Crisis Consequence List
A viewset for viewing and editing Crisis Consequences.
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{ "count": 169, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": -627, "year_to": -608, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire", "decline": "IA", "collapse": "IA", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "There was a \"population explosion\" in the Assyrian heartland in the late eighth and early seventh century BCE, but this was unsustainable, argue Schneider and Adalı (2014), and this contributed to the collapse of the empire. This implies it was followed by a population decline or even collapse, but I haven't found direct evidence for this. No mention of epidemics found in the literature, though presence of famine and drought makes them seem plausible. Multiple civil wars, but intermittent over the course of the seventh century, and after 609 BCE the region was under control of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (external conquest) (Schneider and Adalı 2014). Territorial fragmentation preceding final fall of Assyria, e.g. successful rebellion of Babylon (Schneider and Adalı 2014). Extermination of the elite: whole towns abandoned, palaces and temples destroyed, complete collapse of state structure (Sinha et al. 2019). Ruler assassinated: Sennacherib (Cogan 2009).§REF§Cogan 2009: Cogan, Mordechai. 2009. Sennacherib and the Angry Gods of Babylon and Israel.‚Äù Israel Exploration Journal 59 (2): 164-74.§REF§ §REF§Schneider and Adalƒ± 2014: Schneider, Adam W., and Selim F. Adali. 2014. Harvest Was Reaped‚: Demographic and Climatic Factors in the Decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.‚Äù Climatic Change 127 (3): 435-46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1269-y.§REF§ §REF§Sinha et al. 2019: Sinha, Ashish, Gayatri Kathayat, Harvey Weiss, Hanying Li, Hai Cheng, Justin Reuter, Adam W. Schneider, et al. 2019. Role of Climate in the Rise and Fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.‚Äù Science Advances 5 (11): eaax6656. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax6656.§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": 150, "year_to": 224, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "iq_parthian_emp_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Parthian Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "comment": null, "description": "(Interpreting this as the decline of Parthian Empire in second century CE, extending to the eventual fall in 224 CE). No mention of population decline in the sources consulted: probably we don't know. A \"devastating epidemic of smallpox\" contributed to the decline of the Parthian Empire (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Massive elite downward mobility doesn't seem to have occurred: aristocratic families of Parthian origin continued to dominate the army and positions in the government (Farrokh 2005: 3–27). Civil war between Vologases VI and Artabanus IV in the 210s (Livius.org 2020). External conquest: the Parthian Empire fell to the Sasanians in 224 CE, a former subject people who by this time had carved out an independent state (GeaCron 2011). Last Parthian king, Artabanus IV, killed in battle by the forces of the first Sasanian king, Ardashir I (Kia 2016: 226).§REF§Farrokh 2005: Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ §REF§Kia 2006: Kia, Mehrdad. 2016. The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.§REF§ §REF§Shapur Shahbazi 2005: A. Shapur Shahbazi, Sasanian Dynasty,‚Äù Encyclop√¶dia Iranica, online edition, 2005, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty (accessed on 26 January 2021).§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": 225, "year_to": 225, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "in_satavahana_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Satavahana Empire", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Although the Satavahana court was ruled by an emperor, the provinces were governed by feudal lords who were often related by blood to the royal family and had a degree of autonomy in their province. It has been suggested that the empire was too dependant on the competancies of individual rulers and the provincial governors, rather than having a central administrative structure. Therefore, when Pulumavi IV died in 225 CE, the territory quickly split into five smaller, independant kingdoms, only one of which was ruled by a branch of the Satavahana dynasty.§REF§Nath Sen, S. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International.§REF§ §REF§Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 426, "name": "cn_southern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Song", "start_year": 1127, "end_year": 1279 }, "year_from": 1250, "year_to": 1279, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_southern_song_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Song Dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Mongols began their attacks on China in 1211, and by 1250 Kablai Khan had advanced into Song territory. Kublai and his forces worked thier way across the Song states, beseiging major cities and capturing land as they went. In 1271, after several key victories, Kublai declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty. War between the two sides continued on until 1276 when the Northern Song capital of Lin'an was seized by the Mongols and in 1279 the Yuan army defeated the final resistance of Song forces at the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta and the Song dynasty came to an end. Emperor Huaizong of Song committed suicide but the rest of the imperial family were unharmed and many lived in the Yuan dynasty. Despite thousands of lives being lost in the ongoing wars there is no outright evidence of notable overall population decline.§REF§Rossabi, Morris (1988), Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, Berkeley: University of California Press§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": 901, "year_to": 907, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_tang_dyn_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Tang Dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "comment": null, "description": "Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, control over the empire had largely been passed to regional states. In 901 CE members of one of the autonomous states, the Liang family, led by Zhu Wen seized the capital and the royal family members. He assasinated Emperor Zhaozong and put his young son, Ai on the throne, keeping control for himself. In the years that followed he killed Ai's brothers and mother along with many officials. In 907 Zhu deposed the Emperor Ai (who he had poisoned a year later) and made himself Emperor, establishing the Later Liang dynasty. §REF§Mote, Frederick W. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800, UK: Harvard University Press§REF§ §REF§Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. 2006. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin§REF§ §REF§Roberts, J. A. G. 1996. A History of China. Volume I. Prehistory to c1800. Alan Sutton Publishing Limited. Phoenix Mill.§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": -570, "year_to": -525, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_saite@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fall of Twenty-sixth Dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Amais II was originally an officer in the Egyptian army when a revolt against Pharoah Apries broke out. Amais was sent to meet the rebels and quell the revolts but was instead proclaimed king by the rebels in 570 BCE. Apries fled to Babylon, but was later captured and killed when he attempted to invade Egypt in 567 BCE. When Cambyses II of Persia requested to marry one of Amais' daughter, Amais instead sent a daughter of the previous pharoah, Apries under the guide of being his own. When Cambyses II discovered the deciet he began a campaign to invade Egypt in revenge. Though Amais died before Cambyses reached him, Amais' son, Psamtik III was defeated by the Persians and Egypt was lost to them in 525 BCE.§REF§Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill.§REF§ §REF§Herodotus (Trans.) Robin Waterfield, Carolyn Dewald (1998). The Histories. Oxford University Press, US. p. 170, 246-50,§REF§ §REF§Herodotus (Trans.) Robin Waterfield, Carolyn Dewald (1998). The Histories. Oxford University Press, US. p. 170.§REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": 1060, "year_to": 1072, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "tn_fatimid_cal@10th_c_cw", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fatimid Civil War", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In the 1060s Egypt suffered an extended period of drought and famine. During the reign of al-Mustanṣir (r. 1036-1094) existing tensions between the different ethinic groups living in the region accelerated due to these natural disasters and declining resources and civil war broke out between the factions. Provinces in the east and west were lost to invaders. In 1071-2 the Turkish forces under Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan siezed Cairo and held the Caliph and the city at ransom while also executing generals and officials. General Badr al-Jamālī (governer of Acre) returned to Cairo at the request of the Fatimid Caliph Abū Tamīm Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah. Badr al-Jamali and his troops fought back the rebel armies and secured the Caliph and Cairo for the Fatimids. Badr al-Jamali was later made commander of the armies, director of the missionaries, and vizier, taking control of military, religious and political offices. Egypt came to be ruled as a military regime and though the Caliph was still present as a figurehead, the military viziers became head of state.§REF§Cambridge history of Egypt vol 1 p155§REF§ §REF§pers. comm. Johannes Preisser-Kapeller (to Jenny Reddish), 28 September 2021§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": 1598, "year_to": 1603, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_azuchi_momoyama@sengoku_end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Foundation of Tokugawa Shogunate", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Hideyoshi's death in 1598, leaving a council of lords in charge until his young son came of age, sparked off a succession struggle. The general Tokugawa Ieyasu, a former ally of Oda Nobunaga, emerged victorious from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, cementing his power. After his victory, he was appointed shogun in 1603, founding the Tokugawa Shogunate which would dominate Japan for the next 200 years. Any daimyos (wealthy feaudal lords) who had fought against Tokugawa were executed or had all of their lands confiscated. This crisis period represents the final stage of the civil wars of unification that took place at the end of the Sengoku period.§REF§William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Hall (Editor), John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan. James L. McClain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press§REF§ §REF§Hall (Editor), John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan. James L. McClain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": 877, "year_to": 888, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "fr_carolingian_emp@frag", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fragmentation of Carolingian Rule", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "By the time of Charles the Bald's death in 877 the entire Carolingian empire was facing attacks from the Vikings in the north and west and internal struggles across the entire realm. His son died only two years after suceeding to the throne, and his kingdom was divided yet again between his two sons; Louis III, taking Neustria and Francia, and Carloman gaining Aquitaine and Burgundy. Soon after, Charles the Fat inherited the Kingdom of Italy, and in 881 he became emperor, reuniting some of the territories. Charles was unable to protect the kingdom against the Viking raiders and in 887 his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia, raised a rebellion against his rule. Charles fled to Neidingen and died in 888 leaving the empire fragmented and with a succession crisis. The Carolingian Empire was divided yet again into seven seperate realms and would never be reunited under one ruler again. §REF§Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing§REF§ §REF§Chazelle, Celia. 1995. Aix-La-Chapelle.‚Äù In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": 1325, "year_to": 1361, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "uz_chagatai_dyn@14th_c_conflict", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fragmentation of Chagatai Khanate", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Between 1325-1338 there was religious conflict between the Muslim and Christian population. Tarmashirin Khan (r. 1326-1334) converted to Islam during his reign. He was deposed when an anti-Muslim rebellion was raised against his policy of assimilation between the nomadic and settled population. Tarmashirin's nephew and succesor, Changshi, enthroned in 1335, was anti-Muslim and had one of his sons baptised. However he was murdered by his family in 1338 and his younger brother, Yesun Temur, who followed the Turko-Mongolic Tengric religion. In the 1340s power struggles among the elite in the west led to a series of emphemeral rulers who were plagued by assainations, plots, and in-fighting. In the meantime the eastern tribes were virtually independant, and they eventually appointed their own khan, Tughlugh Timur. The kingdom was thereby divided into two parts: the western section, Transoxiana, became known as the Ulus Chaghatay, and the eastern, Moghulistan. Tughlugh Timur was a strong leader who reigned until his death in 1363, and temporarily ruled both khanates when he successfully invaded Transoxiana in 1360.§REF§Forbes Manz, B. 1983. THE ULUS CHAGHATAY BEFORE AND AFTER TEM√úR'S RISE TO POWER: THE TRANSFORMATION FROM TRIBAL CONFEDERATION TO ARMY OF CONQUEST. Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1/2 (1983), pp. 79-100§REF§ §REF§Grousset, Ren√© (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.§REF§ §REF§Kim, Hodong (2000). \"The Early History of the Moghul Nomads: The Legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate\". In Amatai-Preiss, Reuven; Morgan, David (eds.). The Mongol Empire & Its Legacy. Brill. pp290-316.§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1523, "year_to": 1523, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "in_delhi_sultanate@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fragmentation of Delhi Sultanate in fifteenth century, conquest by Mughal emperors in 1522. ", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Fragmentation: \"During the 15th and early 16th centuries, no paramount power enjoyed effective control over most of north India and Bengal. Delhi became merely one of the regional principalities of north India, competing with the emerging Rajput and Muslim states\" (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021). Massive elite downward mobility seems likely. Conflict occurred but seems to have been mostly between local/regional powers, not intrastate (civil war). No mention of lethal epidemics in this period in the sources consulted. Sings of significant decline in total cultivation / output. §REF§Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press,§REF§ §REF§McLeod, John. The history of India. Vol. 1096. No. 2905. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002§REF§ §REF§Alam, Muzaffar, Allchin, Frank Raymond, Dikshit, K.R., Srivastava, A.L., Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, Champakalakshmi, R., Thapar, Romila, Spear, T.G. Percival, Wolpert, Stanley A., Schwartzberg, Joseph E. and Calkins, Philip B. 2021. \"India\". https://www.britannica.com/place/India. Accessed 29 January 2021.§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": -403, "year_to": -256, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fragmentation of Eastern Zhou (Warring States)", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Parition of Jin in 403-364 BCE resulted in the victory of the Zhou, Wei and Han clans who divided the lands of Jin between themselves and became the major powers in the region. Although they were allied for a short period, Zhou began to move away from the allicance and began attacking smaller states in 383 BCE which caused retalitation from the Wei and Han. Wars between the states were constant, though Zhou expanded its territories during this period. However, In 367 BCE the two sons of Duke Wei of Western Zhou (a duchy that was created in 440 BCE) went into conflict which resulted in the division of the Zhou territories between east and west when Prince Gen won independance for the east from his brother, the new Duke Hui of Western Zhou. Historically, the kings of Zhou had resided Eastern Zhou, however on King Nan's ascension in 314 BCE, the Eastern Zhou refused to pay him tribute and Nan was deported to Western Zhou. Nan was the last king of the Zhou dynasty though by this time the monarchy lacked any personal power or territory. While the Zhou states continued to weaken due to infighting, they were also under threat by the Qin. In 307 BCE Eastern Zhou became a vassal state of the Qin and by 249 BCE it had been fully annexed by the Qin dynasty. The West Zhou capital of Wangcheng was conquered in 256 BCE swiftly followed by the annexation of the entire of Western Zhou. Nan was deposed by the Qin and died shortly after while he was imprisoned.§REF§Tan, Koon San (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Petaling Jaya: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": 1728, "year_to": 1805, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ye_qasimid_dyn@fragmentation", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fragmentation of Qasimid state", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the Qasimid (also called Zaidi) gradually fractured into smaller states due to sucession issues and tribal rebellions. In addition, whereas coffee had been produced solely in Yemen up until this point, the imports that started in Java and the West Indies were detrimental to the Qasimid economy and territories. In 1728 the chief representative of Lahej conquered Aden, broke away from the Qasimid State, and declared himself the Sultan of Lahej, creating an independant rule. Around the same time the ruler, Al-Mansur al-Husayn II, was opposed by his brother, the governor of Ta'izz, who kept all revenue from the region for himself. At Mocha the French East India company besieged the city following the governor's refusal to pay his debt of 82,000 dollars. During Al-Mahdi Abbas' reign (1748-1775) he faced religious opposition to his rule following his imprisonment of a Rabbi (who had served the royal family for twenty eight years) and later demolished twelve synagogues in the city of Sana'a. The independant tribes of Hashid, Bakil and Barat also came into conflict with the state several times during his rule. His sucecssor, Al-Mansur Ali I (r. 1775-1809) also had to deal with rebellions by tribesmen, most notably a Sayyid, Ibn Ishaq, who with the backing of the Arhab tribesmen claimed the imamate from 1781-1785, however this was eventually supressed by Ali. Later in his rule, Ali faced worse territorial losses at the hands of the Wahhabi movement which seized territories along the coast of the Arabian Penninsula from 1803. §REF§Ari Ariel (2013). Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. BRILL. p. 24§REF§ §REF§§REF§ §REF§.L. Playfair, A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen. Bombay 1859, p. 115-116.§REF§ §REF§R. Serjeant & R. Lewcock, San'a'; An Arabian Islamic City. London 1983, p. 84.§REF§ §REF§M. Niebuhr, Travel through Arabia and other Countries in the East (translated by Robert Heron), vol. 1, Edinburgh 1792, p. 408; ibid., vol. 2, Edinburgh 1792, pp. 87-88.§REF§ §REF§Husain ibn Abdullah al-Amri, The Yemen in the 18th and 19th Centuries; A Political and Intellectual History. London 1985, pp. 35-47§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": 1748, "year_to": 1803, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "in_mughal_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fragmentation of the Mughal Empire", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "IP", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Mughal Empire began to break up during the rule of Muhammud Shah (1719–48) due to dynastic warfare and factional rivalries. Upon Muhammud's death, Marathas forces (Hindu warrior dynasty) began to conquer most of northern India, leaving only Delhi under Mughal rule. However, this was also taken under Maratha control in 1785 and then by the British in 1803. India was hit by the Influenza pandemic of 1781-2. Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1740-1763 and the Bengal War between the Mughals and the British East India Company took place between 1756-65.§REF§Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (2nd ed.). Routledge. 41.§REF§ §REF§John F. Richards. 1995. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": 1562, "year_to": 1598, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "fr_valois_k_2@wars_of_religion", "is_first_100": true, "name": "French Wars of Religion", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "comment": null, "description": "The French Wars of Religion took place during the reign of Charles IX (r.1560-1574) and then the regency of his mother Queen Catherine de' Medici, and were a series of conflicts fought between the Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed/Calvinist Protestants). The majority of the conflicts revolved around the succession for the throne of France, which pitted the wealthy and ambitious Catholic ducal House of Guise (supported by Habsburg Spain and the Duchy of Savoy) against the House of Condé, a branch of the House of Bourbon, who were princes of blood but were Calvanist sympathisers and less wealthy (supported by Tudor England). In total there were seven wars and many more targetted massacres during this period. Several peace treaties which punctuated the wars granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to the Huguenots. As the royal capital, Parisian citizens suffered considerably during the wars as the rulers imposed taxes on them to support themselves and their battles, as well as a huge number of troops stationed at the city, which led to famines and later epidemic diseases such as Diptheria in 1576 and Whooping Cough 1579 among other illnesses that affected a highly populated and unsanitary city. During the War of the Three Henrys (1587–1589) King Henry III had Henry of Guise murdered (some believed assasinated as at this point he was a choice for king) and he joined forces with his cousin, the Huguenot, King Henry of Navarre (House of Bourbon). In response the Catholic League incitied violence against the king and in July 1589 Henry III was assasinated by a friar. Henry of Naverre succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, which was followed immideately by a four year civil war against the Catholic League who recognised Henry's cardinal uncle, Charles of Bourbon, as the rightful heir. Henry IV, held the south and west of France, and the Catholic League the north and east, including Paris. However when Charles died in 1590 and Henry converted to Catholicism in 1593, as he recognised that he needed to reunite the kingdom and simply could not as a Protestant, he was recognised across the kingdom as king and conflicts ceased. It is estimated that three million people died from the violence of the conflicts, famine or disease during this period. §REF§Knecht, R.J. 1989. The French Wars of Religion, 1559-1598. Longman.§REF§ §REF§Knecht, R.J. 2001. The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483-1610. Oxford: Blackwell.§REF§ §REF§Buisseret, David. 1990. Henry IV, King of France. New York: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Baird, Henry M. (1886). The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre (2 volumes). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.§REF§ §REF§Holt, Mack P. (2005). The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press§REF§ §REF§Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File. 294.§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": 1331, "year_to": 1333, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_kamakura@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Genkō Civil War, fall of Kamakura", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "There were two uprisings in 1331 and 1333. In the first, Go-Daigo plotted to overthrow the Kamakura Shogunate by encourgaing his vassals and anti-Hōjō samurais to join his forces and rebel. Go-Daigo was betrayed by his adviser, Fujiwara Sadafusa, who alerted the shogunate, and troops were sent to Kyoto to supress the rebellion. Go-Daigo fled to a monastrey in Kasagi, but it was later attacked by Kamakura troops. Go-Daigo was captured and exiled to Oki Islands. His son, Prince Morinaga, continued to fight against the Kamakura with his loyal supporters. In 1333 Go-Daigo escaped from exile and raised an imperial army in Hōki Province. The chief general of the Hōjō clan, Ashikaga Takauji, was sent with troops to fight against Go-Daigo, but defected and joined him instead. The imperial army won several victories, and during the Siege of Kumegawa the Kamakura shogunate was officially defeated. The Hōjō clan committed mass suicide and Go-Daigo reclaimed his power from Emperor Kōgon in what became known as the Kenmu Restoration.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press§REF§ §REF§Kuehn, John T. 2014. A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century. ABC-CLIO§REF§ §REF§Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press. pp. 378-382.§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 425, "name": "cn_northern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Song", "start_year": 960, "end_year": 1127 }, "year_from": 1060, "year_to": 1085, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_northern_song_dyn@wang_an_shi_reforms", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Government conflict and Wang An-shi reforms", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "P", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In the 1060s Wang An-shi, a reformist minister, was appointed by the new Emperor Shenzong to carry out political reforms to strengthen the Song Empire. Wang An-shi's reforms included the introduction of the Baojia system (community-based law enforcement), Green Sprouts Law (loans for peasants to buy seeds), Three College Law (regulation of education for officials), Equal Tax law (land registration project to ensure taxes were being paid), Balanced Delivery law (trade management and central control of government purchases), and General and troops law (to mix infantries and improve relationships between officials and common troops) among many other laws aimed at curbing government spending, improving the lives of common people and strengthen the military. However, many of Wang An-shi's reforms angered elite groups such as high officials, landowners and merchant guilds and a faction within the political party led by Sima Guang strongly and openly opposed the new laws. In the menatime, natural disasters had added to the suffering of peasants and when a famine struck northern China in 1074 Emperor Shanzong dismissed Wang An-shi and temporarily suspended the reform laws. Wang An-shi was reinstated a year later but due to the hostilities from other party members he resigned his position. His reforms were officially ended in 1085 when Emperor Zhezong of Song came to power.§REF§Levine, Ari Daniel. 2008. Divided by a Common Language: Factional Conflict in Late Northern Song China. Lorge, P. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795§REF§ §REF§Mote, F.W. (1999). Imperial China: 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 122, 138-142.§REF§ §REF§von Glahn, Richard (2016), The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": 1359, "year_to": 1381, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ru_golden_horde@great_troubles", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Great Troubles", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1359 the ruler Berdi Beg was murder by his brother, Qulpa in a coup. In 1360 Qulpa's other brother, Nawruz Beg, murdered him and his sons. Nawruz was later betrayed by his lieutenant and executed in 1361. In 1362-63 the Golden Horde was fragmented between Keldi Beg in Sarai, Bulat Temir in Volga Bulgaria, and Abdullah in Crimea. Lithuania attacked and conquered Kiev and Podolia in 1363. There was a rebellion in Nizhny Novgorod. In 1380 the Russian princes won a significant victory over the Blue Horde general, Mamai, and in response the victorious Tokhtamysh of the White Horde sacked Moscow. Tokhtamysh then went on to reunify the fragmented lands under a central Golden Horde.§REF§Atwood, Christopher Pratt (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts On File.§REF§ §REF§Vernadsky, George (1953), The Mongols and Russia, Yale University Press§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": -67, "year_to": -63, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "il_judea@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Hasmonean Civil Wars", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Hasmonean civil wars began as an inter-Jewish succession crisis between the sons of Alexander Jannaeus, Hycranus II and Aristobulus II. Hycranus had inherited the throne, but was considered weak willed, and within three months a rebellion was raised by his younger brother. After many of his supports deferred to Aristobulus, and the temple he was taking refuge was captured, Hycranus surrendered and renounced the throne to his brother in 67 BCE. The two reconciled. However at this point, Antipater, who was (likely to have been) governor of Idumæa, believed that Aristobulus would not retain him. To secure his position and gain further power, Antipater exploited Hycranus, persuading him to fight for his rightful claim to the throne. They allied with Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans, and an army of 50,000 besieged Jerusalem for several months. The attack on Aristobulus in Jerusalem caused the Roman magistrate, Pompey, who was assigned to the eastern Mediterranean province, to become involved, eventually appointing Hycranus as the ethnarch of Judea, largely because he would be easier to manipulate to the Roman advantage. Antipater's pro-Roman stance granted him favour and he quickly gained several important offices and was placed in charge of Judea. Pompey defeated all the opposing Jewish armies, and Aristobulus and his sons were captured in 63 BCE. Jerusalem was handed over to the Romans after a siege. Hycranus became high priest but was stripped of any authority.§REF§Hayes and Mandell, The Jewish People in Classical Antiquity§REF§ §REF§Plutarch \"Makers of Rome\" p. 272, trans by Ian Scott-Kilvert, Penguin Classics§REF§ §REF§Josephus, Jewish Wars 1 9:2. 183-185§REF§ §REF§Richard Gottheil; Louis Ginzberg (1901-1906). \"Aristobulus II\". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": 772, "year_to": 778, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "id_medang_k@8th_c_conflict", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Hindu-Buddhist Struggles", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "There were two Hindu-Buddhist Struggles between two competing dynasties, the Buddhist Sailendra family and the Shaivite descendants of King Sanjaya. However some scholars believe they may have been two branches of the same dynasty - the Shailendras - who were divided by religious royal patronage. The First Struggle (Date unknown) resulted in victory for the Buddhist faction. The Second Struggle (772-778) was won by the Sivaist Hindus. Both conflicts resulted in a change of official religion.§REF§Cœdès, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Hall, K.R., Economic History of Early Southeast Asia, in Tarling, N., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 1: From Early Times to c.1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": 1337, "year_to": 1453, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "fr_valois_k_1@100_y_war", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Hundred Years' War", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Hundred Years' War between England (House of Plantagenet) and France (House of Valois) began due to disputes over the claim to the French throne. There were in fact three seperate wars which were broken by periods of truce: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). The House of Valois were ultimately victorious and kept control over France. The Black Death (bubonic and pneumonic plague) hit both France and England in 1348 during the Edwardian Wars, which killed an estimated one-third to a half of both populations. The resulting decline in population and resource production after the plague led to revolts in both rural and urban areas due to the fianancial reforms and taxes that the crown imposed to make up for the loss of revenue. During the Lancastrian War, Henry V of England invaded and conquered Normandy in 1415 and secured himself as heir to the French throne in the Treaty of Troyes of 1420 (which passed on to his son Henry VI). However in 1429 the Valois claimant Charles VII of France regained his positions and drove the English out of all of their French territories, except Calais, between 1449-1453. Charles VII (r.1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown-instituting reforms to change the government from a feudal to bureaucratic system, which was continued by his successor, Louis XI (r.1461-1483 CE)§REF§Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.§REF§ §REF§Watts, Sheldon. 1997. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism. New Haven; London: Yale University Press.§REF§ §REF§Kohn, George C. 2001. Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. New York: Facts on File§REF§ §REF§Ann Curry. The Hundred Years War, 1337-1453. In John Andreas Olsen and Colin S. Gray (eds.) The Practice of Strategy: From Alexander the Great to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": 1528, "year_to": 1570, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "pe_inca_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Inca decline and civil war", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "comment": null, "description": "Inca decline, civil war, Spanish conquest. Population collapse, in large part due to introduction of smallpox, measles and other diseases (Cook 2004: 62, 114). Estimates for the pre- and postconquest population of Peru vary, but Cook (2004: 114) argues for a figure of 9 million before the Spanish arrival, falling to 1 million within 50 years and 600,000 by 1620. Civil war between the Inca nobility (Rowe 2015). Elite downward mobility but not extermination: Spanish officials replaced Andean nobles in many areas, but because the European population was initially low, the Spanish relied on indigenous elite to rule the population (Covey 2020: 351-2, 418; Nair 2007: 53). Ruler assassinated: Atahuallpa executed on Pizzarro's orders (Covey 2020: 253). The Inca Empire collpased abruptly at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Smallpox, introduced by European invaders, was already raging throughout the empire. When the Sapa Inka, Huayna Khapaq, died of smallpox in 1528, his sons both claimed the throne, throwing the empire into civil war. Many elites died due to the epidemic and so there was chaos, competition and internal conflicts between them. Many potential candidates for Inca were often put in place by their mothers, the elite 'chosen women' of the court. This also led to these individuals seeking military support and making deals with the Spaniards who arrived in 1532, which led to further conflicts and outbreaks of smallpox. The Inca empire had been so weakened by disease and war, that they were conquered in just a few years.§REF§Personal Communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": 1470, "year_to": 1500, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "pe_inca_emp@succession_crisis", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Inca succession crisis'", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "comment": null, "description": "After the 9th Inca dies in 1470 there are a series of rebellions. The 1490 succession crisis is seen as an 'episode' rather than a full blown 'war' by scholars, largely confined to turmoil among the ruling family and other powerful elite families. §REF§Cook, Noble David. 2004. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Covey 2020: Covey, R. Alan. 2020. Inca Apocalypse: The Spanish Conquest and the Transformation of the Andean World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Nair 2007: Nair, Stella. 2007. Witnessing the In-Visibility of Inca Architecture in Colonial Peru.‚Äù Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 14: 50-65.§REF§ §REF§Rowe 2015: Rowe, John H. 2006. The Inca Civil War and the Establishment of Spanish Power in Peru.‚Äù √ëawpa Pacha 28 (1): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1179/naw.2006.28.1.002.§REF§ §REF§personal communication with Alan Covey 19/09/22.§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": 453, "year_to": 469, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "hu_hunnic_emp@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Internal Power Struggles and end of the Hun Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After the death of Attila in 453 power over the Huns was divided between his three sons, Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak. Dengizich succeeded his older brother Ellac, who died in battle in 454, and ruled in a dual kingship with Ernak, but through seperate division of the land. The brothers attempted to negotiate a peace treaty and trading and market rights with the Romans, but upon rejection of this, Dengizich began threatening territories of Istros and Thrace, eventually leading to a war with the Romans and previously allied Germanic tribes. When the war ended in 469, Dengizich was killed by the general of Thrace and his head paraded through the streets. This is considered the end of the Hun Empire.§REF§Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. (1973). The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": 1794, "year_to": 1794, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_haudenosaunee_2@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Iroquois Civil War", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "IA", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "IP", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "At the begnning of the American Revolutionary War, the Iroquois Confederacy attempted to remain neutral. However, the nations were forced to take sides in the conflict particularly as they were not able to remain entirely neutral due to their trading relationships, to protect their remaining lands the and proximity to the fighting. Eventually the Oneida and Tuscarora nations supported the American colonists and the remaining nations of Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca supported the British. The revolutionary war broke the Iroquois Confederacy that had lasted for hundreds of years. At the end of the war (1783) there were no provisions made for the Iroquois in the Treaty of Paris. In 1784 the Iroqouis were forced to cede most of their lands to the United States in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and in 1794 under the Treaty of Canandaigua they were forced to surrender even more land. American policies encouraged and forced the Iroquois to give up their traditional hunting and farming patterns and to become more settled on their remaining land.§REF§Graymont, Barbara. 1972. The Iroquois in the American Revolution. New York: Syracuse Univeristy Press.§REF§ §REF§Graymont, Barbara (2005). The Iroquois. Chelsea House Publishers.§REF§ §REF§Johnson, Michael. 2003. Tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. Osprey.§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": 1221, "year_to": 1232, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_kamakura@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Jōkyū Civil War", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The 1221 Jōkyū War was a result of the efforts of the retired emperor, Go-Toba allied with members of the Taira clan, against the Hōjō clan to restablish direct imperial control by the emperor and remove power from the shōgunate. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, gained greater powers, and became a gatekeeper of any decisions made by the imperial court. Go-Toba was exiled to the Oki Island for the rest of his life, his sons were banished, and his supporters were all executed or exiled. The shōgunate also seized more than 3,000 provincial estates, turning over their administrative and tax priviledges to individuals loyal to Hōjō. §REF§Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1334-1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 7-11§REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -1150, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "lb_phoenician_emp@late_bronze_collapse", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Late Bronze Age Collapse", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Unlike many other polities who weakened or ended during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Phonecians emerged as a strong and organised civilisation. This is sometimes referred to as the Phonecian Rennaisance, during which time their trade and economy flourished. §REF§Scott, John C. 2018. \"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World\" in Comparative Civilizations Review 78 (4).§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": -844, "year_to": -840, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_western_zhou_dyn@popular_uprisings", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Military and Popular Uprisings", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "King Li Wang of Zhou (877-841 BCE) was a corrupt king who raised taxes to pay for his decadent lifestyle and ruled as a tyrant who enacted a law that allowed him to punish anyone by death at his will. His rule became so hated that a peasant and soldier uprising took place in 841 BCE which forced Li into exile in Zhi and never returned. He died in 828 BCE, at which point his son, who had been hidden away by ministers after the uprising, became king.§REF§Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC§REF§ §REF§Sources of Western Zhou History: Inscribed Bronze Vessels by Edward L. Shaughnessy§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": -74, "year_to": -63, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gr_crete_hellenistic@mithridatic_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Mithridatic Wars", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "There were three Mithriadiatic Wars between 88-63 BCE. Crete became involved in the Third Mithriadic War (74-63 BCE) in 71 BCE when they repelled an attack by Roman general Marcus Antonius Creticus. The attack on Crete continued for three years until 69 BCE when the island was conquered by Rome. Crete became a Roman province, and Gortyn was made its capital city.§REF§Francis, J. and Kouremenos, A. 2016. Roman Crete: New Perspectives. Oxford: Oxbow.§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": 1280, "year_to": 1322, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1@13_c_crisis", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Mongol invasions and rebellions in Mamluk Egypt", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IA", "extermination": "IA", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The death of Mamluk Sultan Baibars in 1277 led to a succession issue. His son Barakah had succeeded to the throne, but after a revolt in 1279 he was forced to abdicate. His brother, Solamish, took the throne but the real power laid with Qalawun, a former Mamluk soldier and emir. As Solamish was only seven years old Qalawun successfully became ruler under the title al-Malik al-Manṣūr and sent Solamish into exile. The govenor of Damascus, Dungur, challenged Qalawun's authority, proclaiming himself sultan, however he was defeated in battle in 1280. In 1281 the Ilkhanate (part of the Mongol Empire) took advantage of the ongoing succession struggles and invaded Syria. Qalawun and Sungur had reconciled to repel this attack and succesfully defeated the Ilkhanate. Between 1285-1289 Qalawun launched several successful attacks on Crusader strongholds and brought down the Crusader County of Tripoli. Qalawun put a policy in place to replace Turkish Mamluks with Circassians, which his son, Khalil continued when he succeded to the throne. However, this caused conflict with the Mamluks and Khalil was assasinated by them in 1293. Khalil's nine-year-old brother, Al-Nasir, became sultan but the power laid with two emirs: Kitbugha, who was of Mongol origin, and the Turkic al-Shuja‘i. Their own rivalry led to the murder of al-Shuja‘i, which in turn led to Kitbugha removing the Burji Mamluks from the citadel, who then rebelled and rampaged in Cairo. An-Nasir also sought revenge for the death of his brother, which Kitbugha had been involved in, but instead Kitbugha deposed the young sultan and declared himself sultan in his place. In 1296 Kitbugha was deposed by his vice-sultan, Lajin, who ruled until he was murdered along with his vice-sultan in 1299 by a group of emirs. An-Nasir was reinstated as sultan, however as he was only 14 years old, he was once again only a nominal sultan and the actual rulers were the emirs Salar and Baibars (who had led the coup). During An-Nasir's second reign the Burji Mamluks were become more powerful, imposing taxes and carrying out briberies for their 'protection'. Baybars II later deposed an-Nasir in 1309 and was put on the throne by the Mamluks. But a year later an-Nasir regained the throne and ruled for 30 years. In the first year of his reign, an-Nasir executed, exiled, or imprisoned any Mamluks, including the Burji, who had supported his rivals in the past.§REF§Rabbat, Nasser (2001). \"Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing\". In Kennedy, Hugh N. (ed.). The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950 - 1800)§REF§ §REF§Northrup, Linda (1998). From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678-689 A.H./1279-1290 A.D.)§REF§ §REF§Levanoni, Amalia (1995). A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun(1310-1341). Brill.§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": 633, "year_to": 654, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_sassanid_emp_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Muslim conquest of the Sasanian Empire", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "IP", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 358, "name": "sa_rashidun_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Hijaz", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 661 }, "comment": null, "description": "Ruler killed: Khosrow II deposed and executed by nobles in 628 (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). After that, the empire disintegrated: \"A plague devastated western provinces killing [Khosrow II's son] Šērōya and half of the population\" (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Coded for population decline, though I have not found precise figures. Fragmentation: \"The highest aristocracy gained full independence, each carving a state for himself within the empire\" (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). External conquest: Sasanian Empire conquered by Arab armies (Shapur Shahbazi 2005). Some elite downward mobility seems likely but the old Sasanian elite was not exterminated or dispossessed fully: \"Sasanian soldiers and local notables who defected to the Muslims, possibly as a consequence of local conflicts, secured a position in the new regime. Notables who survived by virtue of agreements they made for tribute during the conquest collected it in their own districts\" (Morony 1986).§REF§Morony 1986: M. Morony. 1986. Arab ii. Arab conquest of Iran,‚Äù Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/2, pp. 203-210, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-ii (accessed on 26 January 2021).§REF§ §REF§Shapur Shahbazi 2005: A. Shapur Shahbazi, Sasanian Dynasty,‚Äù Encyclop√¶dia Iranica, online edition, 2005, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty (accessed on 26 January 2021).§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": 1065, "year_to": 1105, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_khitan_1@eco_disasters", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Natural Disasters", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Every year from 1065 the region was ravaged by natural disasters. Initially the southern agricultural regions were hit, but later the tribal areas were also affected. There was immense suffering and displaced people. In 1074 the Eastern Capital suffered a severe flood. In the winter of 1082-3 heavy snowfall killed 60-70 percent of livestock and horses. At the same time, teritorial disputes, rebellions and warfare ensued. The government lost revenue due to relief aid and tax exemptions. In 1069 there was a rebellion by the Zubu tribes who lived in the heartlands of Mongolia. Attacks from the Zubu under the later leadership of Mogusi continued in 1093, while the Khitans also conducted attacks on the tribes on the northern borders, which the Zubu became involved in.§REF§Twitchett, Denis. 1994. \"The Liao\", The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6, Alien Regime and Border States, 907-1368.§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": 1065, "year_to": 1065, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gb_england_k@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Norman Invasion and Conquest", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Norman invasion and conquest of England in 1066 was led by William Duke of Normandy, later King William I, and styled as William the Conqueror. William led a coalition army comprised of Normans, Bretons, Flemish and French Province soldiers in his claim to the English throne after the death of Edward the confessor in the same year. Edward had no legitimate heirs and his brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson, had succeeded to the throne. However both William and Harold men claimed that Edward had promised the throne to them. William also recruited Harold's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, and the Norweigian king Harald Hardrada to his cause. Tostig and Harald invaded the north of England in January 1066 and by September they had captured York. However Harold and his forces marched north and defeated the Tostig and Harald armies, killing the leaders in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. However, a few days later, William sailed to England, landing in Sussex where Harold's naval forces had dispersed. When Harold discovered that William had landed, he immeditely marched his army back south, though he was forced to leave a large portion of his troops in the north. On 14th October the day-long Battle of Hastings began and Harold was killed in the battle while the English forces were decimated. However the surviving English did not submit to his claim and instead declared that Edgar the Ætheling would be king. William then marched to London, defeating an English force at southwark and then onto Wallingford to receive the submission of Archbishop Stigand and eventually, as they could not muster forces to repel William, from the English nobles as well. William was crowned king on 25th December 1066.§REF§Huscroft, Richard (2009). The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction. New York: Longman.§REF§ §REF§Lawson, M. K. (2002). The Battle of Hastings: 1066. Stroud, UK: Tempus.§REF§ §REF§Marren, Peter (2004). 1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings. Battleground Britain. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper.§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 1261, "year_to": 1262, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "is_icelandic_commonwealth@norway_conquest", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Norweigan Conquest of Iceland and the end of the Commonwealth", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "comment": null, "description": "During the Age of the Sturlungs (1200-1262) the two main clans of Iceland fought for land and power. Sturla Sighvatsson became a vassal of Haakon IV of Norway in 1235 and used his influence to wage war against the Sturluson clan (the leaders were nephew and uncle respectively). While the clans fought for decades, the Norwegian king was gaining more power over Iceland and the clans. Eventually the clans agreed to accept the sovereignty of Norway. The Old Covenant (Gamli sáttmáli) was signed which established a union with the Norwegian monarchy. The 1262 signing of the Old Covenant is considered the end of the Icelandic Commonwealth, although little changed in the following decades, as Norway's consolidation of power was slow.§REF§Jakobsson, Sverrir (2021). \"All the King's men. The incorporation of Iceland into the Norwegian Realm\". Scandinavian Journal of History: 1-22§REF§ §REF§Jakobsson, Sverrir. \"Politics and Courtly Culture in Iceland, 1200-1700\". La matière arthurienne tardive en Europe, 1270-1530. Late Arthurian Tradition in Europe.§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": 1887, "year_to": 1898, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_hawaii_k@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Overthrow of Kingdom of Hawai'i", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1887 a group of mostly non-Hawaiins under the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887 against King Kalākaua and the governance of the kingdom. Under threat of assasination Kalākaua signed the Bayonet Constitution which demanded, among other items, that more power to parliament, removed wording from the constitution that implied the king was above the law, and denied him from appointing any government posts. Immeditately following the new constitution, native Hawai'ins looked to restore the king's power though it was never successful. In 1891, after Kalākaua's death, his sister Liliʻuokalani became queen of Hawai'i. She attempted to dissolve the previous constitution which her brother had signed under duress, in order to restore power to the monarchy and reinstate the vote for those who did not meet the economic requirements of the Bayonet Constitution. In 1893, pro-American parties, supported by the landing of the US Marines on the island, staged a coup d'etat and overthrew the monarchy, with the end goal of annexing the island to the United States. US Preseident at the time, Grover Cleveland, opposed the annexation and the military force that had been used, and called for the reinstatment of Queen Liliʻuokalani. In the meantime, a Constitutional Government was called to order in an attempt to keep the monarchy from regaining full power, and The Republic of Hawai'i was proclaimed on 4th July 1894. However by 6th January 1895 the Wilcox Rebellion had been raised against the Republic which consisted of three battles in three days, and although the royalists won the first two battles, the final battle in Mānoa was a success for the republican forces who imprisoned many of the rebels and dispersed the rest. When a weapons cache was discovered at Liliʻuokalani's home, the Republic arrested her on 16th January for misprision of treason and forced her to abdicate the throne. After being under house arrest until 13th October 1896, the Republic of Hawaii pardoned Liliʻuokalani and she moved to Massachusetts. During the following year treaties were drafted for the annexation of the Hawaii'an Islands, while native Hawai'ins organised petitions against the annexation. Despite the strong opposition, the Islands were annexed officially on 12th August 1898.§REF§Proto, Neil Thomas (2009). The rights of my people: Liliuokalani's enduring battle with the United States, 1893-1917. Algora Publishing.§REF§ §REF§Forbes, David W. (2003). Hawaiian National Bibliography 1780-1900. Volume 4, 1881-1900. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen, Liliuokalani. Boston: Lee and Shepard.§REF§ §REF§Haley, James L. (2014). Captive Paradise: A History of Hawaii. New York: St. Martin's Press.§REF§ §REF§Van Dyke, Jon M. 2008. Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai_i?. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Russ, William Adam. 1992. The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94). Associated University Presses.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 551, "year_to": 551, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_rouran_khaganate@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Overthrow of Rouran Khaganate by Turkic peoples", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Haven't found population statistics: likely unavailable. Epidemic: a plague pandemic struck Europe, the Mediterranean and Persia in the 540s (Sołtysiak 2006). It seems possible that it also reached the Central Asian steppes, but I have found no mention of this in the sources. Kradin (2005: 166) writes that \"there was no evidence of any feudal civil strife until 552, when the Rouran, at the peak of their might, suffered defeat from the Turks. Then Anagui committed suicide and the khaganate fell into decay. These events marked the actual end of the khaganate. Over a period of three years, four khans followed one another but could do nothing. In 555, the ruler of the Western Wei empire handed over the remaining few thousand Rouran to the Turks, all of whom (except children under sixteen) were put to cruel death. Thus, the history of the Rouran khanate came to a tragic end.\" Coded for massive elite downward mobility and extermination, external conquest, but not civil war.§REF§Kradin, Nikolay N. 2005. From Tribal Confederation to Empire: The Evolution of the Rouran Society.‚Äù Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 58 (2): 149-69.§REF§ §REF§Sołtysiak, Arkadiusz. 2006. The Plague Pandemic and Slavic Expansion in the 6th-8th Centuries. Archaeologia Polona 44: 339-64.§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": 1270, "year_to": 1275, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ml_mali_emp@palace_urpisings", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Palace Intrigue", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "IA", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "IA", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Upon the death of the ruler Mansa Oulin (aka Uli or Wali or Yerelenku) after his return from pilgrimage in 1270 the empire was on the verge of collapse due to palace intrigues. His successor, Mansa Wati (sometimes shown as Wali) ruled four years after defeating his brother, Khalifa, to gain the throne. However, after Wati's death, Kalifa succeeded to the throne. Kalifa was later assasinated after being overthrown for cruel mistreatment of his subjects.§REF§D T Niane. Mali and the second Mandingo expansion. D T Niane. ed. 1984. General History Of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. London.§REF§ §REF§Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": -1140, "year_to": -1030, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "lb_phoenician_emp@inter_city_conflicts", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Phoenecian Cities Conflicts", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During the period 1140-1030 there were several conflicts between the politically independant Phoenecian city states of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos which were favoured by the Egyptians. These cities were independantly ruled and fiercely competitive, and although they shared culture, religion and language, there is no evidence that they ever united together as one country. Population statistics are lacking.§REF§Lockard, Craig. A. 2008. Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History, Volume 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": 1348, "year_to": 1412, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2@14th_15th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Plague to Assassination of Sultan Faraj i", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "comment": null, "description": "Between 1348 and 1412 there was a 'great crisis' in the Mamluk Sultanate. It began when the Black Death struck in 1348, killing up to one-thrid of the population of Egypt and bringing an era of prosperity to an end. This was followed by the upper Nile flooding in 1354, a famine in 1375, the return of the plague between 1379-1381, civil war in 1389, a lower Nile flood and a grain shortage in 1394 and 1403, and another famine in 1403-1404. During this period the Mamluk ruling class carried out extravagant construction projects and mismanaged the disasters that befell the population and several rebellions were raised in Cairo. These major crises nearly toppled Turkish rule in Egypt, but nevertheless left the Mamluk position significantly weakened. Sultan Faraj was assasinated in 1412 while being held prisoner in Damscus after a conflict with the Syrian Emirs. The beginning of the next phase of Mamluk rule was similarly chaotic, with famines, plagues, and social unrest prevalent §REF§André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.§REF§ §REF§M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.§REF§ §REF§Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": 1890, "year_to": 1935, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction@progressive_new_deal", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Progressive Era", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "P", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "P", "public_goods": "P", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Period of social activism and political reforms often led by the progressive reformers of the middle classes and activists from across society who sought to address problems linked to political corruption, industrialisation and urbanisation. This included the fight for women's suffrage leading to the formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 and National Women's Party in 1916. The Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibits the US from denying citizens' the right to vote based on their sex, was introduced on 26th August 1920. The development of labour unions in the early 20th century, particularly the American Federation of Labor (AFL), put pressure on the government to introduce regulations and standards that favoured the worker. This led to the establishment of the Department of Labour on 4th March 1913, while in September 1916 the Federal Employees' Compensation Act granted benefits to workers who became ill or injured in the workplace. Educational Institutions undertook changes to incorporate a rounded education system and improvements to non-academic subjects. Higher level education also gained popularity. Between 1933-39 President Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted public works, financial reforms and regulations, known as The New Deal, which provided support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly. §REF§John D. Buenker, John C. Boosham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (1986) pp 3-21§REF§ §REF§\"The Nineteenth Amendment\". Library of Congress§REF§ §REF§Carol Berkin; et al. (2011). Making America, Volume 2: A History of the United States: Since 1865. Cengage Learning. pp. 629-632.§REF§ §REF§Reese, William (2001). \"The Origins of Progressive Education\". History of Education Quarterly. 41 (1): 1-24§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": 1156, "year_to": 1185, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_heian@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Rebellion and Civil War", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Genpei War (1180–1185) was the culmination of conflict between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control over the royal court and Japan. The Hōgen (1156) and Heiji (1159) rebellions led to the rise of the Samurai warrior call in court politics and power, and ultimately the Genpei Civil War. In 1179 the Taira clan staged a coup d'etat, removing all Minamoto members of the court from official posts and exiling them. This led to the five year war in which the Taira suffered a decisive defeat by the Minamoto clan who took power. Minamoto no Yoritomo was made the first shōgun of Japan which marked the beginning of a feudal state in Japan and the dwindling power of the emperor.§REF§Turnbull, Stephen (1998). The Samurai Sourcebook. Cassell & Co§REF§ §REF§Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": 523, "year_to": 535, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_northern_wei_dyn@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Rebellions and Civil War", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 523 CE a rebellion in the six northern border garrison towns broke out due to major famine and years of drought. This rebellion kick started several others that spread throughout the region and would last for a decade. Civil War broke out in 530 CE when Emperor Xiaohuang had Erzhu Rong (of the Erzhu clan who dominated power at court) killed in an ambush. The Erzhu clan were victorious in their counter attack, and assasinated the emperor, but later resumed war with those who resisted their rule. Rebellions broke out under Ge Rong between 526-528 CE in Hubei, under Xiao Baoyin in Guanzhong in 527 CE. Eventually, as a result of deposed and interred emperors on opposite sides of the conflict, the Wei state was divided into the Eastern Wei and Western Wei and would remain divided until 581 CE.§REF§Tsiang, Katherine R. \"Changing Patterns of Divinity and Reform in the Late Northern Wei\" in The Art Bulletin, Vol. 84 No. 2 (June 2002), pp. 222-245.§REF§ §REF§Jenner, W. J. F. Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the lost capital (493-534). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": 604, "year_to": 618, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_sui_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Rebellions and Revolts", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Goguryeo–Sui War, a series of invasions by the Sui dynasty of China against the Korean Kingdom of Goguryeo in 598 CE and again between 612-614 CE, resulted in the defeat of the Sui dynasty and contributed to the final collapse of the dynasty in 618 CE. After the catastrophic loss of lives and resources owing to the war, the people of the Sui state rose up in widespread revolts against Emperor Yang and the Sui dynasty members of the military. A coup was led by General Yuwen Huaji, who killed Emperor Yang along with a number of high officials and relatives, and placed Yang's nephew, Yang Hao Prince of Qin, on the throne, while Huaji also made himself regent. The Sui dynasty ceased to be in power and the Tang dynasty began their rule. Revolution: was uprisings, but no revolution (not mass mobilization, no demands for system change)§REF§Graff, David A., Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900§REF§ §REF§Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2006), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, Albany: State University of New York Press.§REF§ §REF§Wright, Arthur F. (1979). \"The Sui dynasty (581-617)\". In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48-149.§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": 538, "year_to": 668, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_asuka@reform", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Reform Period", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 645 Prince Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari led a successful revolt against the Soga clan due to their monopolised control over the government. The Taika Reform was then introduced which mandated a series of reforms and established the ritsuryō system of social, fiscal, and administrative processes. Ryō was an administrative code and ritsu was the penal code. Land reform was the first to be implemented, with all landholdings of the great clans being brought under control of the throne upon an owners death, rather than passing to their heir. Hereditary clan chieftan titles were abolished. The country was divided into provinces led by governors who were appointed by the central court. The Taika Reform was influenced by Chinese practices§REF§L. Worden, Robert (1994). \"Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250-710\". A Country Study: Japan. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1740, "year_to": 1780, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "au_habsburg_3@reforms", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Reforms of Marie Theresa", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "P", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Maria Theresa became the ruler of the Habsburg dominions on the death of her father in 1740. She implemented institutional, medical, educational and financial reforms throughout her reign. The financial reforms improved the economy and more than doubled the state revenue. Her medical reforms included the promotion of inoculation including opening an inoculation centre and incentives for getting vaccinated, regulating the sale of poisons, and prohibited the use of lead in eating and drinking vessels. A unified legal system was created across the Habsburg domains, criminal codes made witchcraft and various religious 'offenses' a criminal matter. She also established the Chastity Commission to clamp down and punish those involved in prostitution, homosexuality, adultery, and inter-religious sex. Torture was legal until 1776, though Maria Theresa was opposed to it's abolition. Her educational reforms included the introduction of secular subjects, permission for non-Catholics to attend university, and the mandatory schooling of all children aged six to twelve. §REF§Crankshaw, Edward (1970). Maria Theresa. New York: Viking Press.§REF§ §REF§Hopkins, Donald R (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.§REF§ §REF§Vocelka, Karl (2009) [2000]. Geschichte √ñsterreichs: Kultur, Gesellschaft, Politik (3rd ed.). Munich: Heyne Verlag.§REF§ §REF§Krämer, Klaus (15 March 2017). \"What made Austria's Maria Theresa a one-of-a-kind ruler\". Deutsche Welle.§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": 1856, "year_to": 1864, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ru_romanov_dyn_2@19th_c_reforms", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Reforms of Tsar Alexander II", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "P", "unfree_labor": "P", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "P", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "A series of major social, political, legal and governmental reforms carried out under the rule of Tsar Alexander II, often driven by the threat of revolution, rather than for moral reasons. In 1858 most censorship restriction were removed from the media, resulting in new publications and open discussion through the platform about further reforms that were required. All in-service serfs were freed and the practice of serfdom was abolished in the Emancipation Reform of 1861 which granted over 23 million people their freedom and the full rights of citizenship in the Russian Empire. One of Alexander's top advisors, Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin, was responsible for many military reforms, but also created the framework for the Circassian Genocide of 1861-1865 which saw the ethinic cleansing, torture, mass murder or expulsion of 800,000-1.5million Muslim Circassians from their homelands. In 1864 a new judicial systems was created, including a new penal code, and a simplified civil and criminal procedure system such as trials in open court, juries and justices of the peace who dealt with minor local offenses. Educational reforms were brought in between 1858-1863 which allowed women to attend secondary schools and allowed some to audit university courses, private sunday schools were opened, though they were later closed down as the government disliked the innovations they were teaching. State banks were founded in 1860, municipal backs in 1862, and savings bacnk in 1869. National finances and budgets were overhauled and supervised by a newly created Ministry of Finance, and tax collection was centralised. Salt taxes were abolished. The country's budget deficit was cleared by 1867. In turn, the increasing budget allowed for the expansion of the railway system. Special taxes that had previously been imposed on Jewish people were eliminated and those who graduated secondary school were now entitled to leave the Pale of Settlement and undertake state employment. Alexander remained an autocrat despite his reforms. He was later assasinated in 1881.§REF§Mawdsley, Evan (2007). The Russian Civil War. New York: Pegasus Books.§REF§ §REF§Wood, Alan (1993). The origins of the Russian Revolution, 1861-1917. London: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Wade, Rex A. (2005). The Russian Revolution, 1917. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Alexander Rabinowitch. 2008. The Bolsheviks in Power: The First Year of Soviet Rule in Petrograd. Indiana UP.§REF§ §REF§Pipes, Richard. 1990. The Russian Revolution. New York.§REF§ §REF§Service, Robert (1993). The Russian Revolution, 1900-1927. Basingstoke: MacMillan.§REF§ §REF§Wydra, Harald (September 2012). \"The Power of Symbols‚ÄîCommunism and Beyond\". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 25 (1-3): 49-69.§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": 291, "year_to": 306, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_western_jin_dyn@palace_rebellions", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Revolts of the Imperial Princes", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Revolts of the Imperial Princes was a period of complex power struggles, intense civil wars and intervals of peace between princes of royal dynasties and Empress Jia, following the death of Emperor Wu of Jin in 290 CE. Empress Yang Zhi, the stepmother of the Emperor, Hui of Jin (who was developmentally impaired) and her family wielded the most power at court. In 291 CE Hui of Jin's wife, Empress Jia Nanfeng, enlisted the help of Sima Liang (Prince Wencheng of Ru'nan) Sima Wei (Prince Yin of Chu) and sought to take control by having Yang Zhi's father executed for treason, imprisoning and starving Empress Yang Shi to death, and executing 3000 other members of the Yang clan. Sima Liang (the emperor's grand-uncle) became regent, but because of his threats to Sima Wei over his conduct, Wei and Empress Jia accussed Liang of treason and Wei led a coup to kill Liang. After Liang's death, Jia spread rumours that Wei had forged the royal edict to have Liang killed. Wei was deserted by his followers, captured and executed. Empress Jia ruled the court, under the name of her husband, until 300 CE by which time her behaviour (both personally and politically) caught up with her. In 299 CE Jia orchestrated the arrest and pushed for the execution of Sima Yu who was heir to the throne, however Emperor Hui instead had him deposed and kept him under house arrest. Following this, Sima Lun (Prince of Guangling) advised Jia to have Sima Yu assasinated as he was still a threat to the succession. However, Sima Lun later used Jia's assasination of Yu to overthrow her in 300 CE, placed her under house arrest and forced her to commit suicide. He welcomed back Yu's sons, Sima Zang and Sima Shang. However, in 301 CE Sima Lun usurped the throne from Emperor Hui, who was placed under house arrest, and killed Crown Prince Zang. Sima Yun ( Prince of Huainan) rebelled against Lun, but was killed by one of Lun's supporters. Four princes then allied to oppose Lun; in Xuchang, the Prince of Qi, Sima Jiong; in Chang'an, the Prince of Hejian, Sima Yong; in Chengdu, the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying; and Sima Ai, Prince of Changsha. In May 301 CE, after violent battles, betrayals, rebellions and executions, the coalition's troops entered the palace and arrested Lun, who was executed a few days later. Hun Hui was restored later that year. Sima Jiong became regent in August 301 CE. In 302 CE Jiong made the Emperor's nephew, Sima Tan, the crown prince and Sima Yue, Prince of Donghai, as director of the Central Secretariat. Later that year, after receiving an apparent imperial decree to eliminate Jiong, Sima Yong, along with Sima Ying, rasied a rebellion against Jiong. Sima Ai was wrongly implicated and fled to the imperial palace for protection where he defended the palace against Jiong with personal and imperial guards. Jiong's own officers betrayed him and he was captured and killed. Sima Ai siezed control of the capoital but deferred authority to his brother, Sima Ying. In April 304 CE Ying deposed his nephew, Sima Tan, and appointed himself crown prince. Sima Yue led a rebellion to restore Tan to his position however he was defeated in battle. After this, many rebellions were raised against Sima Ying, including some by leaders of the Han clan, who had a force three times that of Ying. Ying's remaining 15,000 troops deserted him and he was forced to flee to Luoyang, where Emperor Hui was taken into care by military general Zhang Fang. They were taken tho Chang'an where Ying was imprisoned and stripped of his titles by Sima Yong. Sima Chi (another grandson of Emperor Wu) was given the title of Crown Prince. In mid-305 CE Sima Yue and several other princes raised an army and rebelled against Sima Yong with the intention to take Emperor Hui back to Luoyang. Yong freed Sima Ying in order to gain his assistance in the rebellion. In battle, Yue defeated Yong's forces. Yue negotiated by offering the divide the empire with Yong, however Zhang Fang advised against this and urged him to keep fighting. Yong then had Zhang Fang executed and sent his head to Yue as part of a peace offering. However Yue then decided to keep fighting, conquered Chang'an, and secured his place as the real power over the imperial court, which he moved back to Luoyang. Sima Yong fled to Chaoge and was put under house arrest by Sima Xiao, however Xiao died mysteriously a month later and his successor, Liu Yu, forged an edict to execute Ying. Lu Zhi then took up a position at court with Sima Yue. Meanwhile, Sima Yong had raised another rebellion and captured Chang'an. In January 307 Emperor Hui died of poisoning and his brother, Sima Chi (posthumously Emperor Huai of Jin) suceeded as Emperor. Sima Yong was summoned to court, which he believed was for a pardon, but en route he was killed in an ambush. The last remaining prince, Sima Yue, had won victory in the War of the Princes, but died a year later of stress among court plots on his life.§REF§di Cosmo, Nicola (2009), Military Culture in Imperial China, Harvard University Press. p.116-136§REF§ §REF§Graff, David A. (2001), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900, Routledge§REF§ §REF§Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University (December 1991). \"East Asian History\" (PDF). eastasianhistory.org.§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": 865, "year_to": 866, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_byzantine_emp_1@succession_crises", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Rise of Macedonioan Emperors", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Macedonian dynasty of emperors began in 867 with Basil I who succeeded Michael III after being crowned as co-emperor in 866. Basil the Macedonian was Michael's favourite courtier, and as Michael's marriage was childless he adpoted - the much older - Basil in order to secure his legacy. When Michael began to show favour to another courtier, Basiliskianos, Basil had Michael assasinated and immediately succeeded as emperor. Basil I was an effective king and oversaw legislative reforms, great architectural constructions, succesful wars against the Arabs and Paulicians, and regained southern Italian territory.§REF§Finlay, George (1853). History of the Byzantine Empire from DCCXVI to MLVII. Edinburgh, Scotland; London, England: William Blackwood and Sons.§REF§ §REF§Mango, Cyril (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents. University of Toronto Press.§REF§ §REF§Mango, Cyril (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents. University of Toronto Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": -30, "year_to": -30, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Roman conquest of Egypt", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "comment": null, "description": "Conquest of Ptolemaic Kingdom by Rome. Bubonic plague was likely present in Ptolemaic Egypt, but no sign of a large-scale epidemic in Egypt before the sixth century CE (Scheidel 2012). Downward mobility for native Egyptians at least: in the Ptolemaic period many Egyptians had held high office (Lloyd 2000: 412), but under Roman rule they were barred from administrative positions (Peacock 2000: 432). Long civil war (or recurrent civil conflicts), involving elites and urban \"mobs\", from the late third century BCE until the Roman conquest (Lloyd 2000: 418–20). Ruler assassination: e.g. Queen Berenice IV in 55 BCE (Clayton 1994: 215).§REF§Lloyd 2000: Lloyd, Alan B. 2000. The Ptolemaic Period (c.1650-1550 BC).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 395-421. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Peacock 2000: Peacock, David. 2000. The Roman Period (30 BC-AD 311).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 422-45. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Scheidel 2012: Scheidel, Walter. 2010. Age and Health.‚Äù In The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt, edited by Christina Riggs, 305-16. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": -44, "year_to": -31, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "it_roman_rep_3@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Rome's transition from republic to empire", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "IP", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "comment": null, "description": "The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (who was granted the name Augustus in 27 BCE) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium. They both fled to Alexandria and later committed suicide. This secured Octavian's position as the sole ruler of both Roman and Egyptian territories and he was soon declared Pharoah. In the weeks and months following his victory Augustus executed all of Mark Anthony's supporters and began passing laws which although gave the oputward appearance of maintaining a Republic, in fact granted even more power and authority to himself. In 27 BCE he was named Augustus by the Senate and made the first Roman Emperor, officially transitioning the Republic into the Roman Empire. The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. \"In the last phase, the first century BC, the population declined as a result of constant civil wars, a high urbanization index, and, during later stages, massive state-sponsored population transfers\" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 181). Ruler assassination: Julius Caesar, for example (Scarre 1995: 8-9). Massive elite downward mobility and extermination: \"The direct effect of sociopolitical instability [during the last century BCE] was the physical liquidation of a portion of the elite\" (Turchin and Nefedov 2009: 206).§REF§Scarre 1995: Scarre, Chris. 1995. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames and Hudson.§REF§ §REF§Turchin and Nefedov 2009: Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press.§REF§" } ] }