Polity List

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            "id": 1,
            "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
            "start_year": 1644,
            "end_year": 1796,
            "long_name": "Early Qing",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§  These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§  In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§  In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§  The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§  Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§",
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                "id": 20,
                "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
                "subregion": "North China",
                "longitude": "112.517587000000",
                "latitude": "34.701825000000",
                "capital_city": "Luoyang",
                "nga_code": "CN",
                "fao_country": "China",
                "world_region": "East Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 58,
                "name": "North China",
                "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang",
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        {
            "id": 2,
            "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
            "start_year": 1796,
            "end_year": 1912,
            "long_name": "Late Qing",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§  The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§  The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§  Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§  However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.",
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                "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
                "subregion": "North China",
                "longitude": "112.517587000000",
                "latitude": "34.701825000000",
                "capital_city": "Luoyang",
                "nga_code": "CN",
                "fao_country": "China",
                "world_region": "East Asia"
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                "id": 58,
                "name": "North China",
                "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang",
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        {
            "id": 6,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1",
            "start_year": -6000,
            "end_year": -2001,
            "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic period (c. 6000-2001 BCE). This period may be described as a long, gradual transition from a lifestyle centred on big-game hunting prevalent in the preceding \"Paleo-Indian\" period to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle in the succeeding \"Formative\" period. Indeed, Archaic sites are defined by their lack of both large animal remains and ceramics. §REF§ (Kennett 2012: 141) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57</a>. §REF§  No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature. Similarly, no information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time.<br><br/>",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 7,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2",
            "start_year": -2000,
            "end_year": -1201,
            "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF</a>. §REF§  we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§  suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ ",
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            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 8,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3",
            "start_year": -1200,
            "end_year": -801,
            "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Early Formative period (c. 1200-801 BCE). During this period, sociopolitical hierarchies emerged and expanded throughout much of Mesoamerica more broadly, including the southern Valley of Mexico. This is evident, for example, in the establishment of a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§  as well in the emergence of craft specialisation, specifically with regards to the manufacture of obsidian blades at sites such as Coapexco. §REF§ Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer &amp; David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 96. §REF§  Moreover, the Early Formative saw the earliest shared style in Mesoamerica, characterised by a standardized set of symbols, typically carved or incised on black, black-and-white, and white or white-slipped ceramics. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 176) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approximately 5,000 people in the Basin of Mexico around 1150 BC. §REF§ Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 183. §REF§  However, no estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit. The largest known settlement, Tlatilco, may have had a population of as little as 1,000 inhabitants over 40 hectares, §REF§ Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer &amp; David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121. §REF§  or between 2,000 and 4,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni) §REF§ ",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 9,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4",
            "start_year": -800,
            "end_year": -401,
            "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Formative period (c. 800-401 BCE). This period was characterised by increasingly widespread and elaborate public architecture, more distinctive regional pottery styles, more extensive greenstone trade, and an increased use of stone for symbolic expression. Together, these trends suggest that elites across Mesoamerica were broadening the ways they expressed their power, and shaping the emergence of new forms of regional and community interactions in the process. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approximately 25,000 people in the Basin of Mexico around 650 BC. §REF§ Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 183. §REF§  However, no estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit. The largest known settlement, Chalcatzingo, may have had a population of between 3,000 and 5,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni) §REF§ <br>Settlement hierarchies either maintained or increased the number of levels. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br><br/>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 10,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5",
            "start_year": -400,
            "end_year": -101,
            "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Formative period (c. 400-101 BCE). In this period, polities throughout Mesoamerica experienced increases in wealth, influence, and hierarchical complexity. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 120) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§  In the Basin of Mexico, Cuicuilco, Tlapacoya, and Cholula all became major regional centers with monumental architecture. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2012: 216) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJWB86UI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJWB86UI</a>. §REF§ <br>No estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit at the time. The largest known settlement, Cuicuilco, may have had a population of at least 20,000 acrross 400 ha. §REF§ (Cowgill 2015: 42) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JRFZPUXU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JRFZPUXU</a>. §REF§ <br>Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). <i>Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico.</i> Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§  §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). \"Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological</i> 20(1): 1-51 §REF§  §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§  beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 11,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6",
            "start_year": -100,
            "end_year": 99,
            "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Terminal Formative period (c. 100 BCE-99 CE). The most notable aspect of this period is the emergence of Teotihuacan as the largest and most populous city in the New World: by 150 CE, it had a population ranging between 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants distributed across an area of about 20 kilometers. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2005: 1) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H</a> §REF§ <br>Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). <i>Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico.</i> Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§  §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). \"Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological</i> 20(1): 1-51 §REF§  §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§  beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 12,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7",
            "start_year": 100,
            "end_year": 649,
            "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Classic or Early Classic period (c. 100-649 CE). This period was characterised by sophisticated forms of artistic expression and high levels of craft specialisation, pronounced differences between the material culture of the wealthier classes and that of the poorer ones, and trade networks extending farther and farther across the wider region. In the Basin of Mexico, Teotihuacan was the dominant centre, and the presence of Teotihuacano artefacts outside of the Basin testifies to its far-ranging influence. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 122-123) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§  Indeed, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the world, with a population of about 100,000 §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§  or 125,000. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2005: 2) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H</a>. §REF§ <br>Relatively little is known regarding Teotihuacan's political organisation. There is no consensus on the existence of a ruler's palace at the site, nor have royal burials or depictions of individual rulers been found. The site has yielded representations of elite personages, but they are usually shown in groups, partaking in processions, and wearing masks, suggesting that power was shared or distributed: perhaps, the city was governed by a committee of representatives from different interest groups, and/or spokespeople for some or each of the city's thousands of apartment compounds. §REF§ (Feinman 2012: 230-231) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M7SIWVJQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M7SIWVJQ</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 13,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8",
            "start_year": 650,
            "end_year": 899,
            "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Epiclassic or Late Classic period (c. 650-899 CE). In this period, Teotihuacan had diminished in size and lost its hold over the region; at the same time, none of the major centres at the time matched it: the populations of Cantona, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla likely did not surpass 25-30,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§  Worship of the feathered snake became widespread throughout Mesoamerica, as indicated by the broad distribution of artistic representations of this deity or culture hero, and there was a renewed emphasis on human sacrifice in both ritual practice and artistic expression. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 14,
            "name": "mx_toltec",
            "start_year": 900,
            "end_year": 1199,
            "long_name": "Toltecs",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the period when the Basin was under the control of a city known as Tula (c. 900-1199 CE). Some scholars have argued that Tula corresponded to Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs; according to the Aztecs as well as other Mesoamerican sources, the Toltecs were the Aztec's hegemonic predecessors in the region. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 372) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§  Tula itself had up to 60,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§  The Basin of Mexico experienced an increase in the number of settlements, and archaeological data suggest that the rural population had access to the same material goods and trading networks as Tula. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 377) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ <br>There is no evidence that Tula was the capital of an empire, but it is clear that its influence extended beyond the confines of the Basin of Mexico, and that it extracted food and other revenue from its surrounding region. The city's many buildings with large halls and evidence for feasts and other types of large gatherings, as well as depictions of processions, suggest that, perhaps like Teotihuacan, it may have relied on an administrative system wherein power was distributed among different sectors of society. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 380) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 15,
            "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10",
            "start_year": 1200,
            "end_year": 1426,
            "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§  Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§  Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 16,
            "name": "mx_aztec_emp",
            "start_year": 1427,
            "end_year": 1526,
            "long_name": "Aztec Empire",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§  Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§  perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 27,
                "name": "Basin of Mexico",
                "subregion": "Mexico",
                "longitude": "-99.130000000000",
                "latitude": "19.430000000000",
                "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico",
                "nga_code": "MX",
                "fao_country": "Mexico",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 23,
                "name": "Mexico",
                "subregions_list": "Mexico",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 17,
            "name": "us_hawaii_1",
            "start_year": 1000,
            "end_year": 1200,
            "long_name": "Hawaii I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Recent estimates for the date of initial settlement by Polynesian voyagers have varied from 800 to 1250 CE, but the latest Bayesian model, based on palaeoenvironmental data and a carefully defined set of archaeological radiocarbon dates, suggests that the archipelago was first colonized between 1000 and 1100. §REF§ (Athens, Rieth and Dye 2014) J. Stephen Athens, Timothy M. Rieth and Thomas S. Dye. 2014. 'A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i'. <i>American Antiquity</i> 79(1): 144-55. §REF§  Our 'Hawaii 1' designates the earliest phase of Hawai'i's prehistory, from around 1000 to 1200, before most of the changes characteristic of Kirch's 'expansion period', including a rapid rise in population, took place. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010.  <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the <i>*ariki</i>, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. <i>A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  before then the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§ <br>The founding population was probably about 100 people, due to the limited capacity of the canoes the first settlers likely used to reach the islands. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010.  <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  This population probably grew somewhat between 1000 and 1200, but no up-to-date estimates could be found in the literature — an estimate of 20,000 inhabitants for the entire archipelago around 1100 dates to 1985, when the earliest phase of human occupation was thought to have begun around 600 CE. §REF§ (Kirch 1985, 302) Patrick V. Kirch. 1985. <i>Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 33,
                "name": "Big Island Hawaii",
                "subregion": "Polynesia",
                "longitude": "-155.916989000000",
                "latitude": "19.528931000000",
                "capital_city": "Kona",
                "nga_code": "USHI",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "Oceania-Australia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 30,
                "name": "Polynesia",
                "subregions_list": "Polynesia",
                "mac_region": 8
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 18,
            "name": "us_hawaii_2",
            "start_year": 1200,
            "end_year": 1580,
            "long_name": "Hawaii II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 2' refers to the period from 1200 to 1580 CE. 1200 marks the beginning of archaeologist Patrick Kirch's 'expansion period', §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010.  <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  while 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the <i>*ariki</i>, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. <i>A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  before then, the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§ <br>It is currently not possible to reconstruct the exact population of a typical Big Island community at this time. §REF§ Kirch, personal communication §REF§  No up-to-date estimates have been found in the literature. Scholars do, however, distinguish between distinct phases of demographic and agricultural development after the initial colonization period. From 1200 to 1400 CE, Hawaiians experienced significant population growth and adapted their technology and subsistence economy to local conditions while maintaining long-distance contact with Eastern Polynesia. From 1400 to 1580 CE, population growth peaked and began to stabilize, contact with Eastern Polynesia ceased, and large-scale dryland field systems were established across the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 33,
                "name": "Big Island Hawaii",
                "subregion": "Polynesia",
                "longitude": "-155.916989000000",
                "latitude": "19.528931000000",
                "capital_city": "Kona",
                "nga_code": "USHI",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "Oceania-Australia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 30,
                "name": "Polynesia",
                "subregions_list": "Polynesia",
                "mac_region": 8
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 19,
            "name": "us_hawaii_3",
            "start_year": 1580,
            "end_year": 1778,
            "long_name": "Hawaii III",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 3' refers to the period from 1580 to 1778 CE. 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom, while 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. <i>On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>By about 1580, 'Umi had become the first true 'king' (<i>ali'i nui</i>) of the entire Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 92, 98) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  In contrast with the chiefs who came before him, he is said to have exerted greater control over land tenure, instituted a system of territorial administration based on <i>ahupua'a</i> land parcels, intensified food production, and elaborated the religious system. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 102-03) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>After 'Umi, the island alternated several times between being split into two or more smaller polities, and being united under one ruler. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 105-09) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  In times of greater integration, the kingdom was divided into districts (<i>moku</i>) which were each under the control of a major chief called an <i>ali'i-'ai-moku</i>. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Within districts were territories called <i>ahupua'a</i>, ruled by chiefs called <i>ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a</i>. The more powerful of these <i>ali'i</i> held more than one ahupua'a. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) §REF§  Below the ahupua'a chiefs, <i>konohiki</i> land managers (often their junior relatives) oversaw the collection of tribute from the commoner farmers, known as <i>maka'āinana</i>. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Overall, this period was characterized by a high-density but stable population settled in all ecological zones, a secondary intensification of the dryland field systems, and endemic conquest warfare. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 33,
                "name": "Big Island Hawaii",
                "subregion": "Polynesia",
                "longitude": "-155.916989000000",
                "latitude": "19.528931000000",
                "capital_city": "Kona",
                "nga_code": "USHI",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "Oceania-Australia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 30,
                "name": "Polynesia",
                "subregions_list": "Polynesia",
                "mac_region": 8
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 20,
            "name": "us_kamehameha_k",
            "start_year": 1778,
            "end_year": 1819,
            "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Here, we consider the period of its history from 1778 to 1819. 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook ‒ while 1819 is the year of King Kamehameha I's death. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 170, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. <i>On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Kamehameha was a war chief and keeper of the war god Kūka'ilimoku who, in 1782, rose against King Kīwala'ō and managed to seize power over the Kohala and Kona districts of the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 118-19) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Over the next three decades, Kamehameha waged several military campaigns, eventually unifying the entire archipelago (minus Kaua'i and Ni'ihau) in 1804. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 116) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In this period, Kamehameha I sat at the top of the political hierarchy. He was advised on secular affairs, including war, by the <i>kālaimoku</i>, who also oversaw the royal storehouses, while the <i>kahuna nui</i> was in charge of the king's sacred duties and oversaw his temples and main gods. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 50, 57) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Kamehameha did not introduce many changes to the traditional hierarchies, but he did appoint a number of governors to be his representatives on the other islands. §REF§ (Kuykendall 1938, 51) Ralph S. Kuykendall. 1938. <i>The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1778-1854: Foundation and Transformation</i>. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§  Each island was divided into districts under the control of high-ranking chiefs, the <i>ali'i 'ai moku</i>. These districts were in turn subdivided into territories ruled by lesser chiefs, the <i>ali'i 'ai ahupua'a</i>. Below this level, there were the <i>konohiki</i>, who were in charge of the small and largely self-sufficient <i>ahupua'a</i> territories. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48-49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  The 'reasonably accurate' first census of 1832 puts the archipelago's population at around 130,000 people. However, we cannot project this figure backwards in time because the <i>kanaka maoli</i> (indigenous Hawaiian) population fell drastically after Europeans introduced diseases, such as smallpox, syphilis and measles, to which they had no immunity. §REF§ (La Croix and Roumasset 1990, 835) Sumner J. La Croix and James Roumasset. 1990. 'The Evolution of Private Property in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii'. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> 50 (4): 829-52. §REF§  §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 33,
                "name": "Big Island Hawaii",
                "subregion": "Polynesia",
                "longitude": "-155.916989000000",
                "latitude": "19.528931000000",
                "capital_city": "Kona",
                "nga_code": "USHI",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "Oceania-Australia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 30,
                "name": "Polynesia",
                "subregions_list": "Polynesia",
                "mac_region": 8
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 21,
            "name": "us_hawaii_k",
            "start_year": 1820,
            "end_year": 1898,
            "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 33,
                "name": "Big Island Hawaii",
                "subregion": "Polynesia",
                "longitude": "-155.916989000000",
                "latitude": "19.528931000000",
                "capital_city": "Kona",
                "nga_code": "USHI",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "Oceania-Australia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 30,
                "name": "Polynesia",
                "subregions_list": "Polynesia",
                "mac_region": 8
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 22,
            "name": "us_woodland_1",
            "start_year": -600,
            "end_year": -150,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets.  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 23,
            "name": "us_woodland_2",
            "start_year": -150,
            "end_year": 300,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets.  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br><br/>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 24,
            "name": "us_woodland_3",
            "start_year": 300,
            "end_year": 450,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets.  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br><br/>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\"  §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
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        },
        {
            "id": 25,
            "name": "us_woodland_4",
            "start_year": 450,
            "end_year": 600,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets.  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br>600 CE<div>Late arrowheads appear. \"This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials).  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare.\"  \"Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points).\"   §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§ <br>\"Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>\"trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia.\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§ <br>Cahokia \"controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent\" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§ <br>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\"  §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>",
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                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
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                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
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                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 26,
            "name": "us_woodland_5",
            "start_year": 600,
            "end_year": 750,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets.  §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br>600 CE<div>Late arrowheads appear. \"This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials).  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare.\"  \"Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points).\"   §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§ <br>\"Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>700 CE<br>800 CE<div>Intensification of Maize farming begins. Higher yields from maize cultivation enables more food to be extracted from a smaller territory.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"Although there is scattered evidence for corn, or maize, during Middle Woodland times, it wasn't until Late Woodland times, after AD 700-800, that it became an important food crop.\"  §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) §REF§ <br>Social complexity increases from this period. \"Site plans gained greater internal complexity as houses clustered into court-yard groups and, toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places. Nucleated settlements may have been a defensive response to bow warfare. Burials with embedded arrow points and sites fortified with palisades and ditches are widespread, although no present everywhere... New social roles linked to community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places laid the foundation for the increased group differentiation, competition, and hierarchy of the Mississippian period beginning A.D. 1000.\"  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Palisades and ditches appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of substantial intergroup warfare.  §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>\"trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia.\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§ <br>Cahokia \"controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent\" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§ <br>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\"  §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 27,
            "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1",
            "start_year": 750,
            "end_year": 900,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period at Cahokia (750-900 CE) is significant for being a foundational period for later social developments at Cahokia. At this time appears the first signs of warfare, an increase in social complexity and more widespread consumption of farmed crops like maize.<br>The increase in social complexity was reflected in settlements with houses clustered into court-yard groups. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  While there is little evidence for warfare in the preceding Middle Woodland §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  from c800 CE there is evidence of inter-group violence as human bones have been recovered with arrow points embedded into them in individual and group burials. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  Some settlements even gained palisades and ditches §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ , although at this time they were present at only a tiny fraction of all sites (0.5% between 800-950 CE §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley.  §REF§ ). After 700-800 CE there was a dramatic intensification of food production, particularly of maize farming, which brought higher yields and enabled more food to be extracted from a smaller territory and would lead to population growth. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§  §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br>The evidence suggests communities experienced increased differentiation of social roles, with individuals dedicated to \"community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places\". §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  The Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - although this population was not resident at the site that later became Cahokia.<br><br/>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 28,
            "name": "us_cahokia_3",
            "start_year": 1275,
            "end_year": 1400,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Sand Prairie phase is the name given by archaeologists to the period between around 1275 and 1400 CE in the American Bottom region, the portion of the floodplain of the Mississippi now located in southwestern Illinois. §REF§ (Kelly et al. 1984, 130) Kelly, John E., Steven J. Ozuk, Douglas K. Jackson, Dale L. McElrath, Fred A. Finney, and Duane Esarey. 1984. \"Emergent Mississippian Period.\" In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Charles L. Bareis and James W. Porter, 128-57. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§  This period is considered the final phase of the Mississippian culture. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 234) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§  The chronology is not universally agreed upon, however: the dates given by different scholars for the Sand Prairie phase vary. §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Sand Prairie phase was one of decreasing social complexity and depopulation at the site of Cahokia and on the surrounding Middle Mississippi floodplain. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 6, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§  Already by 1150 CE, archaeological evidence indicates that the political and ceremonial ties binding the site of Cahokia and its elite to its hinterland were weakening, and by 1350, there are very few signs of culturally Mississippian populations left in the American Bottom. §REF§ (Pauketat and Bernard 2004, 38-39) Pauketat, Timothy, and Nancy Stone Bernard. 2004. Cahokia Mounds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5</a>. §REF§  During the Sand Prairie phase, Mississippians seem to have abandoned the old monumental sites and dispersed out of the river valley into the uplands. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§  The evidence for political hierarchies and inherited status distinctions is much weaker than for previous periods, and community activity may have revolved around funerary rites at rural cemeteries. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 180) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the site of Cahokia and the surrounding Mississippi floodplain reached its lowest point for several centuries during this period. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Pauketat and Lopinot 1997, 120) Pauketat, Timothy R., and Neal H. Lopinot. 1997. \"Cahokian Population Dynamics.\" In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 103-23. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. §REF§  Concrete population estimates are difficult to find, but archaeologist George Milner has estimated a Sand Prairie-period population density of between one and seven people per square kilometre for a stretch of the Mississippi floodplain just south of Cahokia. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 29,
            "name": "us_oneota",
            "start_year": 1400,
            "end_year": 1650,
            "long_name": "Oneota",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "'Oneota' is the modern name given to a group of late prehistoric or protohistoric cultures, known solely from their material remains and centred on modern-day Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin in the Midwestern United States. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 142) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§  Oneota migrations can be traced archaeologically: for instance, some groups using Oneota-style material culture began appearing alongside Mississippian populations in the American Bottom region (modern southwestern Illinois) during the Sand Prairie phase (c. 1275-1400 CE). §REF§ (Pauketat 1994, 47) Pauketat, Timothy R. 1994. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8</a>. §REF§  We are concerned here with the period of Oneota activity between c. 1400 and 1650 CE, but it should be noted that the roots of the tradition are to be found before 1400. Small quantities of European trade goods appear in the Illinois archaeological record around the beginning of the 17th century CE, marking the beginning of the 'protohistoric' period in this region. §REF§ (Emerson and Brown 1992, 102) Emerson, Thomas E., and James A. Brown. 1992. \"The Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Illinois.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by J. Walthall and T. Emerson, 77-125. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Oneota society was relatively egalitarian, more so than the preceding Mississippian cultures: there is a lack of evidence from Oneota settlements or funerary contexts for inherited status or class distinctions. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. \"Oneota.\" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§  It has been suggested that political leadership was provided by 'big men', who relied on informal support from village populations and could not pass on their positions to their children. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. \"Oneota.\" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§ <br>Reliable estimates for the size of the Oneota population between 1400 and 1650 CE are lacking. §REF§ (Hart 1990, 570-71) Hart, John P. 1990. \"Modeling Oneota Agricultural Production: A Cross-Cultural Evaluation.\" Current Anthropology 31 (5): 569-77. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
                "fao_country": "United States",
                "world_region": "North America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
                "mac_region": 7
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 30,
            "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation",
            "start_year": 1640,
            "end_year": 1717,
            "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Our early Illinois period refers to the span of time from 1640 CE, the approximate date of the first European written reports of the Illinois (also known as Inoca, Illiniwek, Illini) Indians, §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois: History.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS</a>. §REF§  to 1717, when the Illinois Country was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 9-10) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§  From the 1660s and 1670s onwards, France claimed title to the Illinois Country (<i>Pays des Illinois</i>) as part of its North American colonial possessions, but French presence in the region before 1717 was generally limited to small numbers of missionaries and traders. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 8-9) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. \"Indians and French in the Midcontinent.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN</a>. §REF§  In this early contact period, the Illinois were theoretically under the 'protection' of the French crown, but in practice maintained their autonomy. §REF§ (Havard 2013, 117) Havard, Gilles. 2013. \"'Protection' and 'Unequal Alliance': The French Conception of Sovereignty over Indians in New France.\" In French and Indians in the Heart of North America, 1630-1815, edited by Robert Englebert and Guillaume Teasdale, 113-37. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9</a>. §REF§  The region referred to as the Illinois Country in both modern and older sources was located to the east of the Middle Mississippi river, bounded to the north by Lake Michigan, to the south by the Ohio river, and to the west by the Wabash. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1991, 5) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1991. \"French Colonial Archaeology.\" In French Colonial Archaeology: The Illinois Country and the Western Great Lakes, edited by John A. Walthall, 78-84. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH</a>. §REF§  However, it is likely that the Illinois-speaking groups encountered by Europeans in the 17th century had arrived in this area relatively recently, possibly migrating westwards from the Lake Erie basin. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 173) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Despite the use of the term 'Illinois Confederacy' to describe Illinois society, there is no indication in the written sources of intertribal political organizations such as those found among Iroquoian groups to the northeast in the same period. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 673) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§  Political leadership was provided by both peace chiefs - who played important diplomatic roles, such as conducting <i>calumet</i> (peace pipe) ceremonies for visitors, but had relatively little formal authority - and war chiefs, who organized raids on other settlements. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 676) Callender, C. 1978. \"Illinois.\" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. \"The Illinois Indians: Society: Leaders.\" MuseumLink Illinois. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82</a>. §REF§ <br>In the post-contact period (specifically in the late 17th century), the Illinois formed large villages close to French forts and trading posts, most notably the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§  It has traditionally been assumed that these large settlements, which included Illinois speakers from various subgroups as well as Chickasaws, Shawnees and others, functioned almost as refugee centres as the Illinois fled attacks from the Iroquois to the east and clustered together in the wake of disease and depopulation. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Nichols 1998, 36-37) Nichols, Roger L. 1998. Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76</a>. §REF§  Historian Robert Morrissey has offered an alternative interpretation, arguing that the large Illinois villages represented an aggressive 'bid for power' based on bison hunting and slave raiding and strategically positioned between the woodlands to the east and the grasslands of the west. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 668-69) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. \"The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia.\" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV</a>. §REF§  Nevertheless, what is not in doubt is that the Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680 to just 1,900 by 1763. §REF§ (Hauser 2015, 299) Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. \"Illinois.\" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR</a>. §REF§ ",
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                "id": 28,
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        {
            "id": 32,
            "name": "us_cahokia_1",
            "start_year": 1050,
            "end_year": 1199,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that the geographical location of Cahokia had \"almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  - the \"population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades\"  §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  Bill Romaine (2009) has noted, based on lunar alignments used at Cahokia, there were cultural similarities to a Toltec site in Arkansas. §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 28) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The period of 1000-1150 CE is thus one of great change and demographic expansion. The previous settlement pattern of nucleated clusters of houses \"was abandoned in favor of widely scattered single-family farmsteads\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  between which were structures \"with special ritual and social significance.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  There were likely at least 50,000 people supported within the the 2000 Km2 region of 'greater Cahokia' §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  of which about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§   the polity more likely led by a \"a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§  The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br><br/>",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
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                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
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        {
            "id": 33,
            "name": "us_cahokia_2",
            "start_year": 1200,
            "end_year": 1275,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that at the geographical location of Cahokia there were \"almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  - the \"population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades\"  §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  Almost equally puzzling, the society came to an abrupt end with a migration away around 1250 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The fall of Cahokia probably occurred across the whole of the 1200-1275 CE period. Milner estimates that by the Morehead phase the Cahokia (city) population had fallen about 40% from the Lohmann peak. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 124) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  The settlement pattern was still of nucleated clusters of houses §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  between which were structures \"with special ritual and social significance.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  At its height about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§   the polity more likely led by a \"a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§  Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br><br/>",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 28,
                "name": "Cahokia",
                "subregion": "Mississippi Basin",
                "longitude": "-90.062035000000",
                "latitude": "38.658938000000",
                "capital_city": "St. Louis",
                "nga_code": "USMO",
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            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 24,
                "name": "Mississippi Basin",
                "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana",
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        },
        {
            "id": 34,
            "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2",
            "start_year": 900,
            "end_year": 1049,
            "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "In the Emergent Mississippian Period (900-1050 CE) the Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of the largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - but a population is not thought to have been resident at the site that later became Cahokia until towards the end of the period.<br>In this period the trends established in the Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period continued. Maize farming was intensified and consumption increased creating higher yields and needs for storage and larger populations. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§  Paregrine and Trubitt (2014) note that Cahokia was an excellent environment for growing maize and its geographic location meant it was easily accessible from many directions. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§  It is thought that many different groups created the initial settlement at Cahokia, bringing with them a social structure. §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The levels of social complexity in Emergent Mississippian societies were increasing creating specialised social roles for \"community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize\". Settlements now consisted of court-yard clusters and \"toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§  Warfare appears to have become established. The percentage of sites that were palisaded increased throughout this period from 0.5% 800-950 CE, to 1.5% of sites 1000 CE, to 3% of sites in 1050 CE. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley.  §REF§  The nucleated nature of the settlements themselves may also have been a \"defensive response to bow warfare.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ <br><br/>",
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            "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.",
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                "fao_country": "Cambodia",
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            "long_name": "Iron Age Cambodia",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.",
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                "capital_city": "Angkor Wat",
                "nga_code": "KH",
                "fao_country": "Cambodia",
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            "name": "kh_funan_1",
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            "long_name": "Funan I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§  Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§  The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i> 3: 248-303. §REF§  We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen &amp; Unwin. §REF§  Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla.  §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§ <br>Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§  or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§  The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 38,
            "name": "kh_funan_2",
            "start_year": 540,
            "end_year": 640,
            "long_name": "Funan II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§  Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§  The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Gin 2004, 6-7) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Our Late Funan period spans the century between 540 (the year following the final mention of a Funanese ruler in the Chinese records) §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen &amp; Unwin. §REF§  and 640 CE (a decade or so before the Chinese received embassies from a number of polities subjugated by the Northern Cambodian polity of Chenla). §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  This period was one of decline and dissolution, due in large part to significant changes in international trade networks and the nautical technologies on which these trade networks relied. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§  The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, Chinese records state that, in the early 7th century, Funan included 30 settlements with about 1,000 households each. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 125) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 39,
            "name": "kh_chenla",
            "start_year": 550,
            "end_year": 825,
            "long_name": "Chenla",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "According to Chinese records, Chenla (also known as Zhenla) §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§  was the polity that ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia after the decline of Funan. §REF§ (Southworth 2004, 324) William A. Southworth. 2004. 'Chenla', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia</i>, edited by Keat Gin Ooi, 324-26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§  As with Funan, this was likely not a unitary state, but rather a cluster of competing small city-states. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§  These states occupied much of modern Cambodia and northwestern Thailand, with sites all across the Mekong River Basin, and particularly dense clusters just before the river's delta, in the Tonlé Sap region, and in the Upper Mun Valley. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§  With respect to Chenla's chronological boundaries, many authors date its beginning to the mid-6th century, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§  that is, at the beginning of Funan's century-long decline. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  This is the chronology we follow, although it is worth noting that, according to the Chinese records, Chenla only conquered Funan in the 7th century. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426-27) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§  The Chenla era came to a close at the turn of the the 9th century with the beginning of the Angkor period, traditionally dated from Jayavarman II's coronation ceremony in 802 CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 254) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Although Chenla was probably a cluster of competing centres rather than a unitary polity, inscriptions suggest that there was an overall political hierarchy, at the top of which sat a <i>vrah kamraten</i>, that is, most likely, a deified ruler §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§  Below this ruler, there was a series of elite ranks whose relationship to each other is not always clear, though no rank was higher than that of <i>pura</i>. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 24) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§  At the local level, <i>poñ</i> (settlement chiefs) exercised their authority over individual temples, which were important economic as well as ritual centres for their sustaining populace. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831-32) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ <br>No overall population estimates could be found in the literature, but the largest settlement probably housed over 20,000 families, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 293) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  and Chinese records describe Chenla as 'a wealthy and militarily powerful country with over 30 cities'. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 60) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 40,
            "name": "kh_angkor_1",
            "start_year": 802,
            "end_year": 1100,
            "long_name": "Early Angkor",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Our Early Angkor period runs from 802 to 1100 CE, after which a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§  Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§  However, in this early period, it was the Hindu concepts that were most dominant: the ruler was exalted as a <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) and symbolically linked to Shiva. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 15) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100‒1500</i>. Lanham: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  Temples built in the kingdom before 1100 CE include Preah Ko, Bakheng, Pre Rup and Baphuon. §REF§ (Higham 2001, xiv) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§  at its peak in the 12th century (after this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§  However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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        {
            "id": 41,
            "name": "kh_angkor_2",
            "start_year": 1100,
            "end_year": 1220,
            "long_name": "Classical Angkor",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Our Classic Angkor period begins in 1100 CE, when a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  The reign of Jayavarman VII, beginning in 1181 CE, marks the height of Angkorean power in the region, and we end this period with his death around 1220 CE. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 27) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Singapore: Allen &amp; Unwin. §REF§  §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§  Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§  The Early Angkor <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) cult and the veneration of Hindu gods retained their importance into the Classic Angkor period: it was Suryavarman II (r. 1113‒1150 CE) who sponsored the construction of Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu and still one of the largest single religious structures in the world. §REF§ (Winter 2007, 9) Tim Winter. 2007. <i>Post-Conflict Heritage, Postcolonial Tourism: Culture, Politics and Development at Angkor</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  However, Jayavarman VII's religious policies differed from those of his predecessors. Providing support for the spread of Buddhism throughout the Khmer realm and portraying himself as a compassionate ruler, he also mobilized labour to build 102 'hospitals', 121 rest houses, and to improve the road network. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§  at its peak in the 12th century it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§  However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",
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        {
            "id": 42,
            "name": "kh_angkor_3",
            "start_year": 1220,
            "end_year": 1432,
            "long_name": "Late Angkor",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Our Late Angkor period begins with the death of King Jayavarman VII around 1200 CE. §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§  In contrast to the burgeoning growth of the Khmer Empire during the Classic period, the Late Angkor period was characterized by political and economic decline, culminating in the sack of the city of Angkor by the Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1431. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br>The reign of Jayavarman VII marked the high point of Angkorean monument-building, and subsequent rulers did not carry out major construction projects at the ancient capital. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan visited Angkor in the late 13th century and saw temples capped in gold and copper, sumptuous religious festivals, thousands of slaves and servants, and a lively trade in Chinese goods. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390-91) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  §REF§ (Higham 2001, 135-56) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  However, this grandeur concealed the fundamental instability of the state, and the Khmer administrative system with its centre at Angkor eventually disintegrated in the mid-15th century CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  Warfare became 'endemic', §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  and after the Ayyuthaya attacks in 1431, the rulers of Angkor moved to south-eastern Cambodia and founded a new capital at Phnom Penh. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6750) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§  Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§ <br>However, the Late Angkor period saw a decline in the importance of the Hindu <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) cult, while Theravada Buddhism gained an increasingly stronger foothold among both the people and their rulers. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  §REF§ (Stark 2006, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§  This is reflected in the scarcity of Sanskrit inscriptions referencing Hindu gods ‒ the last known Angkor inscription to use this language dates to 1327 §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  ‒ and the increasing importance of Pali scriptures. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 162-63) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  While some scholars suggest that this religious shift contributed to the loosening of centralized Khmer power, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  the causes for imperial decline during this period remain a topic of intense scholarly debate. §REF§ (Evans 2016, 165) Damian Evans. 2016. 'Airborne Laser Scanning as a Method for Exploring Long-Term Socio-Ecological Dynamics in Cambodia'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 74: 164-75. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.009. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor at the height of its power had always flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§  In this period, however, rice agriculture decreased in importance in favour of trade and commerce, potentially undermining the traditional power base of the Angkor kings. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 163) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§  at its peak in the 12th century (before this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§  However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",
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        {
            "id": 43,
            "name": "kh_khmer_k",
            "start_year": 1432,
            "end_year": 1594,
            "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§ <br>Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§  but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§  Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames &amp; Hudson. §REF§  and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. <i>The Armies of Angkor</i>. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§ <br>More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. §REF§  Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§  was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 44,
            "name": "th_ayutthaya",
            "start_year": 1593,
            "end_year": 1767,
            "long_name": "Ayutthaya",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The city of Ayutthaya was founded in 1351 CE in the Chao Phraya Basin, in modern-day Thailand, and soon emerged as a dominant force in the region, turning neighbouring <i>mueang</i>, or city-states, into its tributaries. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, xv, 7-13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  This was largely thanks to its advantageous geographical position, which allowed it to become an <i>entrepôt</i> where goods could be exchanged between China to the east, India and Arabia to the west, and the Malay archipelago to the south. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 10) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In 1569, Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese army. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 100) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§  Here, we only consider the second phase of the polity's history, starting in 1593, when Ayutthaya regained its independence after defeating Burma at the Battle of Nong Sarai. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 103) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§  The kingdom flourished throughout the 17th century, regaining its status as the dominant political and economic power of mainland Southeast Asia and ruling over Khmer, Lao, Lanna, and Shan. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13-18) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The polity may have reached its peak under King Borommakot (reigned 1733‒1758): during this time, Ayutthaya faced no serious external threats (indeed, it made peace with Burma and consolidated its hold over Cambodia), and supplanted Sri Lanka as the preeminent centre of Buddhist culture. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 130-31) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§  Shortly afterwards, however, hostilities with Burma resumed due to the ambitions of a new Burmese dynasty. In 1767, Ayutthaya was once again captured ‒ and this time, it was destroyed. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 21-22) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A number of different spellings of Ayutthaya are in use, including Ayuthaya, Ayudhya, and Ayuthia. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, xxiii) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Ayutthaya Kingdom, kings ruled over a society composed of a 'service nobility of maybe 2000 people and their families, and a mass of people bound to surrender some or all of their labour to the elite'. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  There was a four-part administrative structure: one ministry was dedicated to the palace and the capital; one to military affairs and relations with tributary states and cities; one to trade, the treasury, and foreign communities; and one, made up of Brahmans, to ritual, astrology, and records. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to give a firm figure for the population of the kingdom as a whole. However, Ayutthaya may have been the largest city in Southeast Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries, §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  with perhaps 150,000 inhabitants in 1700 and 160,000 in 1750.  §REF§ Christopher K. Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication 2012 §REF§ ",
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            "long_name": "Rattanakosin",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "After the destruction of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767, the Chao Phraya Basin was briefly ruled by Phaya Taksin, a charismatic warrior-king of obscure origins who chose Thonburi as his capital, near Bangkok, an old Chinese trading settlement. In 1782, what remained of the old Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup and put their leader on the throne. This leader took the name of Rama I Chakri and moved the capital to Bangkok, known at the time as Rattanakosin or Krungthep. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27, 31) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Under Rama I, the kingdom rapidly expanded to the south (where it extended its control to the Malay peninsula), the north (where Chiang Mai became a new tributary), and the east (taking control of Vientiane and much of Cambodia). §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27-28) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It could be said to have reached its peak between 1793 and 1810, when it found new stability, regained control over important Asian trade networks, and witnessed a literary florescence, with the translation of several classics from different Asian languages. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 154-55) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§  Our 'ThRattn' polity spans the 89 years between 1782 and 1873, when Rama V began a comprehensive series of modernizing reforms. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 194) David K. Wyatt. 1984. <i>Thailand: A Short History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Rattanakosin kingdom was ruled by the Thai aristocracy. The king was simply a <i>primus inter pares</i> ‒ indeed, some kings, such as Rama II and Rama IV, actually retreated into a ritual role and left the administration of the kingdom entirely to the nobility. Even during the reign of more active kings, such as Rama I and Rama III, the aristocracy still monopolized the key posts in the central administration.  However, the king always led the country in spiritual matters: he was seen as a <i>bodhisattva</i>, a spiritually superior superhuman being tasked with preserving Buddhism and aiding his subjects in their ascent toward <i>nirvana</i>, for example through moral laws banning sinful pursuits. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 31-32) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. <i>A History of Thailand</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Evidence for the size of this polity's population before 1911, the year of the first census, is sparse and unreliable. However, a reasonable estimate would be that, following slow growth beginning in the 1780s, the population reached just below 5 million by the middle of the 19th century. §REF§ (Dixon 2002, xxxii) Chris Dixon. 1999. <i>The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalisation</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  It is not clear whether this estimate includes tributary states and cities.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 17,
                "name": "Cambodian Basin",
                "subregion": "Siam",
                "longitude": "103.866700000000",
                "latitude": "13.412500000000",
                "capital_city": "Angkor Wat",
                "nga_code": "KH",
                "fao_country": "Cambodia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 41,
                "name": "Mainland Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam",
                "mac_region": 10
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 46,
            "name": "id_buni",
            "start_year": -400,
            "end_year": 500,
            "long_name": "Java - Buni Culture",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The archaeological culture known as the Buni culture left material remains across the coastal plain of northwestern Java, some of them dating to the first or second century CE §REF§ (Miksic in Glover and Bellwood 2004, 237) §REF§ , though in all likelihood the Buni had existed since the third century BCE. §REF§ (Zahorka 2007, 27) §REF§  These remains include ceramics of various kinds (usually gray, burnished, and undecorated), a number of foreign items (for example, Romano-Indian ceramics), polished stone axes, and ceramic net sinkers, which point to the importance of fishing for the Buni economy. §REF§ (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 108) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No information could be found in the specialist literature, either on the political organization of the Buni, or on their population numbers.",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "Central Java",
                "subregion": "Indonesia",
                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
                "latitude": "-6.985678000000",
                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
                "mac_region": 10
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 47,
            "name": "id_kalingga_k",
            "start_year": 500,
            "end_year": 732,
            "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Kalingga, or Ho-ling, is a rather enigmatic polity that seems to be mostly known through contemporary Chinese documents. According to these annals, Kalingga was one of two Javanese coastal centres that interacted with the T'ang court in the fifth century CE, the other one being Ho-lo-tan, in the Tarum basin. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§  A North Indian Buddhist monk named Gunavarman wrote about his visit to Kalingga in 422, and we know that the polity sent envoys to China in 430, 440, and in the 640s and 660s. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§  §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§  According to Chinese records, by the seventh century, Kalingga had expanded inland, and counted twenty-eight small polities as its allies. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 122) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Kalingga was likely a monarchy,  §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§  but overall the sources are silent on the exact details of its political organization. Similarly, no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "Central Java",
                "subregion": "Indonesia",
                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
                "latitude": "-6.985678000000",
                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
                "mac_region": 10
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 48,
            "name": "id_medang_k",
            "start_year": 732,
            "end_year": 1019,
            "long_name": "Medang Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Medang, or Mataram, Kingdom, is the first well-attested Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in central Java. In 732 CE, in an inscription written in Sanskrit, a local ruler called Sanjaya made the 'first definite claim to kingship' known from the region. §REF§ (Reid 2015, 36) Reid, Anthony. 2015. A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RF6M65Q8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RF6M65Q8</a>. §REF§  Over the next few centuries, his successors would extend their influence over areas suitable for irrigated rice agriculture in upland central Java. The Medang Kingdom is famous for its large-scale sacred construction projects, such as the Buddhist pilgrimage site of Borobudur (a series of ascending stone terraces decorated with stone reliefs and topped with stupas) and Prambanan, a Hindu temple complex. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 135) Hall, Kenneth R. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU</a>. §REF§ <br>A long-standing debate about dynastic succession in late 1st-millennium CE central Java is still unresolved, §REF§ John Miksic 2016, personal communication. §REF§  showing that there are still many gaps in our understanding of the kingdom. Some scholars hold that there were two competing dynasties, the Buddhist Sailendras and the Shaivite descendants of King Sanjaya, while others believe that the rulers mentioned in inscriptions were two branches of the same family. In the early 10th century CE, the centre of royal power shifted from the high volcanic plains of central Java to the east of the island, signalling the increased importance of maritime trade to the polity. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 137) Hall, Kenneth R. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>King Sanjaya and his successors drew their legitimacy from Indic religious concepts, sometimes devoting themselves to Hindu deities (especially Shiva) and sometimes favouring Buddhist practices. §REF§ (Klokke 2008, 155) Klokke, Marijke I. 2008. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, no. 63: 154-67. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JJGM87CV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JJGM87CV</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Sundberg 2003, 176) Sundberg, Jeffrey Roger. 2003. “A Buddhist Mantra Recovered from the Ratu Baka Plateau: A Preliminary Study of Its Implications for Sailendra-Era Java.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 159 (1): 163-88. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D8NSQ36W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D8NSQ36W</a>. §REF§  They gathered courtly entourages about them and drew their wealth from the taxation of rice and other goods and the use of corvée labour. §REF§ (Hall 1992, 206-08) Hall, Kenneth R. 1992. “Economic History of Early Southeast Asia.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 183-275. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87P3WM2E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87P3WM2E</a>. §REF§  Local lords, known as <i>rakrayan</i>, and temple foundations could be granted the right to collect taxes from the population within a given parcel of land: these <i>sima</i> tax-grants were a useful way for the Medang kings to reward and ensure loyalty. §REF§ (Zakharov 2012, 86) Zakharov, Anton O. 2012. “Epigraphy, Political History, and Collective Action in Ancient Java.” In Connecting Empires and States: Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, edited by Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz, Andreas Reinecke, and Dominik Bonatz, 82-89. Singapore: NUS Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HAW7WMKC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HAW7WMKC</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (van Naerssen 1977, 53) Naerssen, F. H. van. 1977. “The Economic and Administrative History of Early Indonesia.” In The Economic and Administrative History of Early Indonesia, by F. H. van Naerssen and R. C. de Iongh, 1-84. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/I7TSZH8T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/I7TSZH8T</a>. §REF§ <br>Secure population estimates for the Medang Kingdom are lacking, but in the early 11th century CE, the East Javanese settlements of Cane, Patakan and Baru each had populations of over 1000 people. §REF§ (Wisseman Christie 1991, 28-29) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN</a>. §REF§  The demographer Peter McDonald believes the population of the island as a whole in the 14th century could have been as high as five million. §REF§ (McDonald 1980, cited in Wisseman Christie 1991, 29) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN</a>. §REF§  Evidence from Javanese inscriptions suggests that by this time, the population levels of East Javanese states had been rising ‘fairly consistently’ since the early 10th century. §REF§ (Wisseman Christie 1991, 34) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN</a>. §REF§ ",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "Central Java",
                "subregion": "Indonesia",
                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
                "latitude": "-6.985678000000",
                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
                "mac_region": 10
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 49,
            "name": "id_kediri_k",
            "start_year": 1049,
            "end_year": 1222,
            "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The kingdom of Kediri ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day province of East Java, at least based on the locations where its rulers' inscriptions have been found. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§  Midway through the eleventh century CE, the Javanese monarch Airlangga split his realm into two smaller kingdoms, each to be ruled by one of his sons: one of these kingdoms was likely Kediri §REF§ (Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (a), 134) §REF§ . The latter rapidly overshadowed its \"twin\": it was the first Indonesian kingdom to develop stratified territorial administration, it became known for the organization of its armed forces, and it even introduced bureaucratic officials specifically tasked with the management of the polity's water resources. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§   Kediri does not appear to have collapsed: rather, in the early thirteenth century, the cente of power shifted to Singhasari, with the foundation of a new dynasty. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (c), 1208) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Kediri was ruled by a king, who was assisted by bureaucratic officials. Moreover, as already mentioned, Kediri was the first known Indonesian state to develop stratified territorial administration: more specifically, the polity was organized into three levels, the village, the cluster of villages, and the state. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§  This suggests that there were officials in charge of administrating both village clusters and individual villages.<br>According to McEvedy and Jones, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§  Indonesia had a population of four million in 1100 CE. Given the fact that Kediri occupied a small portion of the archipelago, it seems reasonable to infer a population size of a few hundred thousands.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "Central Java",
                "subregion": "Indonesia",
                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
                "latitude": "-6.985678000000",
                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
                "mac_region": 10
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 50,
            "name": "id_majapahit_k",
            "start_year": 1292,
            "end_year": 1518,
            "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The kingdom of Majapahit covered much of the eastern half of the island of Java; it was founded in the late thirteenth century, when the war between king Waijaya and the ruler of Kediri concluded with the latter's loss, and it gradually faded from relevance between the end of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth, as the Sultanate of Demak established its control over the main sea trade routes. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284) §REF§  Majapahit experienced its apogee under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara (1350-1389): during this time, the polity extended its sovereignty over the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago, as well much of the Malay peninsula. §REF§ (Coedès 1968, 239-240) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Majapahit's king was assisted by a hierarchy of bureaucrats which reached down to the village level. §REF§  (Kinney 2003, 49)  §REF§  Indeed, Majapahit was more centralized than preceding Indonesian polities, collecting revenue and products directly from its peripheries, as opposed to simply receiving them as tribute. §REF§ (Hall in Tarling 1993) §REF§ <br>Majapahit's population has been estimated to around 5 million, §REF§ (Christie 1991, 29) §REF§ , with a capital of about 200,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Miksic 2000, 116) §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 18,
                "name": "Central Java",
                "subregion": "Indonesia",
                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
                "latitude": "-6.985678000000",
                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
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        },
        {
            "id": 51,
            "name": "id_mataram_k",
            "start_year": 1568,
            "end_year": 1755,
            "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Mataram started out as a vassal to the kingdom of Pajang—itself one of a number of short-lived polities that emerged from the disintegration of the Demak Sultanate—and gradually established itself as the dominant polity in central Java between the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. §REF§  (Ooi 2004 864-866) §REF§  The polity's heyday coincided with the rule of Agung Hanyokrokusumo (1613-1645), whose marriage alliances and military campaigns resulted in the polity's greatest territorial expansion, annexing the Sultanate of Cirebon in the West and the kingdoms of Surabaya and Blambangan in the East. §REF§ (Achmad &amp; Nurcholis 2016, 41) §REF§  Mataram went in decline shortly after Hanyokrokusumo's death, succumbing to the Dutch East India Company in the first half of the eighteenth century. §REF§  (Ooi 2004 864-866) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Sultan governed with the assistance of a number of functionaries, though the exact hierarchy of these functionaries remains unclear, as does their relationship to the bureaucratic systems in the polity's administrative subdivisions, particularly its powerful trading centers on the coast. §REF§ (Schrieke 1957, 190-207) §REF§  It is worth noting, however, that Hanyokrokusumo enacted a sweeping reform of the judiciary system meant to integrate Islamic law into traditional customs. §REF§ (Achmad &amp; Nurcholis 2016) §REF§ <br>No demographic estimates have been found in the specialist literature, with the exception of Reid's §REF§ (Reid in Tarling 1993, 463) §REF§  conjecture that the polity's population density corresponded to about thirty people per squared kilometer.",
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            "home_nga": {
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                "name": "Central Java",
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                "longitude": "110.403498000000",
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                "capital_city": "Semarang",
                "nga_code": "JV",
                "fao_country": "Indonesia",
                "world_region": "Southeast Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 42,
                "name": "Maritime Southeast Asia",
                "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines",
                "mac_region": 10
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        },
        {
            "id": 52,
            "name": "pa_monagrillo",
            "start_year": -3000,
            "end_year": -1300,
            "long_name": "Monagrillo",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": null,
            "shapefile_name": null,
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            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": null,
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 21,
                "name": "Caribbean",
                "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela",
                "mac_region": 6
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 53,
            "name": "pa_la_mula_sarigua",
            "start_year": -1300,
            "end_year": 200,
            "long_name": "La Mula-Sarigua",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": null,
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            "home_nga": null,
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 21,
                "name": "Caribbean",
                "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela",
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