Crisis Consequence List
A viewset for viewing and editing Crisis Consequences.
GET /api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 169, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/crisisdb/crisis-consequences/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": 585, "year_to": 590, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "it_lombard_k@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 585 King Authari went to war with the rebel Duke Droctulf of Brescello who was allied with the Romans and ruling the Po Valley. The civil war lasted until 590 when Droctulf was defeated and forced to retreat to Ravenna, while the region of Brescello was taken by the Lombards. Authari died in 590 possibly of poisoning but this is not confirmed. There are no population estimates for this period.§REF§Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge§REF§ §REF§G. W Bowersock, Peter Brown, Oleg Grabar, and Credo Reference. Late Antiquity a Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press Reference Library. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999.§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "long_name": "Jin", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404 }, "year_from": -546, "year_to": -453, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_jin_dyn_spring_and_autumn@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty saw constant warfare among vassal states, clans and dynasties who were competing for dominance, power and territory. After the reign of Duke Zhao of Jin (531-526), the clans of Fan (范) , Zhonghang (中行), Zhi (智), Han (韓), Zhao (趙) and Wei (魏) began fighting among themselves. The Zhi clan eventually eliminated the Fan and Zhonghang clans and were dominant until the Han and Wei, breaking their alliance with the Zhi against the Zhao clan, switched sides and the three smaller clans defeated the Zhi. The Partition of Jin in 453 BCE saw Zhi lands and the rest of Jin divided between the three successor states who were later known as the Three Jins. §REF§Han, Zhaoqi (2010). \"House of Jin\". Annotated Shiji (in Chinese). Zhonghua Book Company. pp. 3093-3094§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6 }, "year_from": -20, "year_to": 6, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "am_artaxiad_dyn@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War and collapse", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The fight over the Armenian crown became part of the ongoing conflict between members of the Artaxiad dynasty, and Parthians and Romans. The ruler, Artaxis II - who had taken the throne by allying with the Parthians and removing Mark Anthony's son, Alexander Helios from power in 33 BCE and then massacred all Romans in the Armenian garrisons - was unpopular with his people. A request was sent to Emperor Augustus to depose him and put his brother Tigranes III (who was being held in political exile in Rome) on the throne. Augustus agreed and a huge army was sent to carry out the plan. However, while they were enroute to depose him, a coup within the palace resulted in the murder of Artaxis in 20 BCE. The Armenian crown became the centre of the ongoing conflict between the Romans and Parthians, and the people of Armenia were eventually divided between pro-Parthian and pro-Roman parties which led to civil war. Tigranes III died before 8 BCE and his son Tigranes IV and daughter Erato became joint rulers of the throne. They were also anti-Roman and looked to Parthia for support. However, to avoid total war with Rome, the Parthians under Phraates V stopped supporting the Armenian king and queen, who then had to submit to Rome in order to stay in power, further dividing the country which had descended into chaos. While the war was ongoing, the Artaxiad dynasty weakened and gradually petered out: Tigrane IV died in battle in 1 CE, possibly fighting a revolt, and Erato later abdicated. Although distant relatives of the Artaxiad dynasty were placed on the throne, Armenian was a Roman protectorate under Emperor Augustus and the dyanasty finally collapsed in 6 CE.§REF§Hovannisian, Richard G. 1998. \"The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century.\" pp: 61§REF§ §REF§Hovannisian, Richard G. (2004). The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: Vol. I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 372.§REF§" }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": 904, "year_to": 1003, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_saffarid_emp@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War and downfall of Saffarids", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During this century power struggles over territory plagued the Saffarid Empire. In 901 Amr Saffari was defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids and their territory was reduced to Fars, Kerman and Sistan. In 908 a civil war broke out between the Amir, Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr, and the pretender to the throne, al-Laith ibn 'Ali. Tahir was defeated, captured along with his brother and imprisoned in Baghdad for the remainder of their lives. In 912 the Samanids took control of the Sistan region and expelled the Saffarids. Sistan fell back under Saffarid control in 923 as an independant region, but by this time the dynasty was a minor power redecued to Sistan only. In 1002 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Sistan and ended the Saffarid dynasty.§REF§Bosworth, C. E. (1968). \"The Development of Persian Culture under the Early Ghaznavids\". Iran. 6: 34.§REF§ §REF§Bosworth, C. E. (1963). The Ghaznavids 994-1040. Edinburgh University Press. p. 89§REF§ §REF§Bosworth, C.E. (1975). The Tahirids and Saffarids. In Frye, R.N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 90-135§REF§" }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -961, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "il_yisrael@cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War in Israel and Judah", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Dynastic and elite conflicts between the families of David and Saul and later their descendants. After the king of Israel, Saul's death in battle his heir, Ishbaal reigns for only two years before he is assasinated. David, king of Judah, also becomes king of Israel, and makes Jerusalem the national capital in 1006. Israel then rebels against David who is forced into exile, and his son, Absalom (who is said to have obtained the throne in a disreputable manner instead of his elder brother, Adonijah), is appointed king. David later counterattacks, Absalom is killed, and David becomes king again, though he has to deal with rebellions for the remainder of his reign.§REF§Isser, S. J. 2003. The Sword of Goliath: David in Heroic Literature. BRILL.§REF§" }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": 180, "year_to": 189, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "jp_yayoi@wa_cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil War of Wa", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IP", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "SU", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Information for this war is limited and sometimes conflicting as it is the oldest Japanese war documented in writing - though the earliest mention of the war is from the Wei Zhi (c. 297 CE). Chinese sources state that there were disturbances, conflicts and warfare for seventy-eighty years and for several years there was no ruler. Peace was restored around 180 CE when queen Himiko took control of the region. Himiko was said to be a shaman who used sorcery to be placed on the throne. Chinese sources also claimed that chiefdoms had been reduced from more than one hundred before the war, to about thirty in the post-war period. There is no archaeological evidence for the war or its outcomes.§REF§Dykstra, Yoshiko Kurata (2001). Sources of Japanese Tradition: From earliest times through the sixteenth century. Columbia University Press.§REF§ §REF§Brown, Delmer M.; Hall, John Whitney (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Kidder, Jonathan Edward (March 2007). Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": 306, "year_to": 324, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_roman_dominate@tetrarchy_cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil Wars of Tetrarchy", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Due to the vastness of the empire, administrative reforms were undertaken by Diocletian (284-305 CE), and his co-Emperor Maximian (286-305 CE) to ensure that the highest level of Roman authority could be present in more than one place at a time. Already split into East and West under two 'Augusti', now referred to as dominus (lord) rather than princeps (first citizen), they added two 'Caesares', who were to be the deputy and successor for the Emperors. The four men ruled from prefectures with capitals at Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium and Trier assisted by Praefectus Praetorio. The Tetrachry ended in 313 CE - with four emperors and one caesar all at war with one another in a struggle for supreme power -which had descended into civil wars. However the elite infighting continued on until 325 CE when Constantine reinstated a single postition of emperor.§REF§Boatwright, M, Gargola, D, Lenski, N, Talbert, R (2011) The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire§REF§ §REF§Baker, D. C. 2011. The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory. Cliodynamics: The Journal of Theoretical and Mathematical History. University of California.§REF§ §REF§James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.§REF§ §REF§Bunson, M. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Revised Edition. New York: Facts on File.§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": 936, "year_to": 1024, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "de_holy_roman_emp@10th_c_cw", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Civil wars, dynastic conflict", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Upon the death of Henry the Fowler in 936 there was a series of revolts against his son and designated heir, Otto, by Otto's younger brother and several dukes. Otto overcame these revolts and went on to take full control of the appointment of all dukes. Otto was crowned emperor by Pope John XII in 962, marking the German kings as successors to the Empire of Charlemagne, and minigling the political affairs of the German kingdom with the papacy and Italy. The following year Otto had Pope John XII deposed and replaced him with Leo VIII resulting in conflict with the Eastern Roman emperor in Constantinople. In 976 Otto II's rule was challenged by his cousin Henry Duke of Bavaria, who raised a failed rebellion against the king, and was imprisoned. However after Otto II's death, Henry was released from prison. Otto III came to the throne at the age of three, resulting in several regencies and power struggles until he came of age in 996. The regent Crescentius II led a failed revolt against Otto III shortly after his succession. Henry claimed the regency and it was granted by Archbishop of Cologne Warin. Over the years Henry formed alliances and openly contested his claim to the throne. Those who opposed his ideas went to Saxony to conspire against him, but he sent his armies to stop the opposition. Negotioations broke down and as he feared that civil war would break out eventually Henry relinqueshed his regency of Otto III. When Otto III died suddenly in 1002 with no heirs there was a succession crisis which eventually led to Henry duke of Bavaria's son becoming King Henry II. Henry II waged several wars against Poland during his reign. He was crowned emperor in 1014. When Henry II died in 1024, he had no children, and no relations in the Ottonian line to succeed him, so was the last of the Ottonian line to be Holy Roman Emperor. Therefore the College of Electors was formed in order to vote for the future emperor, Conrad II. §REF§Middleton, John. 2005. World monarchies. London. 2005§REF§ §REF§C. W. Previté-Orton. 1979. Cambridge Medieval History, Shorter: Volume 1, The Later Roman Empire to the Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": -2200, "year_to": -2113, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "iq_akkad_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Akkadian Empire", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "comment": null, "description": "By the end of Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign in 2193 BCE the empire was unravelling. The invasions from the Zagros mountains by the Gutian people that had begun in his father's reign were becoming more frequent. At the same time, he faced rebellions from vassal kings who fought against the high taxes they paid to defend against the Gutian invasions. It is also likely that a period of drought, and a resulting famine, around 2200 BCE contributed to the downfall of the empire as civil unrest increased among the population and the major site of Tell Leilan (as well as other cities) was abandoned in search of wetter areas. Nomadic tribes also migrated to find water sources which brought conflict between the groups. Upon Shar-Kali-Sharri's death in 2193 BCE, the state descended into anarchy. Four kings ruled in quick succession for three years, but it was not until Dudu came to the throne around 2189 BCE that some stability was seen, however by this point the empire had ceased to exist and he likely controlled only Akkad.§REF§Cookson, Evangeline; Hill, Daniel J.; Lawrence, Dan (1 June 2019). \"Impacts of long term climate change during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire\". Journal of Archaeological Science. 106: 1-9.§REF§ §REF§John Haywood (2015-06-04). Chronicles of the Ancient World. Quercus Publishing Ltd.§REF§ §REF§Nicholas Kraus, The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad, Zeitschrift f√ºr Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Arch√§ologie, vol. 108, iss. 1, pp. 1-9, June 2018.§REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": 1432, "year_to": 1432, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "kh_angkor_3@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Angkor", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "IA", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Decline of Angkor Empire during fourteenth century, eventual collapse in the fifteenth. Penny et al. (2019) argue for slow population decline during the fourteenth century CE, not an \"abrupt demographic collapse.\" Epidemic: this is controversial. Possible smallpox, bubonic plague and cholera epidemics (Gundersen 2015: 64), but documentary evidence is lacking and other scholars discount disease as an explanatory factor for the collapse of Angkor. Collapse of elite power: \"Elite political power shifted out of the region and many temples fell out of use\"; \"Many of Angkor’s sociopolitical elite left the region, but the area was not entirely depopulated or forgotten\" (Carter et al. 2019). Civil war between elite factions seems likely but I have not found references to it in the sources consulted. Possible external conquest, but this is disputed: One narrative identifies the sack of Angkor by Thai forces from Ayutthaya in 1431 CE as the coup de grâce—“definitive, complete, and irremediable” ...—preceded by a protracted decline in state power and influence from the 14th century CE. Although Ayutthayan forces are believed to have occupied Angkor for a period between 12 y and 15 y, historical sources are both equivocal and contradictory regarding these events\" (Penny et al. 2019). Fragmentation seems likely: kings could not retain control over the territories that were part of the empire at its height (Polkinghorne 2018: 254). Ruler assassination: possible but unknown.§REF§Carter et al. 2019: Carter, Alison K., Miriam T. Stark, Seth Quintus, Yijie Zhuang, Hong Wang, Piphal Heng, and Rachna Chhay. 2019. Temple Occupation and the Tempo of Collapse at Angkor Wat, Cambodia.‚Äù Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (25): 12226-31. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821879116.§REF§ §REF§Gundersen 2015: Gundersen, Lawrence. 2015. A Reassessment of the Decline of the Khmer Empire.‚Äù International Journal of Culture and History 1: 63-66. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijch.2015.1.1.011.§REF§ §REF§Penny et al. 2019: Penny, Dan, Tegan Hall, Damian Evans, and Martin Polkinghorne. 2019. Geoarchaeological Evidence from Angkor, Cambodia, Reveals a Gradual Decline Rather than a Catastrophic 15th-Century Collapse.‚Äù Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (11): 4871-76. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821460116.§REF§ §REF§Polkinghorne 2018: Polkinghorne, Martin. 2018. Reconfiguring Kingdoms: The End of Angkor and the Emergence of Early Modern Period Cambodia.‚Äù In Angkor: Exploring Cambodia's Sacred City, edited by Theresa McCullough, Stephen A. Murphy, Pierre Baptiste, and Thierry Zéphir, 252-71. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum.§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": -1700, "year_to": -1700, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_middle_k@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Middle Kingdom state", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IP", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "IP", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "comment": null, "description": "Collapse of Middle Kingdom centralized state, with Egypt fragmenting into territories controlled by rival powers (Bourriau 2000), also presumably civil war between these powers? Elite downward mobility coded present as old royal centres abandoned, old dynasties replaced by incomers: presumably old elite clustered round the rulers also suffered (Bourriau 2000). Not extermination, as the Thirteenth Dynasty continued to rule from Thebes, though they had lost control of Lower Egypt to the Hyksos Dynasty, of western Asian origin. Recent scholarship doesn't see this as a \"conquest\" by the Hyksos, rather the product of population movements from Asia to Egypt and emergence of local dynasty in the north after the weakening of the Middle Kingdom state. Population decline possible as texts mention famine (Ryholt 1997: 306) but not proven. Ruler killed: Seqenenre of the 17th Dynasty killed in battle trying to expel the Hyksos from the north (Clayton 1994: 96–97).§REF§Bourriau: Bourriau, Janine. 2000. The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 184-217. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Clayton 1996: Clayton, Peter A. 1994. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson.§REF§ §REF§Ryholt 1997: Ryholt, K. S. B. 1997. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": -1070, "year_to": -1070, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_new_k_2@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of New Kingdom state", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "IP", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "IP", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "comment": null, "description": "Collapse of New Kingdom centralized state, fragmentation into smaller territories, and there were \"significant changes in Egypt's political organization\" (Taylor 2000: 330). Civil war \"fomented by Panehsy, the viceroy of Kush\" but the period was mostly stable (Taylor 2000: 330). Possible smallpox: Ramesses V's mummy was found to have pustules typical of smallpox or a similar disease (Habicht et al. 2021), but this evidence seems too isolated to code lethal epidemic present. According to Taylor (2000: 331), the transition from the 20th Dynasty (last of the New Kingdom) to the 21st \"occurred smoothly\": perhaps no substantial elite downward mobility. No wholesale external conquest: pharaohs of Libyan origin in the north, but they did not take power through military means (Taylor 2000: 334-5). §REF§Taylor 2000: Taylor, John. 2000. The Third Intermediate Period (c.1069-664 BC).‚Äù In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 330-68. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": 455, "year_to": 476, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "it_western_roman_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Collapse of Western Empire", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Western Roman Empire, which was already in an ongoing state of decline, collapsed in the years following the 476 Battle of Ravenna (the Heruli under their King Odoacer versus the weakened Western Roman Army in Roman Italy). Prior to this, the Empire had been divided into two independant administrative regions due to it's vast size: the Eastern Empire ruled by Julius Nepos, and the Western Empire ruled by Romulus Augustu (who was not recognized as a legitimate ruler outside of Italy; the Eastern Roman Empire recognized Julius Nepos as the true Emperor). After the Battle of Ravenna, the West had suffered such a defeat that Odoacer deposed the emperor Romulus Augustu and became the first King of Italy. The Western Empire remained under control of Julius Nepos until his assasination in 480. At this point, the new Emperor, Zeno, conceeded that there was no central control over the Western territories, abolished the juridicial divison of the empire, and made himself sole emperor of the remaining Roman Empire. Odoacer's Italy, and the other kingdoms who gave military support in exchange for Roman Empire land, continued to operate within Roman administrative systems.§REF§Gibbon, E. 1995. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, Ed. J.B. Bury. Random House.§REF§ §REF§Börm, Henning (2008). Monumentum et instrumentum inscriptum (in German). Franz Steiner.§REF§ §REF§Martindale, John R., ed. (1980). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume II, AD 395-527. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome That Did Not Fall the Phoenix in the East. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": 1884, "year_to": 1942, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "pg_orokaiva_colonial@colonial_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Colonial occupation of Orokaiva lands", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Prior to colonial occupation the Orokaiva people (as they were called by the Europeans) lived as groups of autonomous tribes with no central political organisation and with no rulers other than 'big men' or tribal elders who helped to make collective decisions locally. In 1828 the Dutch East Indies claimed control over the western part of the island. From the start the relations between the indigenous people and europeans were violent and there was killing on both sides. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Orokaiva lands of the island of New Guinea were controlled by the competing colonial powers of Australia, Britain, the Netherlands and Germany. By the 1880s Europeans were occupying the island, with the German New Guinea Company administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate declared over the southeastern quadrant. At the beginning of World War I, Australian forces displaced the German authorities, and in 1921 the League of Nations formalised Australian control over the north eastern quadrant. Britain annexed the south eastern part of the island in 1888, but when gold was discovered shortly afterwards in the northern districts prospectors and miners migrated up island. In 1905 the Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory under the Papua Act. This resulted in administrative change and social, economic and development measures were undertaken by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. By World War II economic development, resource exploitation, and political consolidation had peaked. In early 1942 the Japanese invaded northern New Guinea but were defeated by the Allies and finally surrendered from their ongoing attacks to the islands 1945. During this entire occupation the Orokaiva remained as primarily as subsistence farmers.§REF§Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000§REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": 1838, "year_to": 1858, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "id_iban_2@colonial_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Colonial occupation of Sarawak by the Brooke family (\"White Rajahs\")", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1841 British adventurer James Brooke, founder of the so-called Brooke Raj, was granted a large area of land around the town of Sarawak and later confirmed the title of Rajah of Sarawak. The Raj expanded and colonised the Iban area of Brunei. The White Rajahs, as the dynasty is also known, pushed some Iban to the west, and incorporated others into their acquired territory. As Rajah of Sarawek, James Brook and his descendants profoundly changed the political organisation of the Iban people by creating political positions (previously not used by the Iban), leving taxes and banning exisiting traditions such as head hunting. However most Iban communites retained autonomy in local matters. The British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984.§REF§Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co.§REF§ §REF§Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. Culture Summary: Iban.‚Äù eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": 1819, "year_to": 1820, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_hawaii_kamehameha_k@contact_period", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Contact Period", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1778 British captain, James Cook, landed on the island of Kauaʻi and then sailed to other islands in the chain. After contact the population of the islands began to decline due to the introduction of smallpox.§REF§On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press§REF§ §REF§Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.§REF§ §REF§Kirch, Patrick V. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley: University of California Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1056, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "is_icelandic_commonwealth@christianity_reform", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Conversion to Christianity", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The settlers of Iceland, coming from Scandaniavian countries, were pagans who worshipped the Norse gods. In mainland Europe, Christianity was on the rise and there was pressure on Icelanders to follow suit. From 980 Christian missionaries began visiting Iceland and following the ascension of the christian king Olf Tryggvason to the Norweigian throne in 998. By 1000 many leaders of Iceland had converted to Christianty, and it seemed as though a civil war between pagans and Christians may break out. However, chieftain Thorgeir Ljosvetningagodi was appointed to decide Icelands religion. They country was made officially Christian but pagans were permitted to worship privately. In 1056 the first bishop of Iceland, Ísleifur Gissurarson, was consecrated.§REF§Bagge, Sverre (2014). Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation. Princeton University Press. p. 64§REF§ §REF§Curta, Florin and Holt, Andrew. 2016. Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History. ABC-CLIO. p482.§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": 1810, "year_to": 1810, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "th_rattanakosin@1810_coup", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Coup", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1782 the last of the Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup against the warrior-king ruler, Phaya Taksin, who was overthrown and executed, afterwhich they placed their own leader, Rama I Chakri, on the throne. (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 26) The capital was moved to Bangkok (known then as Rattanakosin or Krungthep). The kingdom went through a phase of rapid expansion under Rama I, extending north, south and east. §REF§Baker, C and Phongpaichit, P. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": 1171, "year_to": 1206, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_mongol_early@tribal_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Crisis in Mongolian Confederacy", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Mongolian Confederacy (or Khamag Mongol) became a major power in the Mongolian Plains after 1125 with the fall of the Liao dynasty. Between the 1160-1190s the Jerchens had gained the upper hand in the ongoing battles with the Mongols and began capturing their people as slaves through regular military expeditions and forcing them to pay tribute. There had been ongoing battles for power within the confederation tribes since its implementation, but it was after the poisoning and death of the ruler, Yesugei, at the hands of the Tatar tribes in 1171 that the confederation began to disintergrate. Wars broke out between tribes, and there was a power vacuum until 1189 when Temujin Khan came into rule. Although the ongoing tribal wars almost destroyed the confederation, Temujin finally suceeded in uniting or subduing all of the clans in 1206 as an empire, and was given the title of Ghengis Khan. §REF§Atwood, P. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File.§REF§ §REF§Bat-Ocher Bold (2001), Mongolian nomadic society: a reconstruction of the \"medieval\" history of Mongolia, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, p176§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": 1454, "year_to": 1455, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "kz_oirat@unrest", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Death of Esen Taishi and internal unrest", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Esen Tayisi (r. 1449-1454) unified Inner and Outer Mongolia under his leadership. Esen gave his son the title of taishi (grand preceptor), angering the general, Alag, who was expecting to receive the title. Alag raised a rebellion, joined by the Oirat leaders, and defeated and killed Esen in battle. Following this, the alliance between the Oirat and Mongol tribes disintergrated and thereafter followed two centuries of frequent warfare between the Mongol tribes.§REF§West, B, A. 2010. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": -354, "year_to": -341, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decine after losses against Qi", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The state of Jin had been divided into three states ruled by Wei, Han and Zhoa. Wei was one of the largest and most powerful states and its rulers continuously waged war on its neighbouring states, gained territories and expanded into parts of Shandong and Henan. However, at the Battle of Guiling (353 BCE) and the Battle of Mailing (341 BCE) the Wei suffered major losses at the hands of the state of Qi. The power of the Wei state began to decline considerably.§REF§Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.§REF§ §REF§Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. The Feudal State of Wei È≠è (www.chinaknowledge.de).‚Äù Accessed June 6. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html.§REF§" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": 1193, "year_to": 1260, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline and fall of Ayyubid dynasty", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Following Saladin's death in 1193, a succession crisis broke out between his sons and brother due to the divisions of hereditary ownership that Saladin had put in place throughout the empire which had been split into four kingdoms: Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. After two years of internal conflict over territories, Uthman demanded the sultanate after being lobbied by his father's emirs, which was later settled after a series of assaults against his brother, Al-Afadl's domain of Damascus. Uthman's other brother, al-'Adil became a lieutenant under him and weilded considerable influence. Upon Uthman's death in 1198, al-Afdal was made sultan again in Al-Adil's absense. Al-Adil returned from campaign and the two entered into a two year war, which resulted in al-Adil's victory in 1200. A devestating famine hit in 1200, which forced some parts of the population into cannabilism. During al-Adil's reign, he also had to contend with assaults by the Kingdom of Georgia and the Crusader campaigns between 1217-1218. Al-Adil died after the loss of Damietta to the Crusaders. His sons Al-Kamil and al-Mu'azzam proclaimed themselves sultan of Cairo and Damascus respectively. After failed negotiations with the Crusaders for the return of Damietta, the Ayyubids won a battle which drove the Crusaders out of the territory. In 1227 al-Mu'azzam died and his son, An-Nasir, became ruler of Damascus. However, al-Kamil almost immediately waged war on him and together with his brother, Al-Ashraf, took the lands of Damascus and Palestine which they divided between them. After further battles between al-Kamil and al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil's son, as-Salih Ayyub, was appointed governer and later deposed his uncle to become sultan. Sultan As-Salih Ayyub (r. 1240-1249) enhanced his power through purchasing Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) who served him as a military and in the government. However, after his death in 1249, the increasingly powerful Mamluks murdered As-Salih's son and heir and seized the throne for themselves. While the Ayyubid dynasty retained some power in Syria, in 1260 the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols and were recognised as the popular and rightful rulers of the kingdoms.§REF§Shillington, Kevin (2005), Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press§REF§ §REF§Humphreys, R.S. (1991). \"Mas≈´d b. Mawd≈´d b. Zangƒ´\". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VI: Mahk-Mid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 780-782.§REF§ §REF§Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Routledge§REF§ §REF§Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Routledge§REF§ §REF§Gibb, H. A. R. (1969). The Aiy≈´bids (PDF). A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume II.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": 983, "year_to": 1062, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_buyid_confederation@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline of Buyid Dynasty", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Until 983, upon the death of Adud al-Dawla, the Buyid dynasty had been thriving and growing while political power was firmly under the Buyid rulers. However a string of succession crises between his sons divided the territories and the central government became increasingly ineffectual. Adud's son and heir Ṣamṣām-al-Dawla had originally kept his fathers death a secret to avoid civil war, but upon his succession another of Adud's sons, Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris (known by his title of \"Sharaf al-Dawla\"), challenged Ṣamṣām and civil war broke out. In the meantime, a Kurdish Marwanid chieftain, Badh ibn Dustak seized Diyabakr and forced Ṣamṣām to recognize him as the vassal ruler of the region. Another son of Adud al-Dawla, Abu Tahir Firuzshah, established himself as the ruler of Basra and took the title of \"Diya' al-Dawla\", while another son, Abu'l-Husain Ahmad, established himself as the ruler of Khuzistan, taking the title of \"Taj al-Dawla\". In Iraq rebellions had occured which needed to be supressed, the most dangerous being a plot to make Bahāʾ-al-Dawla the ruler of Iraq. During the confusion Faḵr-al-Dawla tried to assert himself as chief and attacked Ḵūzestān. Ṣamṣām retook Basra and Ḵūzestān and his two brothers fled to Faḵr-al-Dawla's territories. The weakened dynasty and empire gradually fell to attacks by the Ghaznavid and Seljuq Turks. In 1029 when Majd al-Sawla requested assistance from Mahmud of Ghazna to supress an uprising by his troops, Mahmud instead deposed Majd and replaced him with a Ghaznavid governor. (Bosworth 1963: 53, 59, 234) Finally in 1055 Tughrul of the Seljuq Empire conquered Baghdad and removed the Buyid dynasty for good, establishing Seljuq rule in the territories, while the Abbasid Caliphs remained as firgurehead. (Lewis 1995: 89)§REF§Tilman Nagel, Buyids,‚Äù Encyclop√¶dia Iranica, online edition, 2012, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids§REF§ §REF§Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Harlow: Longman§REF§ §REF§Busse, Heribert (1975). \"Iran Under the Buyids\". In Frye, Richard N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 250-305§REF§ §REF§Bernard Lewis, The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years, (New York: Scribner, 1995)§REF§" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": -145, "year_to": -130, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "af_greco_bactrian_k@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline of Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Greco-Bactrians entered an alliance with the Seleucids under Demetrius II in order to fight against the Parthians whose ongoing invasions and victories over conquering Greco-Bactrian territory had weakened their position. Spurred on by the expansion of the Xiongnu, nomadic tribes began to move southwards and pushed into Greco-Bactrian territory throughout the second century BCE. The nomadic steppe people, the Yuezhi, also began moving southwards in Bactrian territory, after being driven out of their region by the Wusun. The Scythians (Saka) began to invade in the mid-second century BCE, expanding from the Tarm Basin and conquering parts of Parthia as well as Bactria, bringing about the decline of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and putting an end to Greek rule in the region.§REF§Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§ §REF§Bernard, Paul. 2012. Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu. In Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations along the Silk Road, edited by Joan Aruz and Elisabetta Valtz Fino, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": -950, "year_to": -900, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_neo_hittite_k@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline of Neo-Hittites", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After the collapse of Hatti New Kingdom in 1180 BCE, the Hittite civilization was reorganised into fifteen small, independant, city-states in the periphial areas of the former kingdom. The states, collectively refered to as Neo-Hittite, were spread across south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. There were major cultural and admistrative changes across each Neo-Hittite state compared to the previous New Kingdom era. The remaining Hittite states were regularly at war with the Assyrians and the Kaska people. These states lasted for around 500 years after the collapse of the New Kingdom until they began to be conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The remaining states of Carchemish and Melid were made vassal kingdoms by Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (r. 858–823 BC) and were fully incorporated in Assyria during 717-708 BCE in the reign of Sargon II.§REF§Bryce, T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Bryce, T. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": 1140, "year_to": 1190, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_seljuk_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Decline of Seljuq Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1141 the Seljuq Emperor, Ahmad Sanjar had to fight off revolts by Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, Ghurids in Afghanistan, Qarluks in modern Kyrghyzstan, and an invasion by Kara-Khitais from the east who had already begun defeating vassal rulers of the Seljuq provinces. Sanjar led an army against the Kara-Khitai, was defeated and escaped, however most of his family were taken captive. The Seljuq Empire lost its eastern territories. In 1147 the Second Crusade landed in Syria and Nur ad-Din, leader of the Syrian province of the Seljuq Empire, formed a local alliance to oppose the crusaders. General Shirkuh, who had been granted the territories of of Fatimid land in Egypt was later succeeded by Saladin, a Sunni Muslim Kurd, who rebelled against Nur ad-Din, captured most of Syria, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. At the same time, the Kingdom of Georgia also begun to expand, taking territories on the Seljuq border. The Ghuzz (Oghuz Turks) raised a rebellion in 1153, Sanjar was captured and though he managed to escape after three years he died a year later. Upon his death the already weakened and factured empire declined rapidly. Toghrul III (r. 1176-1194) the last Sultan of Seljuq (excluding Anatolia) was defeated by Takash, Shah of the Khwarazmian Empire, in 1194. The Empire finally collapsed and the only remaining former Seljuq territory was the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia.§REF§Basan, Osman Aziz (2010). The Great Seljuqs: A History. Taylor & Francis.§REF§ §REF§Peacock, Andrew (2015). The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd.§REF§ §REF§Peacock, A.C.S.; Yadiz, Sara Nur, eds. (2013). The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East. I.B.Tauris.§REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": -1075, "year_to": -1045, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "cn_late_shang_dyn@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Decline of Shang - foundation of Zhou Dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Shang was conquered by one of the tribes of its state: the Zhou from Western China. Wu Geng, the son of the Shang king, Di Xin (posthumously named Zhou), fled to the Zhou state to ask King Wu for help against his tyrannical and corrupt father. King Wu defeated Di Xin at the Battle of Muye around 1046 BCE, and Di Xin committed suicide by setting fire to himself in his palace. King Wu established the Zhou dynasty. Zhou allowed Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom, but sent an army and guards to ensure he didn't rebel. However, upon King Wu's death, Wu Geng and the remaining Shang dynasty joined The Rebellion of the Three Guards (1042–1039 BCE). The rebellion failed, Wu Geng was killed in battle, and the Shang pricedom ended.§REF§Sawyer, R. 2011. Ancient Chinese Warfare. Basic Books.§REF§ §REF§Robert Eno. 2009. 'Shang State Religion' in Early Chinese Religion. Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC-220 AD), edited by John Lagerwey and Mark Kalinowski. Leiden: Brill.§REF§ §REF§Li, Feng (2006). Axel Menges (ed.). Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC.§REF§ §REF§Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). \"Western Zhou History\". In Michael Loewe; Edward L. Shaughnessy (eds.). The Cambridge History of ancient China - From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 292-351§REF§ §REF§Hucker, Charles O. (1978), China to 1850: A short history, Stanford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Li, Feng (2014) [1st pub. 2013]. Early China: A Social and Cultural History (Reprint with corrections ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": 1070, "year_to": 1150, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mx_toltec@decline_of_tollan", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Decline of Tollan", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "SU", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "comment": null, "description": "Beginning around 1000 CE Tollan (Tula) experienced a drying climate and famine in 1070-1077 which forced the population to move southwards away from their drying homelands. This important migration led to ethno-religious conflicts while in 1115-1116 tribes from the north attacked Tollan domains, defeating the priest-king, Huemac, who abandoned the city along with many of the Toltec people. Huemac was later abandoned by his followers and the majority of Toltecs began their diaspora across Mesoamerica. Most of the living quarters of Tula were abandoned by 1150 and there is evidence of looting, the ceremonial centre being burned and the pyramids destroyed around the mid-to-late twelfth century. However the site remained partially occupied and came under the rule of the city-state Culhuacán.§REF§George L. Cowgill (March 2004). \"Ancient Tollan: Tula and the Toltec heartland\". 78 (299). Antiquity: 226-227.§REF§ §REF§Hanns J. Prem (1997). Ancient Americas : A Brief History & Guide to Research. Kornelia Kurbjuhn (translator). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. pp. 20-23.§REF§ §REF§Fash, W.L., & Lyons, M.E. (2005) The Ancient American World. Oxford University Press§REF§ §REF§Knight, A. (2002) Mexico: Volume 1, From the Beginning to the Spanish Conquest. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": 779, "year_to": 840, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_uygur_khaganate@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline of Uighur Khaganate", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Between 779 and 847 CE there was a high turn over of rulers, as one after another died, or was killed in battle, or forced to flee, or forced to commit suicide, resulting in the polity seeing twelve khagans in forty-one years (out of a total fourteen throughout the entire Uighur Khaganate). The Uighur were under constant pressure from neighbouring states. The Tibetans were a source of concern, and the Kirghiz in the north posed a serious ongoing threat which broke out into full war in 820 CE which continued intermitentantly throughout the period. 839 CE brought heavy snowfall, famine and disease, which along with the ongoing wars with the Kirghiz, who destroyed the Uighur capital in 840, led to the final collapse of the state.§REF§Mackerras, C. 1990. The Uighurs. In D. Sinor (ed.) The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, 317-342. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Rogers, J. D. 2012. Inner Asian States and Empires: Theories and Synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 20:205-256§REF§ §REF§Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell. p152-155.§REF§ §REF§Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press. p185-187.§REF§" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": 1050, "year_to": 1203, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mr_wagadu_3@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Decline of Wagadu", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "P", "other_polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "comment": null, "description": "The Kingdom of Ghana, referred to by it's majority peoples, the Soninke, as Wagadu. During the period 1075-77 the empire offcially converted to Islam to create political and commercial ties with the Almoravid people. In the late 11th century the Sosso people began to conquer large areas of the empire that had previously been agricultural land, in to which the desert was expanding. It also seems that the Wagadu rulers authority and power decreased after the conversion to Islam, suggesting that the Sosso gradually subjugated them rather than conquering through violent and sudden warfare. In 1203 the Sosso took the Wagadu capital of Kumbi Saleh, marking the end of a gradual decline of Wagadu. By 1240 the previous Wagadu territory had been completely absorbed into the kingdom of Mali.§REF§David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.§REF§ §REF§Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge.§REF§ §REF§Simonis, F. 2010. L‚ÄôAfrique soudanaise eu Moyen Age. Le temps des Grands empires (Ghana, Mali Songha√Ø). CRDP, Acad√©mie d'Aix Marseille, Marseille.§REF§ §REF§Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996), \"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa\" (PDF), History in Africa, 23: 197-232§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": 190, "year_to": 250, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_xianbei@decline", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Decline of Xianbei Confederation", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "SU", "labor": "SU", "unfree_labor": "SU", "suffrage": "SU", "public_goods": "SU", "religion": "SU", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The nomadic empire of Xianbei Confederation was loosely established in 93 CE in Mongolia. The confederation was successful in expanding their territory for the first century, by subjugating the northern Xiongnu and gaining territory from the Ussuri to the Caspian Sea. However, Xianbei lacked organisation and when khan Tanshihuai died in 182 CE the confederation began to unravel. A short four year reign of his son, Helian, followed by succession crisis between Helian's brother, Kuitou, and son, Qianman, destroyed the unity among the Xianbei. By 190 CE the confederation had broken into three factions, with Kuitou ruling in Inner Mongolia, Kebineng in northern Shanxi, and Suli and Mijia in northern Liaodong. In 205, Kuitou's successor, his brother Fuluohan, was betrayed after attempting to form an alliance with the Wuhuan chieftain, who instead allied with another Xianbei khan, Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan. Kebineng went on to pursue a series of alliances and advances on other Xianbei territory until he was killed in 235 CE. At this point the confederacy began to disintergrate and the states were split further into smaller and independant domains.§REF§de Crespigny, Rafe. 2017. Fire Over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty, 23-220 AD, Brill§REF§ §REF§Rogers, J. D. 2012. Inner Asian States and Empires: Theories and Synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 20:205-256§REF§" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": 225, "year_to": 250, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "af_kushan_emp@fragmentation", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Disintegration of Kushan Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "SU", "downward_mobility": "SU", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After the death of Vasudeva I around 225 the Kushan Empire split into semi-autonomous kingdoms. The Western Kushans were quickly subjugated by the Sasanian Empire under the first Sasanian sovereign Ardashir, who captured Sogdiana, Bactria, and Gandhara. Kushan rule was then withdrawn to the eastern territories of Punjab.§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). From the Kushans to the Western Turks. p202.§REF§ §REF§Harmatta, János, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi. History of Civilizations in Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 BC to AD 250. Paris: UNESCO, 1994. p245-264§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": 1236, "year_to": 1242, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ua_kievan_rus@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Disintegration of the Kievan Rus", "decline": "IA", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Kievan Rus state had been gradually weakening over the 12th century due to in-fighting between regional powers, which had developed into independant states, and economic issues around trade which was disrupted and declined by the Crusades. Issues of unconventional succession systems (whereby the eldest male member of the ruling dynasty succeed to the throne) had also caused constant rivalry and familicide among the ruling class. Between 1236-1242 the Mongols invaded and conquered Kievan Rus destroying several cities including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. The Rus principalities became vassals of the Golden Horde. §REF§Douglas, Robert Kennaway and J√ºlg, Bernhard. 1911. \"Mongols\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclop√¶dia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.712-721.§REF§ §REF§Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1405, "year_to": 1526, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "uz_timurid_emp@fragmentation", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Disintegration of Timurid Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "SU", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The TImurid Empire was founded by Timur, a Turco-Mongol warlord who reigned from 1370 until his death in 1405. Timur had appointed his sons and grandsons as governors across the empire and upon his death family disputes and succession struggles in 1405-1409, 1447-1451, and 1490-1501 led to civil wars and the independance of several provinces across the empire. Because of the division, both politically and territorially, across the empire, the Timurid power declined rapidly in the second half of the fifteenth century. Neighbouring states such as Aq Qoyunlu and the Safavids, launched successful invasions against the weakened empire, conquering many of the key cities in the first decade of the 1500s, while the Timurids were pushed out of their territories. From Kabul, Babur (a descendant of Timur) founded the Mughal Empire in 1526.§REF§Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§ §REF§A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§ §REF§\"Timurids\". The Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth ed.). New York City: Columbia University.§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": 639, "year_to": 687, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "fr_merovingian_emp_2@6th_7th_c_frag", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Division of Merovingian kingdom (after Clovis I)", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "comment": null, "description": "\"On the death of Chlotar’s son Dagobert I in 639, the realm was divided yet again, but by that time the kings of the two regions, Neustria and Burgundy on the one hand and Austrasia on the other, had been forced to yield much of their power to household officials known as mayors of the palace. The later Merovingian kings were little more than puppets and were enthroned and deposed at will by powerful mayors of the palace.\" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merovingian-dynasty). In 679 Theuderic III also became king of Austrasia (on the death of Dagobert II) unifying the Frankish realms. However in 686 the new Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia made war with Pepin of Heristal who Theuderic had previously made peace with. \"In 687, Pepin defeated them at Tertry in the Vermandois. Many fled to the nearby abbeys of Péronne and Saint-Quentin. Berthar and Theuderic III withdrew themselves to Paris. Pepin followed them and eventually forced a peace treaty with the condition that Berthar leave his office.\"§REF§Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman.§REF§ §REF§Anderson, Perry. 2013. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. London: Verso. S§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": 583, "year_to": 700, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "mn_turk_khaganate_1@6th_c_frag", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Division of Turkic Khaganate into western and eastern halves", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "IA", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "comment": null, "description": "First Turkic Khaganate split in two after civil war in the late sixth century CE (western and eastern halves) (Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018). Chinese sources mention a famine and epidemic among the Turks in the late sixth century, noting that \"half the population has died of hunger and disease\" (Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018): coded for population decline and collapse and epidemic, though we maybe shouldn't trust the written sources too much on this. Elite downward mobility (but not extermination) inferred from protracted civil war. Ruler assassinated: Dulan Khagan murdered in 599 (Stark 2016: 5).§REF§Ganiev and Kukarskih 2018: Ganiev, Rustam, and Vladimir Kukarskih. 2018. Climate Extremes and the Eastern Turkic Empire in Central Asia.‚Äù Climatic Change 149 (3): 385-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2236-9.§REF§ §REF§Stark 2016: Stark, S√∂ren. 2016. T√ºrk Khaganate.‚Äù In The Encyclopedia of Empire, edited by N. Dalziel and J. M. MacKenzie, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe430.§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": -339, "year_to": -200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ua_skythian_k_3@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Downfall of the Scythians", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In the second half of the 3rd Century BCE the Celts and Thracians invaded from the west, and the Samartians came from the east, conquering land and leading to the downfall of the Scythian kingdom. By around 200 BCE the remaining Scythians withdrew to the Crimea where they established a new kingdom extending from the lower Dnieper to the Crimea. During their efforts to extend their control over Greek cities north of the Black Sea, they were defeated in battle, annexed territory to Bosporan Kingdom, and ceased to exist. Does not seem to be population estimates for this specific time but decline is likely considering ongoing warfare and loss of all territories.§REF§A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ §REF§Ivantchik, Askold. 2018. \"Scythians\". Encyclop√¶dia Iranica.§REF§ §REF§Cernenko, E. V. (2012). The Scythians 700-300 BC. Bloomsbury Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": 1550, "year_to": 1590, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "us_hawaii_2@16th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Dynastic Crisis", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "P", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In (approximately) the late 16th century, Umi killed his half-brother, Hākau, in an ambush and seized control of the kingdom. Umi then fought several wars with rebelliious chiefs on the island, defeated them all, and unified the island under his rule. Later, his two sons fought in battle at Hualālai volcano; one was killed in the process. §REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai‚Äôi. Berkeley: University of California Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": 1054, "year_to": 1072, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "crisis_case_id": "tr_byzantine_emp_2@11th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Eleventh-century crisis in Byzantine Empire", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During this period the Byzantine Empire faced decades of inept rulers, economic difficulties, revolts, and territorial losses. With the shift of the army from a defensive citizen army to professional career soldiers, spending on the military had significantly increased, while by the end of Basil II's reign, the threat of invasion had receded, and so the mercenary army was an expensive and unnecessary drain on revenue. Efforts to revive the economy resulted in inflation and debased gold. While standing local units were demobilised, the army became more dependant on mercenaries. During the Great Schism in 1054, the Normans began a steady invasion into Byzantine Italy. Calabria was captured in 1060, in 1068 Bari was taken, soon followed by the seige of the Byzantine stronghold in Apuila which fell in April 1071. In the same year the military aristocrat, Romanos Diogenes, who had been elected as emperor in 1068, undertook a campaign to fight the Seljuks in the east. He suffered a terrible defeat, was captured, and signed a peace treaty. On his release he found of the plot to place another emperor in power, and after two defeats in battle by the rebels, he surrendered and was tortured to death. His successor, Michael Doukas (r. 1071-1078), did not honour the treaty and as a result the Turkish Seljuks continued their invasions of Antolia, which by this time had no standing army to defend against the attacks. By 1081 the Seljuks had conqured most of the Antolian plateau and founded their capital at Nicaea. In 1081 the Komnenoi dynasty came to power under Alexios I who was eventually able to curb the Byzantine decline and improve the recovery of the military and economy.§REF§Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Hooper, Nicholas; Bennett, Matthew (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p157.§REF§ §REF§Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). \"Alexios I Komnenos\". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Norwich, John Julius (1993), Byzantium: The Apogee, Penguin.§REF§ §REF§§REF§" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": -450, "year_to": -250, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "gr_crete_classical@polis_wars", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Elite Infighting & Polity Wars", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "P", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "IA", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "During the late fourth century, constant elite in-fighting led to a near-collapse of the aristocratic order. Constant warfare, which lasted for hundreds of years, between the city states of Gortyn, Kydonia (Chania), Lyttos, Polyrrhenia and Knossos weakened Crete's economy. The city states began to invite mainland powers Macedon, Rhodes, and Ptolemaic Egypt into their wars. By 220 BCE the island was divided into two city state and mainland coalitions in the Lyttian War: The Aetolian League of Cnossus, Gortys, Cydonia, Rhodes, against the Achaean League of Polyrrhenia, Lyttos, Lappa, and Macedonia. It seems that overall the Achaean League was successful, and the Aetolians were expelled from the island, leaving Crete as a Macedonian protectorate in all but name.§REF§Detorakis, T. 1994. History of Crete. Heraklion.§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 2005. War in the Hellenistic World : a Social and Cultural History. Blackwell Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": 1387, "year_to": 1390, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ml_mali_emp@14th_c_crisis", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Elite Internal Struggles, decline of Mali's power, rise of Songhai", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "SU", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "SU", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "IP", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "After the death of Mansa Musa Keita II there was a power struggle among the ruling class. Mansa Maghan Keita II came to power in 1387, but he reigned for two years and was deposed and killed in 1389 by a non-royal, Sandaki. Sandaki then took power and was the first ruler of Mail outside of Keita dynastic family. However he only reigned for a year until Maghan Keita III (a descendant of Mansa Gao Keita) assasinated him in 1390 and the throne was brought back under Keita rule. Sources for this period are scarce and so little is known of other variables during this time.§REF§D T Niane. Mali and the second Mandingo expansion. D T Niane. ed. 1984. General History Of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. London.§REF§ §REF§Gomez, Michael A. (2018). African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000). Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa. New York: Marcus Weiner Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 1100, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "pe_wari_emp@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "End of Wari Settlements", "decline": "P", "collapse": "P", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "IA", "extermination": "IA", "uprising": "IA", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "IA", "century_plus": "IA", "fragmentation": "IA", "capital": "IA", "conquest": "IA", "assassination": "IA", "depose": "IA", "constitution": "IA", "labor": "IA", "unfree_labor": "IA", "suffrage": "IA", "public_goods": "IA", "religion": "IA", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Extreme climate drying leads to a collapse of some societies such as Wari. This changed the society in the sense that people moved out to more agriculturally viable areas, and may have moved more frequently, and there may not have been an 'elite' centre, but it was not the case that they 'died out'.§REF§McEwan, G. F. 2006. The Incas: New Perspectives. ABC CLIO. Santa Barbara§REF§ §REF§Schreiber, K. \"The Rise of an Andean Empire\" in Susan E Bergh ed. 2012. Wari: Lords of the Andes. Thames & Hudson, Inc. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": 1899, "year_to": 1914, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "fm_truk_2@european_conflicts", "is_first_100": false, "name": "European Proxy Conflicts", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "comment": null, "description": "Following the Spanish-American war on the Pacific, Spain 'sold' the Caroline Islands to the German Empire in 1889. In 1914 the Japanese seized the Marianas, Carolines, Marshall and Palau island groups from German control during World War I. Following Germany's defeat, Chuuk became a possession of the Empire of Japan under the League of Nations mandate.§REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": 1750, "year_to": 1767, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "th_ayutthaya@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of Ayutthaya", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "IP", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Good population statistics seem to be lacking (Bunnag et al. 2012). \"Severe\" smallpox epidemic in 1749-50 (Carmichael 2008). City of Ayutthaya was sacked by Burmese forces in 1767; kingdom ceased to exist and Thai nobility and royals settled at the Burmese court (Baker and Phongpaichit 2017: ch. 6). Coded for elite extermination and fragmentation. Baker and Phongpaichit (2017: ch. 6) argue that \"The fall of the city was due not so much to internal conflict or dynastic decline but to a failure to manage the social and political consequences of prosperity.\"§REF§Baker and Phongpaichit 2017: Baker, Chris, and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ §REF§Bunnag et al. 2012: Bunnag, COL. Amornrat, Rosarin Gray, and Peter Xenos. 2012. Toward an Historical Demography of Thailand.‚Äù Journal of Population and Social Studies 20: 82-108.§REF§ §REF§Carmichael 2008: Carmichael, Gordon A. 2008. Demographic Disequilibrium in Early Twentieth Century Thailand: Falling Mortality, Rising Fertility, or Both?‚Äù Asian Population Studies 4 (2): 161-76. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441730802247265.§REF§" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": -671, "year_to": -656, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_kushite@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fall of Kushite Kingdom", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 674 BCE war broke out between the Kushites under Taharqa and the Assyrians under King Esarhaddon. Although Taharqa was successful in this fight, in 671 BCE the Assyrians attacked again, beginning the Assyrian conquest of Egypt by capturing Memphis. Taharqa fled southwards and his family were imprisoned in Assyria. Esarhaddon appointed governors as vassal rulers but their ineptitude allowed Taharqa to regain control of the city. Esarhaddon attempted again to remove Taharqa from Memphis, but he died in Palestine in 669 BCE en route to Egypt. However his successor did defeat Tarharqa who died in 664 BCE. The end of the Kushite rule and the beginning of Saite Dynasty rule in Egypt was a peaceful transition. The next King of Egypt, Tantamani, regained control of Egypt in 663 BCE, besieging cities and killing vassal rulers, until the Assyrians sent a large army south, sacked Thebes and forced Tantamani to flee to Nubia where he held control of Upper Egypt until 656 BCE when Psamtik I took control of Thebes and united Egypt under the Saite dynasty.§REF§Edwards, David (2004). The Nubian Past. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 2, 75, 77-78.§REF§ §REF§László Török (1998). \"The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization\". Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the Near and Middle East. Leiden: Brill.§REF§ §REF§Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 64-65.§REF§ §REF§Spalinger, Anthony (1976). \"Psammetichus, King of Egypt: I\". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 13: 133-147.§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": -232, "year_to": -187, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "in_mauryan_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of Mauryan Empire", "decline": "SU", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "SU", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Maurya Empire entered a period of decline and instability following Askoa's death, with weak rulers overseeing a quickly fragmenting state facing outward invasion by Bactrian Greeks. Brihadratha would be the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, killed by his military commander Pushyamitra in 187 BCE. Pushyamitra would be the founder of the successor state of the Shunga Dynasty. Population estimates vary considerably so decline cannot be confirmed.§REF§Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358.§REF§" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": -1500, "year_to": -1430, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "tr_hatti_old_k@end", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fall of Old Kingdom of Hatti", "decline": "IP", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "A", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "The last monarch of the Old Kingdom reigned until about 1500 BCE, after which the kingdom began a steady decline. They were under constant attack, mainly from the Kaska, and the period entered a phase of reduced territory, lack of records, weakness and obscurity. From 1430 BCE, from the reign of Tudhaliya I, the polity segues in to the Hittite Empire.§REF§Bryce T. R. (2005) The Kingdom of the Hittites, New York: Oxford University Press§REF§ §REF§O.R. (1966). The Hittites. Penguin.§REF§" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": -331, "year_to": -275, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_achaemenid_emp@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Achaemenid Empire, Wars of the Diadochi", "decline": "IA", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "A", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "A", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": { "id": 506, "name": "gr_macedonian_emp", "long_name": "Macedonian Empire", "start_year": -330, "end_year": -312 }, "comment": null, "description": "No mention of population decline in the sources consulted: probably we don't know. Elite downward mobility but not extermination: many but not all Persian elites replaced by Greek and Macedonian ones after Alexander's conquest (Bickerman 1983; Strootman 2015). Civil war: seemingly not in Achaemenid Empire, but yes if referring to the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death (323 BE) (Wheatley 2009). The end result was the fragmentation of the lands conquered by Alexander (Wheatley 2009). Ruler assassinated: Darius III, last Achaemenid king (Heckel 2009: 41).§REF§Bickerman 1983: Bickerman, E. 1983. The Seleucid Period.‚Äù In The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 3: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods, edited by E. Yarshater, 3:1-20. The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521200929.003.§REF§ §REF§Heckel 2009: Heckel, Waldemar. 2009. Alexander‚Äôs Conquest of Asia.‚Äù In Alexander the Great: A New History, edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence A. Tritle, 26-52. Maldon, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.§REF§ §REF§Strootman 2015: Rolf Strootman, \"SELEUCID EMPIRE,\" Encyclop√¶dia Iranica, online edition, 2015, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/seleucid-empire (accessed on 25 January 2021).§REF§ §REF§Wheatley 2009: Wheatley, Patrick. 2009. The Diadochi, or Successors to Alexander.‚Äù In Alexander the Great: A New History, edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence A. Tritle, 53-68. Maldon, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.§REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": 1516, "year_to": 1517, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3@end_burji", "is_first_100": false, "name": "Fall of the Burji dynasty", "decline": "A", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "A", "downward_mobility": "A", "extermination": "A", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "A", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "A", "capital": "P", "conquest": "P", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "P", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "In 1516 the Ottomans turned their full attention to Mamluk rule in Syria and Egypt. They seized Cairo and defeated the Mamluks in January 1517 and a few days later the Mamluk Sultan, Tuman Bay was captured and hanged at the city gates. The Burji family were retained as vassal rulers to the Ottoman Empire, while the governors of each region were selected by the Ottomans. This completed the Ottoman conquest of the Middle East. §REF§Uraiya Faroqhi. 2009. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History. Translated by Shelley Laura Frisch. Markus Wiener Publishers.§REF§ §REF§M. W. Daly; Carl F. Petry (1998). The Cambridge History of Egypt. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1335, "year_to": 1339, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": null, "is_uncertain": null, "crisis_case_id": "ir_il_khanate@end", "is_first_100": true, "name": "Fall of the Ilkhanate", "decline": "P", "collapse": "A", "epidemic": "P", "downward_mobility": "P", "extermination": "P", "uprising": "A", "revolution": "A", "successful_revolution": "A", "civil_war": "P", "century_plus": "A", "fragmentation": "P", "capital": "SU", "conquest": "A", "assassination": "P", "depose": "P", "constitution": "A", "labor": "A", "unfree_labor": "A", "suffrage": "A", "public_goods": "A", "religion": "A", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Civil war over the succession after the death of the ruler Abū Saʿīd in 1335 (Wing 2007: 77-82). He was allegedly poisoned by his wife and her ex-husband (Lane 2012: 265). The Ilkhanate disintegrated and the Chinggisid elite lost their authority to military governors (Hope 2016: 196): coded for elite extermination, though more reading on this would be helpful. Epidemic: Black Death struck the region after Abū Saʿīd's death. This new strain of Yersinia pestis \"'seeded' a new reservoir of plague that broke out devastatingly in the western Mongol territories (the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde), causing plague outbreaks from at least 1346 in Tabriz, Azerbaijan, Saray, Khorazm, and, of course, in Caffa\" (Green 2018). Inferred population decline from mention of epidemics and warfare in this period (Green 2018; Wing 2007: 16). After Abū Saʿīd, \"No one had general control or widespread acknowledgement of legitimacy\" (Morgan 2009: 433).§REF§Green 2018: Green, Monica H. 2018. Climate and Disease in Medieval Eurasia.‚Äù Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. June 25, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.6.§REF§ §REF§Hope 2016: Hope, Michael. 2016. Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Power, Politics, and Tradition in the Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Lane 2012: Daryaee, Touraj, and George E. Lane, eds. 2012. The Mongols in Iran.‚Äù In The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§ §REF§Morgan 2009: Morgan, David. 2009. The Decline and Fall of the Mongol Empire.‚Äù Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19 (4): 427-37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1356186309990046.§REF§ §REF§Wing 2007: Wing, Patrick. 2007. The Decline of the Ilkhanate and the Mamluk Sultanate‚Äôs Eastern Frontier.‚Äù Maml≈´k Studies Review 11 (2): 77-88.§REF§" } ] }