Polity List

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            "id": 206,
            "name": "dz_numidia",
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            "long_name": "Numidia",
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            "id": 207,
            "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
            "start_year": -217,
            "end_year": -30,
            "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
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            "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§  Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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                "name": "Upper Egypt",
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                "capital_city": "Luxor",
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            "id": 208,
            "name": "et_aksum_emp_1",
            "start_year": -149,
            "end_year": 349,
            "long_name": "Axum I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "An empire with Aksum as its capital dominated the northern highlands of Ethiopia from the first to the seventh century CE. \". §REF§ (Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press. §REF§  This empire was characterised by a combination of indigenous Ethiopian and South Arabian culture. .\" §REF§ (Ricard 2004, 16) Alain Ricard. The Languages &amp; Literatures of Africa: The Sands of Babel. James Currey Publishers. Oxford. §REF§  Between about 150 and 270 CE, Aksum extended its control to South Arabia, including the Yemen Coastal Plain or Plateau, the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains.<br>Without Arabian and Nubian territories, the population of the Aksumite empire has been estimated as \"at the outside half a million\". §REF§ (Munro-Hay 1991, 166) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. §REF§  As for Aksum itself, during the first four centuries CE its core area covered between 80 and 100 hectares; §REF§ (Curtis 2017, 106) Matthew C Curtis. Aksum, town and monuments. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing. §REF§  assuming 50-200 people per hectare, this would mean a population of between 4,500 and 200,000, at least in the core area. The empire was governed by a single ruler (negus) and his retinue; according to some sources, the administrative system was relatively poorly developed.  §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century.  Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§  Provinces were ruled indirectly through regional rulers §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century.  Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§  who sent tribute.  §REF§ (Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport. §REF§",
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                "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain",
                "subregion": "Arabia",
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                "latitude": "14.850891000000",
                "capital_city": "Sanaa",
                "nga_code": "YE",
                "fao_country": "Yemen",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
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            "name": "ma_mauretania",
            "start_year": -125,
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            "long_name": "Mauretania",
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            "start_year": 350,
            "end_year": 599,
            "long_name": "Axum II",
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            "name": "dz_vandal_k",
            "start_year": 429,
            "end_year": 534,
            "long_name": "Vandal Kingdom",
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            "name": "sd_makuria_k_1",
            "start_year": 568,
            "end_year": 618,
            "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I",
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            "name": "et_aksum_emp_3",
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            "end_year": 800,
            "long_name": "Axum III",
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            "name": "sd_alodia",
            "start_year": 600,
            "end_year": 1504,
            "long_name": "Alodia Kingdom",
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            "id": 215,
            "name": "sd_makuria_k_2",
            "start_year": 619,
            "end_year": 849,
            "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II",
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            "id": 216,
            "name": "mr_wagadu_2",
            "start_year": 700,
            "end_year": 1077,
            "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  Spreading east and north from the Senegal River into modern-day Mauritania and Mali, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  this polity started growing as a confederation from the 6th century CE. §REF§ Susan K. McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh. n.d. 'Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city'. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>.) §REF§  From the 8th century onwards, geographers from North Africa and Spain such as Ibn Hawqal began to document the existence of Ghana in Arabic texts, fantasizing about its gold and resources. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 11) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  at this stage, its influence spread over Awdaghust (or Aoudaghost) in the Sahara §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 32-33) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  and it encroached on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. <i>L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï)</i>. Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§ <br>This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in <i>Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle</i>, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§  Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 221,
            "name": "tn_fatimid_cal",
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            "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate",
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            "general_description": "The Fatimid Caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171 CE. After a failed uprising against the Sunni Abbasids in Syria, the head of the Ismaili Shi'a religious movement - who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah by way of her descendent Ismail - fled to Tunisia. There, with the help of local Berber warriors, he 'seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad'. §REF§ (Man 1999, 74) John Man. 1999. <i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  From there, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, extending their rule into Egypt. The effective end of the Fatimid Caliphate occurred at the end of the 11th century (though the Caliphate remained nominally intact for nearly another century). At this time, a series of Fatimid viziers increased their control of the military and, ruling from their own palaces, turned the imam-caliph into a nominal figurehead. §REF§ (Walker 2006, 88) Paul E. Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i under the Fatimids', in <i>Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies</i>, edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, 70-94. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Over many years in the final century, the Fatimid state experienced a long decline marked by incompetent viziers. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 73) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although relatively little is known about the Fatimid bureaucracy during the early period (909-969 CE), we can say that it did not have a vizier. §REF§ (Walker 2011, 104) Paul E. Walker. 2011. 'Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate and the Delineation of Public Duties under the Fatimids', in <i>Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns</i>, edited by A. Afsaruddin, 93-110. London: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In Tunisia, the Fatimids used slave eunuchs to command army and naval forces, and, following the precedent of previous Islamic governments, founded cities as administrative and military centres and seats for their courts. §REF§ (Yaacov 1991, 4) Yaacov Lev. 1991. <i>State and Society in Fatimid Egypt</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. §REF§  Suggesting the presence of a highly capable full-time bureaucracy, one of their purpose-built cities, the second capital Mansuriyya (948-975 CE), was supplied with fresh water from a distant spring via an aqueduct 'modelled on the Roman system at Carthage'. §REF§ (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Tahera Qutbuddin. 2011. 'Fatimids', in <i>Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, Volume 2: Africa</i>, edited by Edward Ramsamy, 37-40. Los Angeles: Sage. §REF§ <br>In 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt under a military general called Jawhar. This brought the total land area under Fatimid control to 2.4 million square kilometres, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 10) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and the new capital city, al-Qahira (Cairo), was founded in 975 and remained the capital under the fall of the dynasty in 1171. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 241) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§  Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  which may have been commanded by <i>amirs</i> (military governors). Towns with markets would have a <i>muhtasib</i>, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and Egypt grew exceptionally prosperous under their rule, especially before the mid-10th century. Al-Qahira had eight public baths, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  a caravanserai (<i>funduq</i>) for foreign merchants, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 41) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and possibly the most famous market in the Islamic world at the time, called the Market of the Lamps (Suq al-Qanadil). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 42) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi described Suq al-Qanadil as 'the marketplace for all mankind ... It is the storehouse of the Occident, the entrepot of the Orient.' §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 106) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  Another contemporary traveller, Nasir-i Khusraw, reported that in Cairo the shops were 'all the sultan's property' and leased to the shop owners, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  underscoring the power of the caliphs and their dedication to public works.<br>The population of the Fatimid Caliphate peaked at about 12-13 million in 1000 CE, but subsequently declined as territory was lost to about 4 million in 1100 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 219-29, 141-47) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§  By the end of the 10th century, the population of the caliphate was roughly equivalent to that of Egypt. The city of Fustat, close to Cairo, had approximately 120,000 residents, even after the fire of 1168, and multiple sources report multi-storey residential homes with up to seven levels. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 62, 65, 78) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 224,
            "name": "mr_wagadu_3",
            "start_year": 1078,
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            "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  at this stage, its influence extended east and north from the Senegal River into modern Mauritania and Mali §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  and it was encroaching on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. <i>L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï)</i>. Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§  However, from the late 11th century CE the Ghana Empire began to decline due to a combination of environmental, social and political factors. As the desert expanded into previously productive agricultural land, §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.  §REF§  the Sosso people took control of a large region above the Upper Niger River §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  and the city of Walata grew in influence, taking over as the main southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.  §REF§  The empire of Ghana officially converted to Islam in 1075‒77 CE to foster political and commercial ties with Almoravid newcomers, §REF§ (Al-Zuhri c. 1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) Nehemia Levtzion and Jay Spaulding, eds. 2003. <i>Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants</i>. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. §REF§  while traditional religion retained its prominence in the hinterland and among the non-elite classes. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 590) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The consensus within modern scholarship is that the relationship between the Soninke and the Almoravids was generally cordial and fruitful, that the Wagadu capital had been host to an important Muslim community in the centuries before the Almoravids arrived, and that the Wagadu conversion to Islam was in fact a gradual affair. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in <i>Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle</i>, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  Ghana recovered part of its power in the 12th century. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  Ultimately, however, the shift in the regional balance of power led many of the Soninke to relocate to more prosperous areas, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  contributing to the spread of Islam in other areas of the Sudan. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in <i>Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle</i>, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§ <br>This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in <i>Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle</i>, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§  Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 228,
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        {
            "id": 229,
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            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire, §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§  was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline. §REF§ (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. 'Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?' <i>Archaeology International</i> 13: 52-64. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the <i>mansa</i> (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt. §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§  Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The mansa (emperor) was thus a 'chief of chiefs', assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  He received advice from the <i>griot</i>, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class, §REF§ (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§  including an elite corps of cavalry. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara, §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§  formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire, §REF§ (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as <i>banco</i>, can still be admired today. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali's legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433, §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. 'The decline of the Mali empire' in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire's territory. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of 'six thousand hearths'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ ",
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            "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I",
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            "general_description": "The Mamluk Sultanate has two possible start dates: 1250 CE, when the last Ayyubid ruler in Egypt was deposed, or ten years later, once a period of disorder that included an attack from the Mongols had ended. Baybars (sultan from 1260 to 1277 CE) killed the first two Mamluk sultans after victories on the battlefield and, as a statesman and organizer, was 'the real founder of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The sultans of the Bahri Dynasty or 'Dawlat al-Atrak' (Empire of the Turks) §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 41) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  - so-called because the rulers were of Turkish origin - oversaw a new climax of sociopolitical development, wealth and splendour in Egypt, which peaked under the reign of Sultan Nasiri §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 137) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  before plague arrived in Alexandria in 1347 CE. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  We end our early Mamluk Sultanate period in 1348 CE, a year when crisis struck Egypt.<br>The traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into Bahri (Turkish) and Burji (Circassian) periods is not followed here because, according to the historian André Raymond, these periods 'correspond to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  We have chosen to split the sultanate in 1348 and 1412 CE instead in recognition of the crisis period following the Bahri period of prosperity. After the 'great plague epidemic' of 1348, Mamluk troops were defeated by the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (Timur) at the end of the 14th century, and, in 1403, the sultanate faced another political crisis and the 'disastrous reign of Faraj'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The final Burji period began in 1412 CE and, while known for 'a return to normality and periods of brilliance', was marked by demographic decline. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Revenue and Resources</i><br>The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. <i>Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk rulers continued the tradition of dedicating much effort and resources to what might be termed public works projects, for which they largely used corvée labour. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 152) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In addition to a permanent medical staff, lecture halls and laboratories, a hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279‒1290 CE) included a library stocked with books on medicine, theology and law. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 177) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§  The Mamluks followed Ayyubid precedents when they embarked on an 'intense period of construction' in the first century of their rule, with building projects initiated by governors, generals, generals, rich merchants and judges. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  André Raymond has identified 54 mosques and madrasas built in the 1293‒1340 CE period alone. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 120) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The Mamluks also built many 'tombs for venerated Muslim ancestors and for deceased rulers'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Private wealth was extensive at this time and the Karimi merchant and banking families operated fleets and agencies from China to Africa. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 19) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Cairo's population was probably under 200,000 in the mid-14th century (only Constantinople could claim a great population in Western Eurasia), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 136-37) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and the sultanate as a whole reached about 6-7 million people. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§  This would have fluctuated, however, as severe bouts of famine struck Egypt in 1284, 1295, 1296 and 1335 CE. §REF§ (Nicolle 2014, 11-12) David Nicolle. 2014. <i>Mamluk 'Askari 1250-1517</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ ",
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            "general_description": "Between 1348 and 1412 CE, a 'great crisis' struck Mamluk Egypt and Syria under the Bahri Dynasty sultan, precipitating the rise of the Burji (Circassian) Dynasty from 1382 CE. Instead of the traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into two dynasties, we have therefore included a crisis period encapsulating the end of the Bahri and beginning of the Burji periods. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Indeed, the crisis period persisted until the assassination of Sultan Faraj in Damascus in 1412 CE. In addition to the plague of 1348 CE, which for many Egyptians brought a period of spectacular prosperity to an end, other natural disasters in this period included an abnormally high Nile flood in 1354, famine in 1375, the return of the plague between 1379 and 1381, a low Nile flood and grain shortage in 1394 and again in 1403 CE, followed by yet another famine between 1403 and 1404 CE. In the midst of these environmental crises, and perhaps sparked by them, the region also experienced civil war in 1389 CE, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17, 138-46) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  effectively ending the period of Turkish rule in Egypt.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Revenue and Public Services</i><br>The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. <i>Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Black Death reached Alexandria in Egypt, probably from the Crimea, in the autumn of 1347 CE before slowly spreading throughout northern Egypt in 1348 and peaking in the autumn and winter of that year. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 154-55) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§  As a result of the epidemic, the Egyptian population, previously between 4.2 and 8 million, 'may have declined by about one-quarter to one-third' by the mid- to late 14th century. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 218) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§  The total population of the sultanate fell from perhaps 6-7 million to 4.8 million during this period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> London: Allen Lane. §REF§ <br>The troubled times did little to prevent the Mamluk ruling class from carrying out extravagant construction projects, for which they mostly used corvée labour. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Between 1341 and 1412 CE, 49 mosques were built in the southern zone of Cairo. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 145) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  One of them was the 'gigantic' Sultan Hasan Mosque (built 1356‒1361 CE), which cost an astonishing 20 million dirhams and has been called 'one of the most remarkable monuments of the Islamic world'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 141) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Sultan Sha'ban Mosque, built in 1375 but destroyed in 1411, may have been comparable. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 144) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The Mamluk-period mosques added to a city already studded with public baths, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  caravanserais, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  libraries, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  madrasas §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and hospitals. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 52) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 239,
            "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3",
            "start_year": 1412,
            "end_year": 1517,
            "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "During the Burji period of the Mamluk Sultanate, Egypt was ruled by an elite 'slave' military caste of Circassian origin. These rulers had replaced the earlier Bahri Dynasty, of Turkish origin, in 1382 CE during the preceding 'crisis phase'. With the assassination of Sultan Faraj in 1412 CE, Mamluk Egypt entered a 'relative recovery' with 'periods of brilliance', although problems such as demographic stagnation did not disappear. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The most renowned of the rulers were the Sultans Barsbay and Qaytbay, but they did little to prevent the deterioration of the Mamluk institutions and the economic collapse and disorder that preceded the Ottoman takeover. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 165) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  We begin our Burji Mamluk period in 1412 and end it with the fall of the dynasty to Ottoman forces in 1517. §REF§ (Winter 1992, xiii) Michael Winter. 1992. <i>Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517‒1798</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Although struck by plague and famines during the crisis period, Cairo was never short of people: a lower-bound estimate of its resident population places it at about 150,000 people. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The population of the sultanate perhaps recovered slightly in this period, reaching about 6 million in 1500 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ <br><i>Infrastructure and Public Services</i><br>Like previous Mamluk rulers, the Burji Sultans expended considerable resources on public works projects - both directly and indirectly via patronage. They built and restored schools, hostels, bathhouses and mosques, and, under Sultan Qayt Bey (reigned 1468‒1496) in particular, arts and architecture flourished. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The El Muayyad Mosque (1420 CE), the Mosque of Barsbay (1425 CE), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 173-74) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and the mausoleum complex of Sultan Qaitbay (1468‒1496 CE) all date from this period. Cairo also had a water supply system, paid for by its users, that conducted water from the Nile to the city's streets and houses. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 154) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  <i>Waqf</i> (religious foundations) were set up through initial endowments in property with the intention that they would become self-funding. Many public baths, caravanserais and shops were built by charitable and religious foundations, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  often in combination with initial patronage from the sultan or other Mamluk aristocrats. Sultan Qaytbay built many <i>urbu</i> (multi-storey apartments) and used the revenues to fund a charitable foundation for the inhabitants of Medina. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  However, despite the continued financing of elaborate construction projects, increasingly the government could not afford the upkeep of essential infrastructure such as canals, dams and irrigation systems. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>These public works were matched by lavish private buildings for the sultan and his retainers. Sultan Ghuri notably built an ornate palace and garden, with soil and trees imported from Syria and an aqueduct to water it. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 180) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Mamluks treated themselves and foreign dignitaries to entertainment in hippodromes and to polo tournaments on the <i>maydan</i> (public square). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  In the royal pavilion (<i>maqad</i>), 'incense burned and wine flowed, while musicians played and poets recited to a court society clad in silk and sprinkled with rosewater, the beards of its male luminaries perfumed with the musk of civet'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21, 24) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "name": "ao_kongo_2",
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            "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo",
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                "id": 1,
                "name": "Central Africa",
                "subregions_list": "Angola and DRC",
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        },
        {
            "id": 242,
            "name": "ml_songhai_2",
            "start_year": 1493,
            "end_year": 1591,
            "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Third of the great West African empires, the Songhay Empire emerged from a small kingdom based in the Gao region, which was a tributary to the Mali Empire until it started to gain autonomy in the late 14th century CE. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  A Songhay leader named Sonyi Ali Beeri was responsible for transforming this polity into an expansionary empire from the late 15th century onwards. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 13) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§  The heyday of the Songhay Empire was under the Askiya (or Askia) dynasty, 1493‒1591. These kings consolidated Songhay power by building on the legacy of their Malinke predecessors and took control of more territories, extending their reach over the Niger Inland Delta, westward to the Atlantic ocean, northward to the salt pans of Taghaza, and eastward to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 68) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 66) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  §REF§ (Diop 1987, 95) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§  However, the empire was brought to an abrupt end in the late 16th century: after a succession crisis which sparked a civil war, the Sultan of Morocco invaded in 1591. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 17) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§  §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Unlike the preceding Ghana and Mali Empires, Songhay operated as a centralized unitary state. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The king was a revered figure but his authority was tempered by the precepts of Islam from the 11th century, and this religion became increasingly prevalent under the Askiya dynasty. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The imperial council coordinated the activities of the central government, which was divided into ministries including those of agriculture, finance, the army and the naval fleet. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The two major provinces, Kurmina in the west and Dendi in the southeast, were ruled by princes who were responsible for their own armies. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  Thriving trading towns like Jenné, Timbuktu, Teghazza and Walata enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy due to the power of guilds and local chiefs, but had to report to a superintendent, tax inspectors, customs officials and other state appointees. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  Vassal and tributary countries also bowed before the power of the Askiya when disputes arose. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The Songhay empire is associated with the establishment of high centres of learning in Jenné, Dia, Gao and Timbuktu. The latter in particular was famed for its university, holy men, doctors and teachers, who contributed to the spread of Islamic humanism among the urban elite in the region from the 15th century. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 208) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  The rural Songhay continued to venerate a pantheon of divinities and local spirits until Islam penetrated the countryside via the peaceful incursions of traders and government-sponsored marabouts. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 207-08) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated population estimates for the Songhay Empire, but one scholar believes there could have been 70,000 people living in the city of Timbuktu by 1580 under Askiya Daoud. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 57) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africai­ne. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 243,
            "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn",
            "start_year": -1250,
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            "long_name": "Late Shang",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Late Shang Dynasty (1250-1045 BCE) was an extension of the Erligang culture based in Yinxu, near modern Anyang. The Late Shang were the last 12 kings of the dynasty, beginning with Pan Geng. Unlike in Erligang settlements, pottery, oracle bones and other artefacts showing a fully formed writing system have been found at Late Shang sites. This system included 'pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms'. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The oldest written records uncovered from Shang contexts date back to 1200 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The civilization at Yinxu is considered to represent the golden age of the Shang Dynasty §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  and 11 major royal tombs have been uncovered there by archaeologists. §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Pottery and bronze and jade work flourished in the Late Shang period. §REF§ (San 2014, 20) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The Late Shang also had a developed calendar system with 30 days in a month and 12 months (360 days) in a year. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica 2017) “Shang Dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty</a> Accessed May 29, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Shang were based on the North China Plain. The dynasty's territory stretched north to modern Shandong, south to Hebei, and west to Henan. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The Shang government was a feudal system in which the king and a class of military nobility ruled over the masses, who were mainly farmers. §REF§ (San 2014, 16, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Shang kings also served as high priests. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>) §REF§  The Late Shang were in constant conflict with surrounding settlements and with civilizations from the steppe. §REF§ (San 2014, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the Late Shang Dynasty was around 5 million in 1045 BCE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 170-72) McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population</a>. §REF§  The population of the Yinxu settlement in Anyang is unknown.",
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                "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
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                "capital_city": "Luoyang",
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        {
            "id": 244,
            "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn",
            "start_year": -1122,
            "end_year": -771,
            "long_name": "Western Zhou",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Western Zhou Dynasty was the first Chinese state to claim the Mandate of Heaven, the divinely bestowed right to rule. Zhou was a tributary state to Shang until the Zhou king Zhou Wu Wang defeated the last king of Shang in the 1046 BCE Battle of Muye. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  Zhou power was consolidated after the Duke of Zhou's defeat of the Rebellion of the Three Guards, led by Shang loyalists and separatist eastern nobles. §REF§ (San 2014, 31) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  In defeating the rebellion, the Zhou state was able to add a large area of land in eastern China to its territory. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The Western Zhou established their capital at Haojing, and the Duke of Zhou later established Chengzhou as a second capital. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, Ulrich. 2000. “Zhou History.” <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html</a> Accessed May 31, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF</a>. §REF§  In 957 BCE, the Zhou controlled territory covering an estimated 850,000 square kilometres based in the central plains of China.<br>The period was peaceful for the first 75 years of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  However, the decentralization of Zhou power into fiefdoms encouraged turmoil between states, popular unrest, and vassal rebellions. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  The Marquess of Shen sacked Haojing and killed the 12th Zhou king over a succession dispute in 771 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 34) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The crown prince subsequently moved the capital to Luoyang and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty.<br>The Western Zhou are noted for their introduction of the Mandate of Heaven, their kinship-based feudal system and their use of lineage law. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 79) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  The state's kinship-based feudal system encouraged the spread of Zhou writing, culture and identity. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  Some scholars have seen Zhou lineage law, with its emphasis on 'lineage rituals, familial ethics, and beneficent rule', as an intellectual precursor of Confucianism. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§  The hierarchies, division of labour and meritocratic practices that emerged under the Western Zhou also helped lay the foundations for the introduction of bureaucracy. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Zhou state was a proto-feudal monarchy in which feudal lords were supported by an extended family network. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§  The first king of Zhou introduced the <i>fengjian</i> system, which made military leaders and members of the royal family into regional lords ruling over parcels of land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  These fiefdoms were then divided into smaller units and distributed to members of the local rulers' families. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>Individual fiefdoms had their own taxes, legal systems, and currencies but paid dues to the king and provided soldiers in times of need. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§  This system eventually led to decentralization and the weakening of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to obtain population figures for the Western Zhou period. C. K. Maisels has given an estimate of 13.5 million people in 800 BCE. §REF§ (Maisels 2001, 260) Maisels, C. K. 2001. <i>Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India, and China</i>. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56</a>. §REF§",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
                "subregion": "North China",
                "longitude": "112.517587000000",
                "latitude": "34.701825000000",
                "capital_city": "Luoyang",
                "nga_code": "CN",
                "fao_country": "China",
                "world_region": "East Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 58,
                "name": "North China",
                "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang",
                "mac_region": 4
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 245,
            "name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
            "start_year": -780,
            "end_year": -404,
            "long_name": "Jin",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in which strong vassal states competed for dominance. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§  When King You of Zhou was killed by an allied force of Quan Rong barbarians and the state of Shen, King Ping moved the capital to Luoyang in 770 BCE and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  The weak Eastern Zhou state was responsible for diplomacy and rituals, while governmental authority lay in the hands of large vassal states. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§  There were 15 major vassal states in the Spring and Autumn period, but by the mid-7th century BCE the region was dominated by the Qi, Jin, Qin, and Chu states. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  The period is marked by constant warfare between different states. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Spring and Autumn period takes its name from the Confucian book <i>Chunqiu</i>, which chronicles events from 722 to 429 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§  During this time, the moral values of Confucius helped bring China into the 'Axial Age'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  The use of bronze agricultural tools became more widespread in China and there is evidence of the use of steel and iron in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§  Coinage appeared in this period, and there are some indications that individuals could own land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Jin state dominated the Spring and Autumn period from 636 to 628 BCE. Duke Xian of Jin (676-651 BCE) conquered 16 small states in modern Shanxi. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  His son, Duke Wen, was given the title of <i>ba</i> ('senior' or 'hegemon') §REF§ (Lewis 2000, 365) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2000. “The City-State in Spring-and-Autumn China.” In A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation Conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre, edited by Mogens Herman Hansen. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS</a>. §REF§  by the Zhou king after defeating the encroaching state of Chu in 632 BCE. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>The Jin state covered an estimated 160,000 square kilometres. The state was located in modern Shanxi, §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “The Feudal State of China.” Chinaknowledge.de <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW</a>. §REF§  and extended east and north from the Yellow River. §REF§ (Eno 2010) Eno, Robert. 2010. Spring and Autumn China. Indiana University, History G380, Class Text Readings. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The multi-state Spring and Autumn system changed the feudal structure of China. In the Western Zhou period, the political elite was made up of kings, feudal lords, and hereditary ministers. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§  In the Spring and Autumn period, a class of knights and warriors became the political ruling class. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§  Intellectuals served as both government officials and 'cultural carriers'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 549) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  States became more centralized as the central government continued to weaken. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>In the <i>ba</i> system, first institutionalized in 651 BCE, the Zhou king bestowed the title of <i>ba</i> on the ruler of the vassal state that represented the Zhou court in war. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§  However, this system of political organization began to weaken in the 6th century BCE. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>Substantiated estimates for the population of the Jin state are lacking.",
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            "general_description": "The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§<br>The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§<br>The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§ The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation.§REF§(Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§<br>An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§ Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. §REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br><br/>The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE§REF§ (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD</a>  §REF§, and 60 million at its peak.§REF§ (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ</a>  §REF§ The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)§REF§§REF§(Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. \"The Former Han,\" in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2</a>  §REF§",
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            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "China’s Han dynasty is divided into two periods: Western Han or Former Han (202 BCE-9 CE), and Eastern Han or Later Han (25-220 CE). The period between the two Han dynasties was an interregnum ruled by Wang Mang who overthrow the Han and founded the short-lived Xin dynasty.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Rulers of the Western and Eastern Han are descended from Han founder Liu Bang.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§  The Han dynasty was reinstated when military troops revolted against Wang Mang and attacked the capital of Chang’an in 23 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ The first recognized Eastern Han emperor Emperor Guangwudi moved the capital to Luoyang in 25 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§<br>Buddhism spread into China during the Eastern Han period. The religion soon began to influence Chinese morals and ethics.§REF§ (San 2014, 103) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Han innovation continued into the Eastern Han period. The eunuch Cai Lun invented paper made from mulberry bark in 105 CE.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a>  §REF§<br>The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by series of natural disasters including floods and plagues beginning in 168 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 38) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§ The disasters were accompanied by two large peasant uprisings: the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice rebellion.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§ The Eastern Han also faced constant rebellions from Qiang ethnic minorities.§REF§ (San 2014, 108) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Provincial warlords aided the central government in suppressing these major rebellions. These warlords eventually became rulers of the provinces.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ Warlord Dong Zhou seized Luoyang in 190 CE but was defeated by the warlord Cao Cao.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§  Eastern Han emperors stayed on the throne but the Han empire was split between three generals, ushering in the Three Kingdoms period.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 39) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§<br>Eastern Han territory covered 6.5 million square kilometers in 100 CE, but only 2.5 million square kilometers by 200 CE.§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§ At its peak, the Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Eastern Han continued many of the administrative practices of the Western Han.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 37) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§ However, the dynasty was marked by bloody political infighting including succession conflicts, and attempts to grab power by consort clans and eunuch cliques.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ Eunuchs had a strong influence in the Eastern Han government and competed with Confucian officials and the imperial clan. §REF§ (San 2014, 117) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by the rise of strong provincial rulers with independent armies, or warlords, and a weakening of the corrupt central government.<br>The population of the Eastern Han was between 48 and 50 million people in 140 CE.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60) Roberts, J A G (2003) The Complete History of China, Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI</a>  §REF§. Luoyang was home to 420,000 people in 100 CE, but only 100,000 by 200 CE.§REF§(Modelski 2003, 44) Modelski, G. 2003. World Cities -3000 to 2000. FAROS 2000. Washington D.C. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ</a> §REF§§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§",
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        {
            "id": 254,
            "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn",
            "start_year": 265,
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            "long_name": "Western Jin",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Western Jin dynasty (House of Sima, Jin dynasty) briefly reunified China after the Three Kingdoms period, but was marked by political turmoil and internal rebellion. Sima Yan overthrew Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan in 265 CE and declared himself the Western Jin emperor.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ In its 280 CE conquest of Eastern Wu, Western Jin dynasty ended the Three Kingdoms period and reunified China.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ However, the central government was in almost constant turmoil because of internal conflict and corruption.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ A series of rebellions of princes against imperial authority known as the Revolts of the Imperial Princes (291-306 CE) weakened the central government and led to the Disorder of the Five Tribes (304-316 CE), a large uprising of northern nomadic tribes.§REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ In 316 CE, an imperial Jin prince fled south when a Xiongnu chief attacked the Western Jin capital of Luoyang. The prince went on to found the Eastern Jin dynasty in present day Nanjing.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a>  §REF§ §REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§<br>The territory of the Western Jin empire was close to the size of the Han empire.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD</a>  §REF§ We have estimated that Western Jin polity territory covered 4.5 million square kilometers in 300 CE.<br>Despite the political turmoil of the period, advancements made in agriculture, craftsmanship, architecture, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.§REF§ (Theobald 2011b) Theobald, U. 2011b. “Chinese History- Science, Technology, and Inventions of the Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-tech.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T5FAI5I6\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T5FAI5I6</a> §REF§ Buddhism continued to spread throughout China, and Daoism was revived and seen as a more well-defined religion.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§ There were many writers, poets and artists from the time of the Jin and the period is often seen as the first period for traditional Chinese art.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Jin maintained many administrative structures of the Han. The empire was divided into provinces and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD</a>  §REF§ However the Western Jin operated as a neo-feudal society.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a>  §REF§ Military rulers governed with the support of relatives, and Confucian values gradually disappeared from the central government and the education system.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a>  §REF§ The weak central government struggled to control the non-Chinese tribes living in the empire.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a>  Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a>  §REF§<br>The population of the Western Jin empire was recorded as 16.16 million in a 280 CE census.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 35)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§The population of Luoyang was 600,000 people in 300 CE.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 50 )Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a>  §REF§",
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