ancient Oaxaca: the Monte Alb√°n State. London: Cambridge University Press.p359-61§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 8, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": -700, "year_to": -500, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_rosario@fragmentation_decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Increased violent conflict and social differentiation during Rosario phase", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "SU", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "SU", "fragmentation": "IP", "capital": "A", "conquest": "SU", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "There is evidence for increased inter-settlement conflict and social differentiation within communities. Burnt remains of buildings have been found at Rosario phase sites, which, along with evidence for fortifications and the extensive unoccupied 'buffer zone' of 80 square kilometres between the polities, suggest inter-settlement raids and hostility at this time. While there is evidence of an emerging elite during this period, the nature of leadership and political organization remains unclear. Labour was organized for the construction of large public structures and elaborate tombs. However, the types of buildings constructed has led archaeologists Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus to suggest that elites could not yet draw on labour and resources solely for their own personal gain. The chiefdoms during this period are also more complex than in the preceding San José and Guadalupe phases.§REF§Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San Jos√© and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-64. New York: Academic Press.§REF§ §REF§Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199.§REF§" }, { "id": 9, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": -11, "year_to": 9, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_western_han_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Rebellions and Wang Mang usurpation", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1 BCE Wang Mang's cousin, Emperor Ai died and Prince Jizi of Zhongshan became Emperor (Emperor Ping). Mang, who had previously been forced to resign from his post as commander of the armed forces, became regent and undertook several drastic actions including demoting members of the Han dynasty to commoners, disinterring other royal family members, and removing politicians from their posts. He persuaded Grand Empress Dowager Wang to create him a Duke (though this was not included in the Han dynasty system) and transfer almost all of her authority to him. When Emperor Ping came of age and made it clear that he resented Mang's actions, Mang had the Emperor poisoned, and arranged for a distant 1 year old relative to be place on the throne so that he could control him. In 6 CE the Rebellion of the Marquis, led by Marquess of Anzhong, attempted to depose Wang Mang, however it was unsuccessful. Following this there were two further unsuccessful uprisings in 7 CE. The first, the Uprising on the Great Plain was led by Chai I, the second, Uprising near Chang'an broke out near the capital. Wang Mang, confident that the empire was under his control, declared himself Emperor; the founder and only Emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE. The Han nobles were all demoted to commoners. After Wang Mang's overthrow and death in 23 CE the Han dynasty was restored.§REF§Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.§REF§ §REF§Loewe, Michael. \"Wang Mang ÁéãËéΩ (2)\". A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden: Brill. pp. 536-45.§REF§ §REF§Rudi Thomsen, Ambition and confucianism : a biography of Wang Mang, Aarhus University Press, 1988. Cambridge History of China§REF§" }, { "id": 10, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": 640, "year_to": 660, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "pe_wari_emp@7th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Wari Crisis in the Seventh Century", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "IP", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "IP", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "IP", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The archaeological records show that appears that around 650 the Wari Empire suffered some sort of crisis, likely either an epidemic or revolt. The archaeological records also shows that there were changes in settlement and burial patterns, indicating that there were environmental crises during the sixth and seventh centuries, including drought. These natural disasters led to an increase in violence and warfare in the polity, for which we infer civil war and uprisings present, which led people to leave the region.§REF§Personal Communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22§REF§" }, { "id": 11, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": -494, "year_to": -287, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "it_roman_rep_1@orders_conflict", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Crisis of the Orders", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "DIS", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "P", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "P", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Conflict of the Orders pitted Rome's wealthy elite, who enjoyed nearly all of the prestige and power of political office as well as controlling most of the city's agricultural land, against the poorer members of society (plebeians), mainly small-scale or tenant farmers who had contributed to Roman territorial expansion by serving as soldiers during the wars of the early Republic. The 'secessio plebis' which saw the plebian classes leave the city in protest against the patrician classes who could then not fend for themselves and were forced to negotiate with the commoners. In 494 BCE, the plebeians went on strike, refusing to march to war against a coalition of tribes from central Italy. A settlement was reached when Rome's aristocrats extended to the plebeians the right to vote for certain magistrates, known as the Tribunes of the Plebs (essentially the 'people's magistrates'). This was an important office charged with looking after the needs of Rome's poorer citizens, who held veto powers against decisions made in the Senate. Tensions between the aristocrats and the plebeians lingered throughout the 4th century BCE and after another series of wars against the neighbouring tribes of the Aequi, the Volsci, the Latins, and the Veii, the commoners demanded further rights. The tribuni militum consulari potestate (consular tribunate) emerged briefly during this time of disruption (to be abolished 367 BCE). This was an elected office that could be held both by members of the powerful families and the Roman citizens. In 287 BCE the Hortensian Law was passed to ensure that resolutions passed by the plebian council were final and did not have to be ratified by the patricians. This bought an end to total Patrician rule in the Roman Republic.§REF§Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo. 2011. 'The Republic and Its Highest Office: Some Introductory Remarks on the Roman Consulate', in Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic, edited by Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo, 1-16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.§REF§ §REF§Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. 17-19.§REF§ §REF§Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. 41-48 | Goldstone, Jack A. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. OUP USA, 2014.§REF§" }, { "id": 12, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": 540, "year_to": 554, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "tr_east_roman_emp@6th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Sixth Century Crisis & Justinian Plague", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 542 CE the Justinian Plague (named after the Emperor) arrived in Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. It is estimated that in Constantinople alone 300,000 people died in the first year of the plague. Emperor Justinian fell ill though he recovered and the devestation caused by the plague prevented him from quickly recapturing the western provinces that had been lost to the Persian Sassanids in their ongoing war over the previous century. From 535-554 CE the Romans also faced the Gothic Wars (535-554) against the Ostrogoths in Dalmatia and Italy, and in 546 CE the Ostrogoths captured Rome, known as the Sack of Rome, weakening its defenses, before leaving to attack Byzantine forces in Apuila. Revolution: Nika rebellions might count (depends on threshold for 'mass mobilization')§REF§Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication§REF§ §REF§Barker, John W. 1966. Justinian and the Later Roman Empire, University of Wisconsin Press. 160-161.§REF§" }, { "id": 13, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": 1861, "year_to": 1865, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_antebellum@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "American Civil War", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "DIS", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "P", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Although the driving forces behind the American Civil War are complex, it is widely agree that the central cause of war was the issue of slavery. There was division between the north, which had been modernising, expanding and industrialising, and the south which had a principally agricultural economy, fuelled by enslaved people. Though these geographical lines were not absolute, overall, northern Americans began to argue for the abolition of slavery, while southern white americans wanted to retain their enslaved workforce which had made them their fortunes. This came to a head when Abraham Lincoln (Republican Party) who wanted to restrict the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired states, was elected president and sworn in on 4th March 1861. In response, seven southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) formed the Confederate States of America, declared a secession from the United States and in 1861 the Confederacy President Jefferson Davis issued a call to arms to defend the confederacy. Although Lincoln had declared that he had no intention to invade the southern states, nor to end slavery entirely at that point, he continued to arm the Union-held forts in the southern states, including Fort Sumter in South Caroline which on 12th April 1861 the Confederates attacked and captured, officially marking the beginning of the Civil War. Both sides called for volunteers to their causes and after Lincoln requested additional volunteers for a period of three years, the states of Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina also joined the Confederacy. During the war, Lincoln declared the Emancipation Proclamation which freed 3.5 million people from slavery, changing the focus of the war from protecting the union to placing the abolition of slavery as central to the war. After four years of warefare, the confederate states began to surrender on 9th April 1865. On 14th April 1865 Abraham Lincoln was assasinated by a Confederate sympathiser, John Wilkes Booth. Revolution: some consider it revolution, but most just think of it as elite/military conflict with reform§REF§Turchin, Peter. Ages of Discord: A Structural-Demographic Analysis of American History. Chaplin, CT: Beresta Books, 2016.§REF§" }, { "id": 14, "polity": { "id": 587, "name": "gb_british_emp_1", "long_name": "British Empire I", "start_year": 1690, "end_year": 1849 }, "year_from": 1830, "year_to": 1848, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "gb_british_emp_1@chartist_struggle", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Chartist Movement", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "DIS", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "P", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "P", "public_goods": "P", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Chartist Movement sought reform in the politics of Britain and was raised first in 1838. The original Reform Act which had been passed in 1832 did not extend the vote to those who did not own property and this, combined with the Poor Law Amendment of 1834 which took away outdoor relief (in the form of money, clothes and food for the poor) and championed the workhouses, drew a huge wave of opposition from the working class and their political leaders. The movement quickly gained traction, particularly in the poorer, northern, industrial areas, and soon spread across the country and in 1836 the London Working Men's Association was founded for the southeast Chartists. In 1838 the People's Charter was published by a committee made up of MPs and working class men. They had six demands: Votes for men 21-years-old and above (when in sound mind and not undergoing criminal punishment); the secret ballot; no property qualification for MPS; monetary support for those who leave their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation; equal constituencies; and annual parliamentary elections. A National Convention was held in January 1839 to officially present the petition which had been signed by 1.3million people, though MPs voted to not hear the petition. Riots, marches and plans of uprisings occurred across the country and armed soldiers killed and wounded many chartists at a confrontation in Newport. Over the next few years other uprisings were held and several leaders were arrested and put on trial, receiving sentances of transportation or hard labour; one, Samuel Holberry, died while in prison and became a Chartist martyr. In 1842 amid economic depression, workers went on strike against their reduced wages. The authorities arrested more chartists leaders and imprisoned hundred of men and women who took part in riots. However the arrests did not deter the Chartists and the movement continued, while in 1847 Feargus O'Connor was elected the first and only Chartist MP (representing Nottingham). Chartist activity increased even further from February 1848 following the news of a revolution in Paris. Riots and demonstrations were organised and Parliament revived a seventeenth century statute that forbid more than ten people presenting a petition in person to deter the crowds. O'Connor ensure that the rules were followed and it was presented by just a few Chartists leaders. However further legislations were passed criminalising activities such as proposing war against the monarch or attempts to intimidate parliament, which were punishable by death or transportation. After 1848, the movement declined rapidly and the requested reforms were not passed.§REF§Malcolm Chase. 2007. Chartism: A New History. Manchester University Press.§REF§ §REF§Dorothy Thompson. 1984. The Chartists: Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolution.§REF§ §REF§Archer, J.E. 1996. Social Unrest and Popular Protest in England 1780-1840. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Slosson, Preston William. 2019. The Decline of the Chartist Movement. Wentworth Press. 95-98.§REF§" }, { "id": 15, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1872, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "in_achik_2@colonial_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Colonial supression and control of the A'chik", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After the British occupation of the Garo Hills in 1867, the A'chik were overpowed by British force and firearms and, despite resistance, were eventually brought under full British administrative control in 1872-3, which lasted until independance in 1947. Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of laskar, with limited power over about ten villages. Population estimates are unavailable. Revolution: may be considered a national liberation revolution§REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India§REF§ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. Culture Summary: Garo.‚Äù eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000§REF§" }, { "id": 16, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": 1568, "year_to": 1609, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "es_spanish_emp_1@80_y_war", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Eighty Years' War and plague in Habsburg Spain", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "This fifty year period saw a succession of crises for the Habsburg Spanish Empire. In 1568 the protestant William of Orange led a revolt against the spanish in the Netherlands and attempted to remove the Duke of Alva from the region. Though his attempt failed, this is considered the beginning of the Eighty Years War. Between 1572-1579 many Dutch rebels denounced Spanish rule and set about seizing Dutch coastal towns, destroying dykes, and looting southern towns which then joined the rebellion. The Spanish ended the rebellion by negotiating the Union of Arras in 1579, which saw Spanish troops leave the region. In 1584 William of Orange was murdered by a Catholic, leading to the intervention of protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England who sent British ships to attack Spanish merchants, and later the Spanish Armada, which was defeated. In 1590 when the protestant Henry IV became the successor to the crown of France, the Spanish who had been invovled in the religious warfare of France for many years, diverted half of their army from the Netherlands to France in an attempt to stop Henry becoming king. Spain were now at war with the Netherlands, England and France and could not sustain their efforts due to the great expense, which bankrupted them in 1596. In the same year Habsburg Spain suffered a plague which had entered from the north coast. This outbreak of plague was particularly destructive and within six years it had spread across the entire of mainland Spain and killed an estimated 500,000 people. In 1598, Phillip II made a peace treaty with France, and stopped payments to the Catholic League after Henry IV converted to Catholicism. Shortly afterwards Phillip died and his son, Phillip III came to power. Phillip III's government went about mass producing worthless currency in an attempt to pay for budget deficits, which caused inflation and led to bankruptcy again by 1607. Since 1590, Maurice of Nassau, son of William of Orange, had been successful in retaking several border cities in the Netherlands. The Spanish army attempted to reconquer the Netherlands but the 1607 bankruptcy prevented them from doing so. However, as the United Provinces were politically divided, Spain was able to convince them to sign the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609.§REF§Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File.§REF§ §REF§Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). The golden age of Spain, 1516-1659. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Parker, Geoffrey (1997). The Thirty Years' War (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Parker, Geoffrey (1972). The Army of Flanders and the Spanish road, 1567-1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 17, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": 1590, "year_to": 1610, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "tr_ottoman_emp_2@jelali_reb", "is_first_100": true, "name": "First Jelali rebellion", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Jelālī Revolts were a series of rebellions in Anatolia against the Ottoman Empire in response to an ongoing social and economic crisis due to taxes, depreciation of currency, admission of Muslims into the army, and the increase in elite troops (Janissaries) in Istanbul and the provinces. The Janissaries replaced the peasantry troops that made up the provincial armies and who were not paid during peace time so often resorted to banditry, which earned them the name Jelālīs. The first rebellion in 1519 was led by Celâl, an Alevi preacher who gathered around 20,000 men to march and riot in Tokat. The rebellion was violently supressed by Shah Selim I and Celâl was killed. However, this unrest continued on until the end of the sixteenth century with several organised rebellions taking place. The first rebellion also coincided with a period of plague across the empire.§REF§White S. The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press; 2011.§REF§ §REF§√Ågoston, G√°bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2010-05-21). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 18, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": 1914, "year_to": 1922, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "tr_ottoman_emp_4@ataturk_rev", "is_first_100": false, "name": "First World War and fall of the Ottoman Empire", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "DIS", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Population decline: from 15 million within Turkey's modern borders in 1910 to 13.88 million in 1920 (Clio Infra 2016). Cholera epidemics from 1910 to 1913 (Unat 1995). Revolution, reorganization, fragmentation: abolition of the Sultanate, foundation of the Republic, and loss of Ottoman possessions beyond Anatolia (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021; GeaCron 2011). Downward mobility of elite: with the founding of the Turkish Republic, the Ottoman Dynasty was exiled (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021) -- more reading needed to find out to what extent the rest of the elite were dispossessed or suffered downward mobility. Civil war: Turkish War of Independence, fought between Turkish nationalists and Ottoman loyalists, backed by external powers (Itzkowitz n.d.). Revolution: Arab revolutionary element in fall of Ottomans§REF§Unat 1995: Unat, E. K. 1995. Cholera epidemics in the Ottoman Empire during 1910-1913 and relevant events.‚Äù Yeni Tip Tarihi Arastirmalari / The New History of Medicine Studies 1: 55-65.§REF§ §REF§Itzkowitz n.d.: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kemal-Ataturk/The-nationalist-movement-and-the-war-for-independence§REF§ §REF§Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html§REF§" }, { "id": 19, "polity": { "id": 31, "name": "us_late_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Late Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1718, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": 1718, "year_to": 1778, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_late_illinois_confederation@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "French-British colonization, attacks by Haudenosaunee, internal conflict", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1717, Illinois territory was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane, claiming the region as part of their North american possessions. The Illinois Country became split administratively into two different 'regimes': the Domaine du Roi, the area around the French settlements where French law applied, and the larger 'Indian country', where the Illinois and other groups largely maintained their sovereignty. In 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War, France ceded the part of their Louisiana colony that lay east of the Mississippi to the British. The Illinois resisted British incursions into the region for several years but the British eventually managed to occupy Fort de Chartres, the main French military and administrative centre. In 1765, they too were unseated by the Virginia militiaman, George Rogers Clark, who in 1778 also captured the British-held fort of Kaskaskiaa following a Revolutionary War skirmish. The Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680, to 1,900 by 1763, and to just a village of about 300 people by 1778. This was largely due to epidemic diseases brought to their lands by Europeans as well as the ongoing warfare with both Europeans and other tribes.§REF§Warren, Robert E., and John A. Walthall. 1998. \"Illini Indians in the Illinois Country 1673-1832.\" The Living Museum 60 (1): 4-8.§REF§ §REF§Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois Indians: Society: Neighbors: The British.\" MuseumLink Illinois. http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_british.html§REF§ §REF§Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. \"Illinois.\" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Rogers, Gerald A. (2009). The Changing Illinois Indians under European Influence: The Split between the Kaskaskia and Peoria. West Virginia University.§REF§ §REF§Sweatman, Dennis (2010). \"Comparing the Modern Native American Presence in Illinois with Other States of the Old Northwest Territory\". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 103 (3/4): 252-315§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 20, "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "cn_hmong_1", "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": 1725, "year_to": 1873, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_hmong_1@rebellions", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Hmong uprisings against Qing state", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "A series of uprisings by the Hmong people and other ethnic groups of southern China, who had been subjugated through violence and forced assimilation by the Chinese, were sweeping across the region during this period. There were three major Hmong uprisings in the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries. The first in 1735-36 was raised in rebellion against the misrule of the Qing. At first local Qing administrators sought to come to an agreement with the rebels but the Qianlong Emperor sent in armies who supressed the uprising, killing 18,000 warriors. Thereafter fifty years of peace in the region persisted until 1795 when the Hmong in Hunnan rose up again against Han Chinese immigrants who were forcing them out of their traditional lands and were quickly followed by the Chinese state who put a strain on local resources and established their own settlements there. Again military action was taken, and in the aftermath in 1806 policies banning Hmong traditional dress and ethnic segregation were put in place, as well as their lands being confiscated. Tensions simmered and culminated with the largest Miao Rebellion in Guizhou 1854-73. This rebellion was a string of uprisings by multiple rebel groups who won some battles against the Chu army and captured several towns as well as attacking the capital of Guiyang. With the Taiping Rebellion also happening at the same time, the Qing armies were stretched, however once the Taiping Rebellion had been supressed, the Qing government turned their attention fully to the Hmong rebels, defeating them one by one. In the aftermath many areas of Guizhou were depopulated and the destroyed towns and overgrown farmlands led many of the Hmong and other ethnic groups to migrate to Vietnam and Laos. Some estimates consider the death toll in the province to be as high as 4.9 million (out of a population of 7 million) thought it is believed that this is an over estimate. §REF§Diamond, Norma. 2009. Culture Summary: Miao. eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000§REF§ §REF§Jenks, Robert D. (1994-11-01). Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The \"Miao\" Rebellion, 1854-1873. University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Platt, Stephen R. (2018). Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age. New York: Vintage Books.§REF§ §REF§Platt, Stephen R. (2012). Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War.§REF§" }, { "id": 21, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": 1670, "year_to": 1701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gh_akan@separatist_rebellion", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Separatist Rebellion", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "IP", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In the mid 17th century Osei Kofi Tutu I of the Oyoko state began to consolidate Asante clans into a confederation against the nation of Denkyira with the purpose of declaring independence from the oppressive state. The Ashanti Union (Ashanti Kingdom) declared war against the Denkyira. The coalition defeated them at the decisive Battle of Feyiase and declared their independance in 1701. The Ashanti city-states declared alleigence to the Ashanti capital of Kumasi. Revolution: possible, but not clear was mass mobilization§REF§Lloyd, Alan. 1964.The Drums of Kumasi, London: Panther. pp. 21-24§REF§ §REF§Shillington, Kevin. 1995 (1989). History of Africa, New York: St. Martin's§REF§" }, { "id": 22, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": 1618, "year_to": 1648, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "au_habsburg_2@30_y_war", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Seventeenth Century Crisis, Thirty Years' War", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "DIS", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Thirty Years' War was fought within the Holy Roman Empire. The war was largely driven by the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs and the French House of Bourbon who were vying for power, as well as religious divisions that had seen the rise of Protestantism that threatened Catholic imperial authority. Until 1635 the war was mainly fought as a civil war between German states of the Holy Roman Empire, but after this it became a wider European war between France supported by Sweden and Spain supported by Austria. The immense movement of troops from across Europe led to the outbreak of several epidemics including typhus fever, bubonic plague, dysentery, other infectious diseases such as scurvy. The war concluded in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia which agreed Dutch independance from Spain and greater autonomy for Bavaria and Saxony among other conditions. The habsburgs were weakened by the war and the treaty. It is estimated that 4.5-8million people died in the conflict across the Empire. Revolution: some would consider eg Czech rebellion as failed 'nationalist liberation' revolution§REF§Parker, Geoffrey. 1984. The Thirty Years' War (1997 ed.). Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Sutherland, NM (1992). \"The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics\". The English Historical Review. CVII (CCCCXXIV): 587-625.§REF§ §REF§Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File.§REF§" }, { "id": 23, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": 1911, "year_to": 1912, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_qing_dyn_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Chinese Revolution", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "comment": null, "description": "The revolution came at the end of the Qing Dynasty during a period of high social unrest (following the Boxer and Taiping Rebellions, among other uprisings), recurrent ecological stress (droughts and crop-failures leading to famines), fiscal distress (declining silver supply and growing state expenditures, particularly to furnish the military), and conflict with foreign imperial powers (Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan). Elite unrest nhad also been mounting through the 19th century. All of these pressures finally culminated in teh collapse of the Qing and establishment of the Chinese Republic in 1912§REF§Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861‚Äö√Ñ√¨1928. University of Washington Publishing.§REF§ §REF§Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky.§REF§ §REF§Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Loewe, Michael. \"Wang Mang ÁéãËéΩ (2)\". A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden: Brill. pp. 536-45.§REF§ §REF§Rudi Thomsen, Ambition and confucianism : a biography of Wang Mang, Aarhus University Press, 1988.§REF§" }, { "id": 24, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": -210, "year_to": -207, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_qin_emp@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil unrest and the collapse of the Empire", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Between 210-207 BCE rebellions were raised all over China against the new (second) Qin Emperor, Qin Er Shi, due to his incompetence, overspending and tyranny. The chancellor Zhao Gao forced Qin Er Shi to commit suicide, though upon his acesension to the throne, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, immediately had Zhao Gao executed. The third and final ruler of the Qin dynasty, Ziying (posthumously Emperor Shang of Qin), held power for just 46 days from October-December 207 BCE, amidst popular uprisings, until he was attacked and defeated in battle, and later executed by the rebel leader Xiang Yu. The Qin dynasty was overthrown, the capital was destroyed, and the Chu state was restored.§REF§Bodde, D. 1986. The state and empire of Ch'in,‚Äù in D. Twitchet and M, Loewe, eds. The Cambridge History of China Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 20-102.§REF§" }, { "id": 25, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": -2150, "year_to": -2150, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_old_k_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Old Kingdom state", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "IP", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "comment": null, "description": "Collapse of Old Kingdom centralized state. Coded for population decline but not collapse: texts surviving from later periods speak of depopulation (along with famine, drought etc.) in the First Intermediate Period, though they are ideologically motivated to exaggerate the severity of the chaos before the centralized state re-emerged in the Middle Kingdom (Hassan 2007: 370). Settlement data not good enough to track population growth and decline in detail. Epidemics possible but not proven. Elite downward mobility: collapse of centralized government, followed c. 25 years later by the efforts of provincial elite to reestablish authority (Hassan 2007: 358). Civil war: war between rivals to the throne after the collapse of the Old Kingdom royal authority (Hassan 2007: 358). These intermittent conflicts may have lasted over a century: Hassan (2007: 358) makes a comparison to the Hundred Years' War in Europe. Territorial fragmentation certainly occurred (Hassan 2007), and conflict with \"Asiatics\" but no complete conquest of Egypt by external powers.§REF§Hassan 2007: Hassan, Fekri A. 2007. Droughts, Famine and the Collapse of the Old Kingdom: Re-Reading Ipuwer.‚Äù In The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt: Essays in Honor of David B. O'Connor, edited by Zahi A. Hawass and Janet E. Richards, 357-78. Cairo: Conseil suprême des Antiquités égyptiennes | Goldstone, Jack A. Revolutions: A Very Short Introduction. OUP USA, 2014 | Sorokin, Pitirim A. The Sociology of Revolution. Howard Fertig, 1967§REF§" }, { "id": 26, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": 1642, "year_to": 1651, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gb_england_tudor_and_early_stuart@cw", "is_first_100": true, "name": "English Civil War", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "DIS", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The English Civil War was a series of conflicts that took place between the Royalist \"Cavaliers\" who supported Charles I and and the Divine Right of Kings, and the Parliamentarian \"Roundheads\" who sought a governance that was led by a permenant Parliament to whom the monarch was answerable. Initially there had been concerns over Charles I's marriage to the French Catholic Henrietta Maria and his sympathies (and own beliefs) towards Catholics, while England was a Protestant country. Charles also dissolved parliament whenever they raised concerns over his governance and essentially only called them when he required financial assistance and otherwise imposed 'forced loans' or compelled citizens to accomodate, feed and clothe his soliders. Failiure to do either resulted in imprisonment which gained mass opposition across society. In 1628 he called parliament to raise funds for and in exchange he reluctantly accepted the Petition of Right which stated that no person is compelled to priovide gift, loan, or tax, nor house soldiers in private accomodation. Charles did not call parliament for a further decade, known as Personal Rule of Charles I or Eleven Years' Tyranny, and instead raised money by creating fines, naval taxes, and reviving outdated systems. He also began introducing elements of Catholicism into the churches. Puritans who compained about this were arrested and punished. When Charles attempted to apply the same religious changes in Scotland, the rebellion of the Bishops War broke out in 1639 and again in the mid-1640s. Charles' unsuccessful attempts to surpress the rebeillions led to the Scottish occupation of Northumberland and Durham, and put an even bigger drain on his already depleting funds. He finally called parliament again in 1640 to raise funds, but with his weak position Parliment took the opportunity to raise all the grievances they had, impose laws restricting the kings power without parliamentary consent, and pass a law that parliament must covene at least once every three years even without the monarchs approval. Over the next two years the animosity between Charles and his supporters and the parliamentarians grew in all levels of society and war seemed inevitable. The final push came in 1642 when Charles attempted unsucessfully to arrest five members of the House of Commons for treason. This triggered a sudden spread of conflict, and though many regions and people attempted to remain neutral, actions and policies on both sides pressured a further division across the country and war broke out in June 1642. As both sides marched around the country they collected supports and soldiers along the way. Though the early part of the war seemed favourable to the Royalists, the tide turned when the Parliamentary 'New Model Army' won two major battles and then brought the Scots into their forces. Eventually, Charles' resources were depleted and he sought refuge with a Scottish army. He was promptly turned over to Parliament and imprisoned in May 1646, which ended the first war. However there was no question at this stage that Charles would remain king though there was a power vaccum that could be filled by the three factions that had come out of the war: the Royalists, Independents of the New Model Army (\"the Army\"), and the Presbyterians of the English Parliament, and whichever was to suceed as the victorious group, must also have Charles (who flattered and plotted with each party) as its head to be successful. In June 1647 the Army, having grown more powerful and ever distant from the Presbytarian parliament, seized Charles for themselves, while parliament, the remaining royalists and the Scots banded together to being the second civil war against them. Charles negotiated a secret treaty with the Scots in December 1647 who agreed to invade England and restored him if if converted to presbytarianism within three years. Skirmishes between all parties occured over the following year and while the Army led many successful battles against their rivals, many defected to their side. Their final victory at the Battle of Preston over the Royalists and Scots secured their victory and marked the end of the second war. Negotiations opened up again between parliament and Charles, but the Army marched on them and conducted 'Pride's Purge' preventing mebers access to parliament and arresting 45 of them. Few were allowed in, and only on the bidding of the Army, who demanded that a High Court of Justice was set up to try Charles I for high treason due to his inciting of war, pacts and treaties made with various groups, and forcing those who had previously sworn an oath after the first civil war to take up arms again. Charles was found guilty and was beheaded on 30th January 1649. England became a republic, led by the new parliament, with Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. Charles I's son, Charles who was in exile, was immediately proclaimed King Charles II of England in Jersey after the execution of his father. In June 1650 he landed in Scotland to raise an army, and was offered the Scottish crown. However, Crowell marched his army to Edinburgh where they laid siege to the city and defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar. Cromwell then persued Charles southwards, where the army engaged and defeated Charles II's forces at Worcester. Charles managed to escape, hiding via a network of loyalists houses, until he was able to flee to France in 16th October 1651. In the meantime, Ireland had been suffering its own rebellions and ongiong wars against anti-Catholicism since 1641 and in 1649 Cromwell's forces under the Army suppressed rebel royalists and catholics on the island, massacring nearly 3,500 people including civilians, preists, prisoners and soldiers. By 1653 the final Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered and all Irish Catholic owned land was confiscated and given to members of the new parliament and Army soldiers. Revolution: somewaht successful (major parliamentary reforms, but ultimately monarchy retained power)§REF§Purkiss, Diane (2007), The English Civil War: A People's History, London: Harper Perennial.§REF§ §REF§Gregg, Pauline (1984), King Charles I, Berkeley: University of California Press§REF§ §REF§\"Second and third English Civil Wars\", Encyclop√¶dia Britannica§REF§ §REF§Sharp, David. 2000. England in Crisis 1640-60.§REF§ §REF§Coward, Barry. 2003. The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, Harlow: Pearson Education.§REF§ §REF§Seel, Graham E. (1999), The English Wars and Republic, 1637-1660. London: Routledge§REF§" }, { "id": 27, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": 1644, "year_to": 1683, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_ming_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Ming Dynasty", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27th May 1644 was the decisive battle that led to the eventual fall of the Ming Dyansty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty rule in China. The conquest of the entire of China by the Qing took several decades until the supression of the Three Feudatories rebellion in 1683 when the south was finally captured. Epidemic plague ravaged the country in the 1640s which was closely followed by a severe famine. These disasters led to a massive population decline, with some cities such as Hangzhou suffering up to a 50% loss of its people. Peasant rebellions became rife in the 1640s and in 1644 rebels breached the walls of Bejing, leading the emperor to commit suicide. The Little Ice Age is likely to have contributed to the Ming fall as it caused droughts and famine across China in what was the coldest and driest period of 1660-1680. Revolution: unsuccessful revolution involving non-soldiers, supressed by Manchu who then took over§REF§Xiao, Lingbo, Xiuqi Fang, Jingyun Zheng, and Wanyi Zhao. Famine, Migration and War: Comparison of Climate Change Impacts and Social Responses in North China between the Late Ming and Late Qing Dynasties.‚Äù Holocene 25, no. 6 (June 2015)§REF§ §REF§Smith, Richard J. (2015). The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture. Rowman & Littlefield.§REF§ §REF§Brook, Timothy (1999). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 28, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": 1351, "year_to": 1368, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_yuan_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Yuan Dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "From the 1340s the countryside of the Yuan dynasty suffered many natural disasters such as floods, droughts and the famines which followed. The lack of support from the government, and their ongoing ineptitude of administration, led to further discontent among the population. In the 1330s a Buddhist sect of the Song loyalists (who had been deposed by Kublai Khan and the new Yuan dynasty) formed the religious rebel group, the Red Turbans, which was \"particularly compelling to large numbers of impoverished people.\" (Lorge 2005: 99) Between 1350-1355 there were several Red Turban Rebellions during Toghon Temür sent a force to quash the rebels and afterwards lost any interest in politics, leaving issues to be dealt with by local warlords. The Ming dynasty forces, led by the former commander of the Red Turban Rebellion, Zhu Yuanzhang, began approaching Yuan territory in 1368 and Temür fled north, leaving Yuanzhang to assume power as Emperor. Fighting between the Yuan against the Red Turbans and the to-be Ming dynasty continued until the Ming was officially established in 1368. (Lorge 2005: 100)§REF§Saunders, John Joseph (2001) [1971]. The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press.§REF§ §REF§Peter Lorge. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China 900-1795. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 29, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": -509, "year_to": -509, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "it_roman_k@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Foundation of the Roman Republic", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Modest population decline shown in Toynbee (1965: 438-9, data reproduced in Peter's Rome SEC spreadsheet). Elite downward mobility but not extermination: kings expelled, but patrician class survived (Drummond 1989). Civil war: overthrow of the monarchy likely involved \"bloody\" civil conflict (Beard 2015: 132). \"Most of the fifth century and the early part of the fourth century were dominated by the Conflict of the Orders, a struggle between the elites and commoners as well as between different factions of elites\" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 176).§REF§Beard, Mary. 2015. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books.§REF§ §REF§Drummond 1989: Drummond, A. 1989. Rome in the Fifth Century I: The Social and Economic Framework.‚Äù In The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. VII, Part 2: The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C., edited by F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie, and A. Drummond, 2nd ed, 113-71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Toynbee 1965: Toynbee, A. J. 1965. Hannibal‚Äôs Legacy: The Hannibalic War‚Äôs Effects on Roman Life. London: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Turchin and Nefedov 2009: Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 30, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": 1870, "year_to": 1871, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "fr_france_napoleonic@19th_c_revs", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Franco-Prussian War, collapse of Second French Empire, foundation of Third Republic", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Second French Empire, the 18 year imperial regime under Napoleon III, came to an end on 4th September 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war when Napoleon was captured by the Prussian army and dethroned by French republicans. The war continued on despite the Prussian victory being assured and on 28th January 1871 after besieging Paris for four months, the capital fell, and ended the war. This brought an end to imperial rule in France and the Third French Republic government was established. The Treaty of Frankfurt granted the French territory of Alsace-Lorraine to the now-united German Empire. The soldiers of the National Guard, who had defended Paris during the seige, and the working-class, had developed radical revolutionary ideals and established the Paris Commune, seizing control of the capital for two months between 18 March to 28 May 1871. The Commune was supressed by the French Army and thousands of rebels were killed in the conflict, executed, deported or fled into exile.§REF§Edwards, Stewart (1971). The Paris Commune 1871. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.§REF§ §REF§Gluckstein, Donny (2006). The Paris Commune: A Revolution in Democracy. London: Bookmarks.§REF§ §REF§Cobban, Alfred (1961). A History of Modern France: From the First Empire to the Fourth Republic 1799-1945. Pelican Book. II. London: Penguin.§REF§ §REF§Howard, Michael (2001). The Franco Prussian War. New York: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Grenville, John. 1976. Europe reshaped 1848-1868. p339-353.§REF§" }, { "id": 31, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": 1789, "year_to": 1799, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "fr_bourbon_k_2@french_rev", "is_first_100": true, "name": "French Revolution", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "P", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The causes of the French Revolution are agreed to have been social, political and economic issues which the Ancien Regime were unable to rectify and manage. It began in 1789 with the Estates General, an assembly representing the estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate), which had been called to discuss the financial crisis but fell into debate about it's own structure of governance. The Third Estate formed the independant National Assembly to protest the voting by power rather than by head (as they had double the representation but was not counted as such) against the wishes of King Louis XVI, which signalled the beginning of the French Revolution. Members of the First and Second Estates later joined them and it was converted to the National Constituents Assembly on 9th July 1789 though Louis XVI attempted to shut down the assembly. This was followed by the Storming of the Bastille on 14th July 1789 , the armoury, fortress and political prison which represented royal authority and to the rebels, the abuse of the monarchy's power. After this French nobles and royalty began to leave France as émigrés. Revolts and panic known as the Great Fear spread across the country while 'popular sovereignty' became widespread and parallel structures of civic goverment and militias began to be established. At the same time, Paris and the north of France suffered an outbreakof influenza. The National Constituents Assembly passed the August Decrees between 4–11 August 1789, several radical reforms with strong support from the public which included the right to vote for tax-paying men over the age of 25 years, the abolition of feudalism, and the end of the exemption of taxes of nobles, essentially abolishing the Ancien Régime. In November 1790 the church was brought under state control. By 1790 the Bastille had been demolished. During this period France also suffered the breakout of the French Revolutionary Wars which pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and were divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). The First French Republic was formed on 21st September 1792 and officially abolished the monarchy in France. Louis XVI was put on trial for crimes of high treason, convicted on 16th January 1793 and executed on the 21st January, shortly followed by the execution of his wife, Marie Antoinette. In the same year the Reign of Terror began amid anticlerical sentiments, rebellions against conscription, and ongoing food riots and mass hunger. to eradicate counter-revolutionaires. By the time the Terror ended in July 1794, around 17,000 peoplehad been executed and an estimated 10,000 more died in prison. Royalist and Jacobin revolts ensued in the following years. The Revolution ended with the formation of the French Consulate, the new government of France, in November 1799.§REF§Richard Cobb and Colin James. The French Revolution. Voices From a Momentous Epoch 1789-1795.§REF§ §REF§M. J. Sydenham. 1965. The French Revolution. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd.§REF§ §REF§Simon Schama. 1989. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution.§REF§ §REF§Livesey, James (2001). Making Democracy in the French Revolution. Harvard University Press.§REF§ §REF§Doyle, William. 1990. The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2002 ed.). Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 32, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1848, "year_to": 1867, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "au_habsburg_3@1848_revs", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Habsburg Empire Revolution", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "P", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "1848 saw revolutions across Europe in response to conservative rule, social problems caused by the industrial revolution, and harvest failures. Uprisings in Habsburg Austria broke out shortly after the French revolts over recession and food shortages began. In response to the demand of the resignation of the conservative Prince Metternich (State Chancellor and Foreign Minister) he fled to London and a new liberal government under Ferdinand I was established but changed five times under five different Ministers President in 1848. Ministers were unable to establish central authority over the whole of the Austrian Empire. Tax boycotts and the murders of tax collectors, and assaults against soldiers in Vienna and Milan by the lower classes were common. The army under the Habsburgs fought back against the insurgents, a number of the rebellion leaders were executed, and the revolution plans were largely supressed. However, reforms were made following the revolutions including the abolition of serfdom, the banning of censorship, and a reversal of plans for an empire-wide constitution. §REF§Sperber, Jonathan (2005). The European Revolutions, 1848-1851. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Bidelux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. London: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016)§REF§" }, { "id": 33, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1419, "year_to": 1434, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cz_bohemian_k@hussite_wars", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Hussite Wars", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Fought between the Hussite's (Czech proto-Protestants) and a Catholic coalition of the Holy Roman Emperor, the Papacy, and European Catholic monarchs. In 1419 after the death of the Catholic King Wenceslaus IV, who had attempted to supress the Hussite religion, Catholic Germans began to be forced out of Prague and parts of Bohemia. The new king, Sigismund, launched a crusade against the Hussites in 1420 but any land that was taken was recaptured by the Hussites. Attempting to capitalise on internal strife among the Hussites, Germany undertook another crusade in 1421, followed by a crusade led by the papacy in 1423, though they were both unsucessful and the Germans were forced to seek peace in 1424. In 1426 and 1427 the Hussites were attacked again by a Roman Catholic crusader force but defeated both attempts at invasion. Peace talks were attempted but the Roman Cathlic Church launched a final crusade in an attempt to subjugate the Hussites in 1431, though the Hussites were again victorious. Lengthy negotiations led to further infighting of the Hussites culminating in 1434 with the victory of the moderate Utrquist faction against the radical Taborite faction. It was agreed that the Hussites would accept the authority of the king of Bohemia and the Catholic Church and in return were allowed to practice their own form of christianity. The Religious Peace of Kutná Hora declared that Utraquist and Catholic faiths were equal in law. Bohemian lands and population had been ravaged by the wars and the effects were felt for many years after, with some estimates showing that the population fell from around 2.80–3.37 million in 1400 to 1.50–1.85 million by 1526.§REF§Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1975), A History of the Crusades: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Univ of Wisconsin Press, p. 604.§REF§ §REF§Verney, Victor. 2009. Warrior of God: Jan Zizka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 34, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": 1866, "year_to": 1868, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Meiji Restoration", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Imperial rule was restored to Japan in 1868. There had been emperors before the Meiji Restoration but this restored practical rule and brought the political system under the Emperor of Japan as stipulated in the Charter Oath. The revolution began in order to strengthen Japanese rule which was percieved to be under threat from colonisation. In 1866 the elite (daimyōs) leaders of the reform began to challenge the Tokugawa shogunate, and pushed forward when Emperor Kōmei died and his son Emperor Meiji ascended to the throne on 3rd February 1867. In the January 1868 Boshin War, the daimyōs forces defeated the shogunate and put their lands under imperial control. The daimyōs also returned their domain to the Emperor to create a centralised rule in 1869. Shogunate forces tried to escape and set up the Republic of Ezo but the emperors forces defeated them at the Battle of Hakodate, ending the Tokugawa shogunate and restoring the Emperor's power. By 1872 all 280 domains were returned to imperial rule which were then turned in to 72 prefectures, control by state governors. The Asiatic Cholera pandemic and other infectious diseases were also present throughout the nineteenth century, which devestated the population.§REF§William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Henshall, Kenneth (2012) A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.§REF§ §REF§\"Meiji Restoration | Definition, History, & Facts\". Encyclopedia Britannica.§REF§ §REF§https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-30/johnston§REF§" }, { "id": 35, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": 1910, "year_to": 1920, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_mexico_1@mexican_rev", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Mexican Revolution", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 582, "name": "mx_mexico_2", "long_name": "Late United Mexican States", "start_year": 1921, "end_year": 2020 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Mexican Revolution began abruptly when a power struggle broke out among the elite and middle classes for the 1910 presidential election. President Díaz had been in office for thirty nine years and was increasingly unpopular. Though he claimed he would step aside and not run forhe next election, he later reneged and ran again. Despite Francisco I. Madero challenging Diaz and proving a popular candidate, the election was rigged and Diaz won. Madero led an armed revolt in north Mexico and rebellions began to occur, mainly among agrarian communities. In May 1911 the rebels won a victory at the Battle of Ciudad Juárez, and the army's inability to supress them demonstrated the weakeness of the state against the insurgents. Diaz was forced to resign and in October 1911 Madero won the new election. Though Madero implemented some reforms he did not move on land reform, which prompted opposition from peasentry, agrarian communities, and the previous supporters of the Diaz regime. In 1913 Madero's political opponents and the army, with the help of the US Ambassador staged a coup d'etat, which forced the resignation of Madero and VP Suarez, who were assasinated (known as the Ten Tragic Days). General Victoriano Huerta became president in February 1913, but Governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, immediately assembled the northern Constitutionalist Army, who, with support from the US which granted arms sales to them, fought and won many successful campaigns against the Federal Army. Huerta resigned and went into exile in July 1914 and the Federal Army was dissolved. The revolutionaries met to agree on political power, but divisions between them meant that civil war was reignited - this time with the Constitutional Army fighting each other. General Álvaro Obregón led the urban working class to victory against the Villa and Zapata factions in 1915. The constitutional convention was held in late 1916 after Carranza, who was acting president by this time, held enough support to present a revised constitution, set out the nationalistic, economic and social aims for Mexico, which was really a minor revision of the 1857 constituion and still did not introduce the land reforms that had been fought for. The progressive faction of the Jacobins challenged the lack of land rights while the Zapata and Villa factions continued to be a threat to the government. The constituion was ratified and in February 1917 the Mexican Constitution was presented and Carranza was elected president. However, while in charge Carranza ignored the more radical reforms of the constituion and did not take any action on the promised land reforms. He faced strikes, lost support of the peasentry and agrarian communities, and ongoing conflict from the Zapata factions, which led Carranza to have Emiliano Zapata assasinated in 1919. Carranza's political power and influence was waning and a final rebellion was raised against him. He fled from Mexico City and was ambushed - dying either by assasination or suicide in May 1920. In October 1920 the revolutionary general Álvaro Obregón was elected president.§REF§Womack, John \"The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920\". Mexico Since Independence, New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, 128.§REF§ §REF§Katz, Friedrich. 1981.The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.§REF§ §REF§Tu√±on Pablos, Esperanza. \"Mexican Revolution: February 1913 - October 1915,\" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2.§REF§ §REF§Tu√±on Pablos, Esperanza. \"Mexican Revolution: February 1913 - October 1915,\" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 2§REF§ §REF§Garner, Paul. 2001. Porfirio D√≠az. New York: Pearson.§REF§ §REF§Cumberland, Charles C. 1952. Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero. Austin: University of Texas Press.§REF§ §REF§Gilly, Adolfo. 2005. The Mexican Revolution. New York: The New Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 36, "polity": { "id": 570, "name": "es_spanish_emp_2", "long_name": "Spanish Empire II", "start_year": 1716, "end_year": 1814 }, "year_from": 1810, "year_to": 1821, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "es_spanish_emp_2@mexican_independence", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Mexican War of Independence", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "comment": null, "description": "Mexico's civil war and independance from Spain was not a single centralised war, but a succession of simultaneous regional and local conflicts. Calls for independance had been simmering for some time, but when Napolean Bonapart invaded Spain, deposed Charles IV, and placed his own brother, Joseph on the Spainish throne. In 1810 this led to a crisis surrounding the legitimacy of crown rule and the instability that occured in Europe and in turn in New Spain triggered the first rebellions by Penninsula- and American-born Spaniards against Spanish rule. The very first uprising, led by the Catholic priest, professor and viceroy Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in September 1810, saw almost 90,000 men join the quickly powerful, albiet disorganised, forces against the government. They captured towns along their marching route to Mexico City, had several successful battles against the royalist forces, and were joined by more people as they went. However they suffered a devestating loss at Guadalajara in January 1811, and in July Hidalgo was arrested, found guilty of treason and executed. Although conflict in the north waned, the rebel forces eventually regrouped under José María Morelos who was organised and created a clear plan and demands for independance. In the meantime the Peninsular War saw Napolean defeated and Ferdinand VII succeeded the Spanish throne, who reneged on his promises to rule constitutionallly and reinstated absolutism. Back in New Spain, after several successful campaigns, Morelos was captured by the royal army in November 1815 and was tried and executed. Guerilla warfare continued throughout the region, particularly in southern Mexico, and Vicente Guerrero emerged as a leader for the insurgency. As conventional warfare has ended, the Spanish government offered a pardon to any insurgent who laid down their arms. Many did, but later returned to the rebel forces, particularly in the countryside which the government did not have under full control. In 1820, the failed royalist expedition of Oaxaca coincided with the overthrow of Ferdinand VII by Spanish liberals in a military coup in 1820. In New Spain conservatives and rebels saw an opportunity to cement their independance and allied under the Plan of Iguala, creating their own army, the Army of the Three Guarantees. Many royalists and soldiers, seeing that the Spanish cause was lost, defected to the Army of Three Guarantees. In August 1821 the Treaty of Córdoba was signed by Spanish representatives On 27th September 1821 the Army of the Three Guarantees marched into Mexico and the following day the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was proclaimed. Mainland New Spain was reorganised as the Mexican Empire, however it lasted only two years, the Catholic monarchy was overthrown and it was declared a federal republic in 1823.§REF§Noll, Arthur Howard; McMahon, Amos Philip (1910). The life and times of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Chicago, IL: A.C. McClurg & Co.§REF§ §REF§Van Young, Eric (2001). Other Rebellion: Popular Violence and Ideology in Mexico, 1810-1821. Palo Alto, California, U.S.: Stanford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Archer, Christon I. \"Insurrection-Reaction-Revolution-Fragmentation: Restructuring the Choreography of Meltdowwn in New Spain during the Independence Era.\" Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 10, no 1. Winter 1994:63-98.§REF§ §REF§Anna, Timonty E. \"The Army of New Spain and the Wars of Independence, 1790-1821\". Hispanic American Historical Review 61:4 (Nov. 1981).§REF§ §REF§Timothy J. Henderson (2009). The Mexican Wars for Independence. Macmillan.§REF§" }, { "id": 37, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": 1905, "year_to": 1911, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_qajar_dyn@20th_c_rev", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Persian Constitutional Revolution", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Constitutional Revolution resulted in wide-reaching changes to the social and political order which saw the beginning of a modern era for Iran. In 1906 following protests and strikes by merchants and the violent supression of those involved, 12,000 men sought sanctuary at the British Embassy in Tehran and demanded a parliament. King Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, recognising that the old order was no longer possible, signed the constitution which established a parliament and elections, personal and property rights, citizenship rights, freedom of movement, freedom of expression and censorship, as well as making the power of the Shah contingent to the will of the people, among other reforms. However, his son and successor, Mohammad Ali Shah, abolished it and with the support of the British and Russians, supressed the parliament in 1908. In 1909 another pro-constitutional movement was raised which marched to Tehran and forced the abdication of Mohammad Ali Shah. His son, Ahmad Shah Qajar was made Shah and re-established the constitution.§REF§Massie, Eric; Afary, Janet (2019). \"Iran's 1907 constitution and its sources: a critical comparison\". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (3): 464-480§REF§ §REF§Ahmad Kasravi, History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Tarikh-e Mashrute-ye Iran, Volume I, translated into English by Evan Siegel, 347§REF§ §REF§Amanat, Abbas (1992). \"Constitutional Revolution i. Intellectual background\". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, Fasc. 2. pp. 163-176§REF§ §REF§Mackey, Sandra. 1995. The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation, New York : Dutton. p.150-55§REF§" }, { "id": 38, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": 1917, "year_to": 1923, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "ru_romanov_dyn_2@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Russian Revolution and Civil War", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "long_name": "Soviet Union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Russian Revolution began during World War I in the former Russian Empire. It consisted of two revolutions, the first with the overthrow of imperial governement and the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917 and secondly in 1923 when the Soviet Union was established by the Bolsheviks. The Russian Army had mutinied after major losses during the war, and parliament established the Russian Provisional Government which had the interests of the elite classes in mind, while grassroots socialist movements led the lower classes and increasingly leftist urban middle classes, resulting in a dual power in the country. The period was rife with mutinies, protests and strikes. Unable to supress the revolution, Tsar Nicholas II, abdicated on behalf of himself and his son and heir. Nicolas and his family were imprisoned and sent into exile in Siberia by the Provisional Governement. In 1917 the October Revolution saw armed citizens and soldiers overthrow the Provisional Government and Soviets took power. the capital was relocated to Moscow. Nicolas and his family were all executed on 17th July 1918 while being held under house arrest in Yekaterinburg. A federal government was established, which reorganised Russia into a socialist state, practicing soviet democracy. They fulfilled their promise to end participation in the war with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The Cheka, a secret police force, was formed to find and punish those who opposed the new government. Religion was banned and members of the Russian Orthodox Church were persecuted. The Russian Civil War broke out between the Bolsheviks (The Reds) and counter-revolutionaries (The Whites) and rival socialist parties on 7th November 1917 and lasted until the overall Bolshevik victory in 1923 when they reconstituted themselves as the Communist Party. There was an estimated 7-12 million casulites during the war.§REF§King, Charles (2008). The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. New York City: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§King, Charles (2008). The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. New York City: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Wallace, Donald Mackenzie . 1910. \"Alexander II (1818-1881)\". The Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1: pp159-61§REF§ §REF§David Moon, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762-1907 (2001) pp 70-83.§REF§ §REF§Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982).§REF§ §REF§Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982).§REF§ §REF§Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds. The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge UP, 1982).§REF§ §REF§Saunders, Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform 1801-1881 (1992) pp 250-52, 257-58§REF§ §REF§Saunders, Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform 1801-1881 (1992) pp 250-52, 257-58§REF§ §REF§Seton-Watson, Hugh. The Russian Empire 1801-1917 (Oxford UP, 1967) pp 332-429.§REF§" }, { "id": 39, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": 1823, "year_to": 1895, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gh_ashanti_emp@anglo_ashanti_wars", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Series of Wars against the British (Anglo-Ashanti Wars)", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Ghanian coast was exploited by Europeans for its gold and by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European force in the region. Throughout the 19th century the British fought several wars against the Asante people (in 1823-1831, 1863-1864 and 1873-1874). At the end of the first war in 1831, a peace treaty was signed that allowed trade in all ports. By 1844 the British had gained control of all criminal matters in and around their trade forts. By 1872 the British had taken full control of the region. When they refused to recognise Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked, but the British were victorious. There was an uprising in 1883 and a civil war in 1884-1888. Following a final defeat against the British in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exilled. In 1905 the entire region was declared a British territory.§REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000§REF§" }, { "id": 40, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": 1850, "year_to": 1864, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_qing_dyn_2@taiping_reb", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Taiping Rebellion", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Taiping Rebellion in 1850-1864 was a rebellion and civil war between the in-power Qing dynasty and the Hakkan Han-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion is considered the worst civil war in history which left an estimated 20-30 million people dead. The Taiping, led by Hong Xiuquan, established the Heavenly Kingdom as an oppositional state, who wished to overthrow the Qing dynasty and convert people to the Taiping version of Christianity (Xiuquan claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ). In the first few years of the war, the Taipings invaded and captured lands in Guangxi, Yuezhou, Wuchang and lands along the Yangtze River, including the city of Nanjing in 1853 which was declared the Taiping capital, and later the wealthy regions of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. Both sides carried out massacres: The Taiping against the Manchu people, and the Wing government against the civilians of Nanjing. The Qing dynasty were ultimately victorious although they were severely weakened and collapsed just 50 years later.§REF§Reilly, Thomas H. (2011). The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire. Seattle: University of Washington Press.§REF§ §REF§Michael, Franz H. (1966), The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents, Seattle: University of Washington Press§REF§" }, { "id": 41, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": 744, "year_to": 750, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "sy_umayyad_cal@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Third Fitna and fall of Umayyad Caliphate", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Third Fitna (Arabic term for extensive trials or distress) began with the overthrown of Caliph al-Walid II in 744. Al-Walid II was originally a popular choice in 742 but this quickly changed when it became apparent that he was more interested in earthly pleasures than religion, designated his two underage sons as his heirs, and granted the governship of Iraq to the man who had tortured his predecessor to death. Yazid III (son of a previous Caliph al-Walid I) raised a rebellion, killed a-Walid II and took control. Though he was a strong leader he died after only six months, and his brother Ibrahim was made successor. Immediately the successful revolt of Marwan II was launched to restore the throne to al-Walid's two imprisoned sons. During the ensuing battles and negotiations one of his opponents, Sulayman, had the two sons killed. After fleeing to Palmyra, Ibrahim and Sulayman eventually submitted to Marwan II. Marwan's power appeared to be stabalising, however after moving the caliphate from Damascus to Harran, the Syrians revolted against this apparent show of abandonment, and Marwan had to supress the revolts one by one. He also had to regain control of Iraq using the combined forces of two armies, and later quash another rebellion in Syria led by Sulayman. Despite desertion and switching loyalites by his own men, Marwan was sucessful in 746 and later had the walls of important Syrian towns including Hims, Damascus and Jeruselam, torn down to dissuade further resistance. While Marwan attempted to consolidate his power in the last four years of his reign the Abbasid Revolution begun and the ensuing civil war resulted in the capture and execution of Marwan in 750, which ended the Umayyad Caliphate. Revolution: successful mobilization to change rights of non-Arab residents§REF§Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p93-102§REF§" }, { "id": 42, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": 1809, "year_to": 1831, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ec_shuar_1@rebellion", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Uprising and Rebellion against the Spaniards", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1809 the first Ecuadorian patriot uprising against Spanish rule took place in the capital, Quito. In 1822 the armies of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre invaded from Colombia to assist the Ecuadorian rebels in their fight. They won the Battle of Pichincha which assured Ecuador's independance. On their independance, the Gran Colombia confederation was formed, consisting of what is now Ecuador, Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. However, in 1830 after many regional rivalries, Ecuador left the confederation to become an independant republic. §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§" }, { "id": 43, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1918, "year_to": 1938, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "au_austro_hungarian_emp@end_ww1_ww2", "is_first_100": false, "name": "World Wars, First Austrian Republic", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "P", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Population decline: from 6.61 million in 1910 to 6.46 million in 1920, based on modern country boundaries (Clio Infra 2016). Epidemic: many, including typhus, typhoid fever, smallpox, cholera (all peaking in 1915), dysentery (1917) and the Spanish flu of 1918 (Schmied-Kowarzik 2016). Elite downward mobility: \"during the interwar years the Austrian and German gentry were dispossessed, and a modern capitalist class and proletariat began to form\" (Eyal et al. 1998: 25). The Habsburgergesetz of 1919 abolished the system of noble titles and privileges in Austria, but the nobles were not exterminated. Revolution and reorganization: foundation of the Republic in 1918, though historians disagree about how transformative it was (Stangl n.d.). Civil war between right- and left-wingers in 1934 (City of Vienna n.d.). Fragmentation: breakup of Austro-Hungarian Empire, various regions declared independence but control of some territory passed to existing external powers, e.g. Kingdom of Romania (Schmied-Kowarzik 2016; Mutschlechner n.d.). Dated to 1934 and fall of First Austrian Republic§REF§Eyal et al. 1998: Eyal, Gil, Ivan Szelenyi, and Eleanor R. Townsley. 1998. Making Capitalism Without Capitalists: Class Formation and Elite Struggles in Post-Communist Central Europe. London: Verso.§REF§ §REF§Clio Infra 2016: https://clio-infra.eu/Indicators/TotalPopulation.html§REF§" }, { "id": 44, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": 184, "year_to": 220, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "cn_eastern_han_dyn@yellow_turban_reb", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Yellow Turban and Five Pecks of Rice rebellions", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "P", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "IA", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Yellow Turban Rebellion was an uprising by peasants against the Eastern Han dynasty due to flooding on the Yellow River and an agrarian crisis in north China which led to famine and the corruption of the royal court. Peasants were forced to move south where they were exploited by large landowners and highly taxed. Armed groups began to be formed from 170 CE and the first uprising broke out in 184 CE comprising of ten of thousands of peasants, small landowners, unemployed veterans, and even some allies at court. High governement offices were looted and destroyed, officials were killed, and districts were cut off from the central government. It was supressed the following year, however local resistance and smaller rebellions continued for 21 years until it was fully quashed in 205 CE. Military leaders and local governors had gained more power and on the death of Emperor Ling in 189 CE a power struggle led to the assasination of general He Jin by the eunachs. In response his support Yuan Shao killed all of the palace eunachs and set the palace on fire. Over this time the population was devestated, with hundreds of thousands of rebel deaths, non-combantants were left homelessness and destitue, and the economy and resources suffered greatly. Meanwhile, the Celestial Masters, led by Zhang Lu (grandson of the founder), who controlled a Taoist theocratic state in Hanzhing valley, rebelled against the Han dynasty in 184 CE in a movement known as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. There is little evidence available for this event.§REF§Rafe De Crespigny trans. 2003. Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling, Zhongping1: 184 AD Y from Zizhi tongjian by Sima Guang.§REF§ §REF§Smitha, Frank E. \"DYNASTIC RULE and the CHINESE (9 of 13)\". Macrohistory and World Timeline.§REF§ §REF§Ropp, Paul S. 2010. China in World History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 45, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": 755, "year_to": 763, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_tang_dyn_1@an_lushan_reb", "is_first_100": true, "name": "An Lushan Rebellion", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "comment": null, "description": "During the 750s there was a period of instability and a decline in imperial authority which culminated in the An Lu-shan rebellion of 755-763 against the Tang dynasty in an attempt to supplant them with the Yan dynasty. During the rebellion there was a significant population loss from the warfare, famine and displacement. Rebels initially had several sucessful campaigns during 755-757 and in 756 they captured both the eastern Tang capital of Luoyang and the western Tang capital, Chang'an. However from 757-759 government forces regained territory, including Chang'an, and begin to successfully supress the revolt. The fighting continued but at a 'stalemate' for several years until the government offensive finally gained the upper hand in 762-763 and quashed the rebellion. (Peterson 1979: 474). Revolution: uprising, but was mostly elite conflict§REF§Peterson, C. A. Court and province in mid- and late T'ang. in Twitchett, D C ed. 1979. The Cambridge History of China Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ §REF§Cotterell, Yong Yap and Arthur Cotterell (1975). The Early Civilization of China. New York: G.P.Putnam's Sons§REF§ §REF§E. G. Pulleyblank, \"The An Lu-Shan Rebellion and the Origins of Chronic Militarism in Late T'ang China\", in Perry & Smith, Essays on T'ang Society, Leiden: E. J. Brill (1976).§REF§" }, { "id": 46, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": 1638, "year_to": 1684, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_haudenosaunee_1@beaver_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Beaver Wars", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Beaver Wars took place 1638-1684 between the Iroquois (allied with the Dutch) and Huron people (allied with France). The European demand for beaver pelts almost drove the beaver population in Iroquois and Huron territories to extinction, but the Iroquois (consisting of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes) looking to expand their territory and monopolise fur trade with European markets, went to war against the Huron tribes (Mahicans, Huron (Wyandot), Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock (Conestoga), and northern Algonquins). At the same time the European traders were selling firearms to the indigenous tribes, further fuelling their wars against each other. In 1648 the Dutch sold guns directly to the Iroquois, who then launched an attack on Huron territory, destroying many villages, killing warriors and taking thousands as captives. Diseases brought over from Europe was also taking a toll on all indigenous people and their population numbers decreased dramatically. Over the next few decades, French expansion into the indigenous territories resulted in ongoing wars between indigenous tribes, colonists and imperial forces.§REF§Wallace, Paul A. W. 2007 [1961]. Indians in Pennsylvania (2nd ed.). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.§REF§ §REF§Morgan, Lewis H. 1922. League of the Iroquois. Classic Textbooks.§REF§ §REF§Johansen, Bruce E. 2006. The Native Peoples of North America. Rutgers University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 47, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -1180, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_hatti_new_k@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Bronze Age Collapse, Hatti", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IP", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "IA", "labor": "IA", "unfree_labor": "IA", "suffrage": "IA", "public_goods": "IA", "religion": "IA", "other_polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "comment": null, "description": "Towards the end of Hatti New Kingdom, the polity experienced both prosperity and territorial expansion as well as the irreversible decline of its military and political power which ultimately led to its collapse. By approx 1200 BCE the state was under continuous attack and invasions by the Sea Peoples, the Kaskians and, in particular, the Assyrians. The Assyrians conquered much of Hittite territory and posed a great threat to their trade routes. When the capital of Hattusa, where all power was centralised, was captured and destroyed by the Assyrians around 1180 BCE, the New Kingdom of Hatti collapsed entirely. The last king, Šuppiluliuma II, seemed to have disappeared from the record by 1178 BCE though he may have died in the sack of Hattusa. The end of the Hittite kingdom was part of the Bronze Age Collapse.§REF§Bryce, T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§ §REF§Robert Drews. 1994. The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East Princeton University Press.§REF§ §REF§Gurney, O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§" }, { "id": 48, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": 840, "year_to": 843, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "fr_carolingian_emp_2@9th_c_cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Carolingian Civil War", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During Emperor Louis the Pious' reign he had divided the empire into three kingdoms so that all three of his sons could have some rule (but remain under Louis' empire). When Louis died in 840, the empire was plunged into civil war when his eldest son, Lothair, claimed overall rule of the empire. Louis' other sons, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, refused to be under Lothair's rule and declared civil war. At the end of the war the Treaty of Verdun was created which divided the Caroligian Empire into three autunomous kingdoms for each of Louis' sons: Lothair I received Middle Francia, Louis the German received East Francia, and Charles the Bald received West Francia (which later became the Kingdom of France).§REF§MacLean, Simon (2003). Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire.§REF§ §REF§Goldberg, Eric Joseph (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817-876.§REF§" }, { "id": 49, "polity": { "id": 599, "name": "ru_moskva_mongolian_period", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Mongolian period", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1479 }, "year_from": 1425, "year_to": 1450, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "ru_moskva_mongolian_period@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil war", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After Vasily II became ruler in 1425 his uncle, Yuri of Zvenigorod, made his own claims to the throne and a long family feud ensued, which was later taken up by Yuri's sons ( Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka) upon his death in 1432. These sons led the Muscovite Civil War (or Great Feudal War) which lasted until 1453. In 1446 Vasily was captured and blinded by Dmitry Shemyaka, who captured Moscow and took up rule as Prince of Moscow, until Vasily fought back and recaptured his throne and capital in 1447. Vasily was ultimately victorious in the war and the throne later passed to his son.§REF§Ostrowski, Donald. Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Turchin, Peter. War and Peace and War: The Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. New York: Pi Press, 2005§REF§ §REF§Langer, Lawrence N. 2016. \"Russia: 2. Moscow, Grand Duchy of (13th century to 1547).\" The Encyclopedia of Empire: 1-11§REF§" }, { "id": 50, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": 1782, "year_to": 1791, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_hawaii_kamehameha_k@18th_c_cw", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Civil War", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1782 Kamehameha was victorious against his cousin, Kīwalaʻō, at the Battle of Mokuʻōhai. Hawaiʻi island was split into three domains, with Kamehameha taking control over the districts of Kohala, Kona, and Hāmākua. Kamehameha and his supporters planned to unifiy all of the Hawaiin Islands, leading to battles with the other domain rulers, Keoua and Keawemauhili in 1785, though Kamehameha eventually withdraws. In the 1790 Battle of Kepaniwai Kamehameha’s army defeated and killed the Maui chief, Kalanikūpule’s army and Kamehameha ravages Maui and Lanai. In the following months a series of battles between Keoua (later joined by Kahekili) and Kamehameha sees much of Kamehameha's territories invaded and sacked. However in 1791 Kamehameha retaliates against Kahekili and Kaeo and is decisively victorious in the large naval battle called ‘Kepūwaha’ula’ula’ off the coast of Kohala, in which western cannons were used. Following the battle, Keōua was killed and Kamehameha became King of Hawaiʻi island. §REF§Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press§REF§ §REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai‚Äôi. Berkeley: University of California Press§REF§ §REF§Gowen, Herbert Henry (1919). The Napoleon of the Pacific: Kamehameha the Great. Fleming H. Revell Company§REF§ §REF§§REF§" } ] }