Polity List

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    "count": 862,
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            "id": 155,
            "name": "tr_konya_enl",
            "start_year": -9600,
            "end_year": -7000,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
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                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
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                "id": 43,
                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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            "id": 156,
            "name": "tr_konya_mnl",
            "start_year": -7000,
            "end_year": -6600,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": null,
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                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
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                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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                "mac_region": 11
            }
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        {
            "id": 157,
            "name": "tr_konya_lnl",
            "start_year": -6600,
            "end_year": -6000,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Neolithic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "",
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                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
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                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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        {
            "id": 158,
            "name": "tr_konya_eca",
            "start_year": -6000,
            "end_year": -5500,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
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                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
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                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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        {
            "id": 159,
            "name": "tr_konya_lca",
            "start_year": -5500,
            "end_year": -3000,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "",
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                "id": 11,
                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 43,
                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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        {
            "id": 160,
            "name": "tr_konya_eba",
            "start_year": -3000,
            "end_year": -2000,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Early Bronze Age period in Anatolia is complicated and complex topic. This period begins with controversy, because the transition from Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age is not clear. Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE.<br><br/>This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common.<br>Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast.<br>The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs.<br><br/><br>Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks.\"  §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214.  §REF§ <br>Flint/Obsidian present  §REF§  Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363.  §REF§   §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214.  §REF§ <br>Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried\"  §REF§  Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291.  §REF§  \"The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations.\"  §REF§  Warner J., \"The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş\", In: \"American Journal of Archaeology\", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138.  §REF§ <br>Copper present E.g. grave goods  §REF§  Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291.  §REF§ <br>Tin/Arsenic present Kestel  §REF§  Yener K. A., \"An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey.\", In: \"The Oriental Institute News and Notes\", Vol. 140 (1994)  §REF§  \"The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin.\"  §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001.  §REF§ <br>Iron present E.g. grave goods   §REF§  Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291.  §REF§ . Iron Dagger  §REF§  Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 292.  §REF§ <br>Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal \"In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation.\"  §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 208-209.  §REF§ <br>Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 214-217  §REF§ <br>Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük.  §REF§  Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466.  §REF§ <br>Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük  §REF§  Yalçin Ü. and H. G., \"Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia\", In: \"Near Eastern Archeology\" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41.  §REF§ .<br>Metals  present   §REF§  Efe T., \"The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia\" In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49  §REF§ <br>Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan  §REF§  Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363.  §REF§ <br>Pottery  present Trojan <i>depas</i> vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls  §REF§  Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10  §REF§ <br>Coppersmith present §REF§  Yakar T., \"Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I\", In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75.  §REF§ <br>Pottery present  §REF§  Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 197.  §REF§ <br>Butcher present §REF§  Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468.  §REF§ <br><br/>",
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 11,
                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 43,
                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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        {
            "id": 161,
            "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba",
            "start_year": -2000,
            "end_year": -1700,
            "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": null,
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            "home_nga": {
                "id": 11,
                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 43,
                "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
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        {
            "id": 162,
            "name": "tr_hatti_old_k",
            "start_year": -1650,
            "end_year": -1500,
            "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The early period of the Hittite Kingdom lasted from about 1650 to 1500 BCE and is known as the Old Kingdom. The polity emerged after a group of Indo-European speakers migrated c. 2000 BCE from either the Causasus or the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and settled on a high plateau in western Anatolia known as Hatti. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 46) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  The immigrants mingled with the indigenous people of Hatti and adopted many of their beliefs and customs. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before the mid-1st millennium BCE, the central Anatolian region was divided into many city-states. §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41-42) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  Gradually, however, the Hittites began to conquer the neighbouring cities, founding a strong state around 1650 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41049) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§  Labarna I (17th century BCE) was the first known Hittite king. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 34) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br>The king was the supreme ruler and military commander, a chief judge and a priest in Hittite society. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 11) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§  He entrusted the management of major cities and provinces to officials who were often directly answerable to him, §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§  and could bestow important military positions on members of his own family. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 8-9) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§  Vassal rulers were obliged to pay tribute to the king and take an oath of allegiance. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ ",
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                "name": "Konya Plain",
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        {
            "id": 163,
            "name": "tr_konya_lba",
            "start_year": -1500,
            "end_year": -1400,
            "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The period of 1500-1400 BCE was an 'intermediate period' for the Hittite people that is sometimes referred to as the Middle Kingdom, which existed before the Empire period of the New Kingdom. §REF§ (Gurney 1952, 25) O R Gurney. 1952.<i>The Hittites</i>. Penguin. §REF§ <br>According to McEvedy and Jones (1978) the population of the whole of Turkey was about 1.5 million by the Chalcolithic era (2500 BC) and reached 3 million \"during the course of the full Bronze age\". §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 133) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§  However, the area corresponding to Hittite control at this time was just a fraction of the 750,000 km2 of Anatolia, so it is unlikely there were more than a million Hittites, possibly much less.<br>As a time of troubles, not much is known about the Middle Kingdom of the Hittites, but by around 1450 CE Hantili II is noted for building achievements being \"responsible for the first extensive fortification of the capital\" Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 30) Bryce T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World, New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§",
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        {
            "id": 164,
            "name": "tr_hatti_new_k",
            "start_year": -1400,
            "end_year": -1180,
            "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The period of the Hittite New Kingdom lasts from about 1400-1180 BCE although the dynasty that created it, originating from the city Kumbnani within the Kizzuwatna polity, came to power in the mid-fifteenth century BCE. The rulers of this dynasty were the creators of the Hittite empire, which during the reign of King Suppiluliuma I (1356-1319 BCE) and his successors achieved the greatest prosperity. In the period of its greatest splendor, the Hittite king controlled up to 400,000 squared kilometers of land including the areas of Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine.<br>The central bureaucracy was relatively sophisticated: a Chief of the Scribes headed up the Hittite chancellery §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 66) §REF§  whilst a separate administrator, the hazannu, had responsibility for the city of Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§  Keepers of the Royal Storehouses were also important officials. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 18) §REF§  District governors known as Lord of the Watchtower were appointed for the provinces §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§  whilst the conquest of Syria c1340 BCE lead to the position of viceroy being created for the important urban centre of Karkamis. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 45) §REF§  The power of the state was based on the army, which was great for the times - it had iron weapons, armor, and excellent war chariots.<br>During the reign of Muwattalli, Ramses II was in power in Egypt, and the war between two most powerful states in the Middle East area resulted in the first written international treaty known to us as \" Kadesh Treaty \". Although this treaty was originally written in the Akkadian language, copies in Hittite and Egyptian languages were made.  Around 1200 BCE, the Hittite state probably fell under the pressure of the Sea Peoples, although a few Hittite city-states in Northern Syria survived until 708 BC.",
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                "nga_code": "TR",
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        },
        {
            "id": 165,
            "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k",
            "start_year": -1180,
            "end_year": -900,
            "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. \"The Neo-Hittite City-States\" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§  The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, \"each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) \"Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one.\"  §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§   §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§  I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.",
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        {
            "id": 166,
            "name": "tr_phrygian_k",
            "start_year": -900,
            "end_year": -695,
            "long_name": "Phrygian Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Phrygian Kingdom (c900-695 BCE) came into existence after the migration of a people to Anatolia in the early Iron Age, after the fall of the Hittite Empire. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 39-40) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The name the people called themselves is unknown because there are no Phrygian sources telling us about it. 'Phrygian' is a Greek name while Assyrian texts refer to a Muški kingdom §REF§ (Roller 2011, 563) L Roller. 2011. \"Phrygian and the Phrygians\" <i>Oxford Handbook of Ancien Anatolia</i> §REF§  \"a fierce, aggressive, tribal people\" who could be a separate people or a people who formed a union with the Phrygians in the 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 40) §REF§  The kingdom's most developed phase occurred under king Midas who ruled from the city of Gordium in the late 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>We cannot say much about the organization of Phrygia at its peak development except that it was a monarchy that ruled from Gordium, a town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants. The capital of Midas's hypothesized Mushki-Phrygian union is assumed to have been named after Midas's father. Earlier names in the dynasty are unknown. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Archaeologist know of three political documents but have not been able to decipher them. The Phrygian language is not known, and its similarity to Greek languages has only allowed for fragments of texts to be understood.<br>While we nothing about a central (palace based?) administration that may have been present archaeologists believe that other cities in Phrygia had their own governments §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. \"Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects\". <i>Anatolian Studies</i>. Vol. 32. §REF§  and a great deal of autonomy. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. \"Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects\". <i>Anatolian Studies</i>. Vol. 32. §REF§  The biggest cities had governors. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. \"Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects\". <i>Anatolian Studies</i>. Vol. 32. §REF§ <br>The beginning date for the Phrygian period is somewhat arbitrary, based on archaeological records. The end of the Phrygian period, however, is clearly marked by a conquest - it is the year when the Phrygian Kingdom was conquered by the Lydian Kingdom, which de facto put an end to the existence of the Phrygian period.",
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        {
            "id": 167,
            "name": "tr_tabal_k",
            "start_year": -900,
            "end_year": -730,
            "long_name": "Tabal Kingdoms",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "During the 900-730 BCE period the region of the Konya Plain was occupied by small independent states, that likely first evolved during the Neo-Hittite period. After the Assyrian invasion they became tribute-sending states to the Mesopotamian Empire but were otherwise \"free to rule their states in whatever manner they wished, without interference from the Assyrian king\". §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 243) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Known as the kingdoms of 'Tabal', the term an Assyrian administrative designation rather than a political one §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery.\" in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§  §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery.\" in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ , there were, according to Assyrian records, 24 of them in the mid-9th century BCE. This number had reduced by the middle of the 8th century, which suggests that the states conquered each other or had otherwise joined together to become larger kingdoms. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in the mid-late 8th century listed five tributaries he possessed in Tabal: Tabal, Atuna, Tuhana, Ishtu(a)nda, and Hupishna. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§  Bryce (2012) adds a sixth kingdom to Tabal, Shinuhtu, which is \"attested both in Luwian and Assyrian inscriptions dating to the reign of Sargon II. Shinuhtu's ruler at that time was a man called Kiyakiya (Assyrian Kiakki).\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>The best-known Tabalean principality was Tuhana. Its capital was at the city later known as Tyana whose ruins lie in the modern Turkish village of Kemerhisar; here a stela of king Warpalawas was found in 1860. §REF§ (Radner 2013) Karen Radner. 2013. Tabal and Phrygia: problem neighbours in the West. Assyrian empire builders. University College London <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/tabalandphrygia/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/tabalandphrygia/</a> §REF§ <br><br/>",
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        {
            "id": 168,
            "name": "tr_lydia_k",
            "start_year": -670,
            "end_year": -546,
            "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "One of a number of small kingdoms in Anatolia, the Kingdom of Lydia under the Mermnad dynasty (670-546 BCE), which began with the rule of king Gyges and ended with Croesus in the 540s BCE, came to dominate Anatolia after the conquest of Phrygia. Blessed with a rich supply of minable electrum, the natural alloy of silver and gold, Lydia is most famous for being the likely birthplace of coinage. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Like Phrygia archaeologists lack detailed understanding of Lydian government but they believe the rulers ruled from a Palace citadel above the capital Sardis. Some areas under Lydian control were directly ruled through appointments made by the kings: for example, Alyattes appointed his son Croesus as governor of Adramyttetion, northwest of Lydia, when Cimmerians were causing trouble there. However, the Greek city states attacked by Mermnad kings, whom were required to pay tribute, were generally never under Lydian control for long. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The 650 BCE and 500 BCE period was characterized by the expansion of an integrated Mediterranean trading zone §REF§ (Broodbank 2015, 508-509) Cyrprian Broodbank. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. Thames &amp; Hudson. London. §REF§  and it seems that pragmatic deal-making to preserve this economic system often characterized Lydian relations with other states.<br>The most immediate threat appears to have been the nomadic Cimmerians who initially were expelled §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§  which at times lead to an alliance with Assyria §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 495) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§  which also became an enemy that required an alliance with Egypt. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ <br>Lydia kings often utilised marriages to secure alliances with many foreign powers, including the Persian Medians as well as Greek Ionians and Carians and the tyrant of Ephesus. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§",
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        },
        {
            "id": 169,
            "name": "tr_lysimachus_k",
            "start_year": -323,
            "end_year": -281,
            "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Thracian kingdom under Lysimachus constituted only a short period in the history of the area. The Odrysian Kingdom was present in Thrace before it was conquered by Philip II, then ruled by Alexander the Great until his death in 323 BCE. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s Successors, took over governorship of the area and eventually declared himself king in 306 BCE. Lysimachus ruled with an expansionist policy, and extended the kingdom to its furthest reaches by around 300 BCE. §REF§ (Dimitrov 2011, 13) K Dimitrov. 2011. Economic, Social and Political Structures on the Territory of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace (5th - first half of the 3rd century BC). ORPHEUS. Journal of IndoEuropean and Thracian Studies. 18, p. 4-24. §REF§  His reign was however, very short lived. He was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium by Seleucus (ruler of the Seleucid Empire) in 281 BCE and his territories became part of the Seleucid Empire.<br>The evidence of Lysimachus’ reign is very limited and, “There is almost no direct information as to Lysimachus’ administration, nor do we know the site of his headquarters before Lysimacheia’s walls rose in 309 BCE.”  §REF§ (Lund 1992, 21) H S Lund. 1992. Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. §REF§  There is however a certain amount of continuity with the Odrysian Kingdom before the Macedonain conquest which may provide some proxy information on Thrace under Lysimachus. In addition, there is some evidence that Thracian rulers continued to rule under or with Lysimachus, although the exact nature of their relationship is not clear. The earlier reigns of Philip II and Alexander, and the subsequent reign of Seleucus, have not been coded on this page as those polities have separate pages. It was only under Lysimachus that the area was ruled relatively independently, and only during this time that the boundaries were extended to include the Konya Plain.",
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                "capital_city": "Konya",
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            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
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        },
        {
            "id": 170,
            "name": "tr_cappadocia_2",
            "start_year": -330,
            "end_year": 16,
            "long_name": "Late Cappadocia",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Cappaodican kingdom began and ended in the hands of other more powerful polities in Asia Minor. The kingdom grew out of suzerainty to the Achaemenid Empire when Alexander the Great toppled the Achaemenids and largely bypassed Cappadocia  §REF§ (Ansen 1988, 471) E M Ansen. 1988. Antigonus, the Satrap of Phrygia. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 37, H. 4 (4th Qtr.), pp. 471-477. §REF§ , but the kingdom eventually returned to being a province under the next greatest power, Rome, in the early first century CE. Even during the peak reign of Cappadocian kings, the polity was fought over and used by the kings of its neighbouring polities to strengthen their positions of power or to buffer their state against the ambitions of another. This happened to such an extent that Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, placed both his nephew and son on the Cappadocian throne, only to kill the first to reinforce the claim of the latter, much to the antagonism of Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia at the time, who claimed his own right to a puppet on the Cappadocian throne. The incident resulted in the intervention of Rome who declared the ‘freedom’ of Cappadocia from monarchs (in theory) so that neither the kingdoms of Pontus or Bithynia could use Cappadocia for their own gains. The kingdom was then ruled by kings favoured by the Roman Senate until the death of Archelaus who was the last king of Cappadocia, places there by Antony.<br>As a result of Cappadocia’s relatively minor position during this time, very little textual (or other) direct evidence from the kingdom has survived. Numismatic evidence does give some detailed information about the chronology of kings, but even this is debated  §REF§ (Simonetta 1977) B Simonetta. 1977. The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre. §REF§  §REF§ (Dimitriev 2006, 286) S Dmitriev. 2006. Cappadocian Dynastic Rearrangements on the Eve of the First Mithridatic War. Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 55, H. 3, pp. 285-297. §REF§ . Instead, much of what is known about the kingdom of Cappadocia comes from accounts of the foreign policy of its neighbours, particularly Rome at the time. The main historian who discussed Cappadocia was Strabo, and his accounts lack the detailed information on Cappadocia which other polities have  §REF§ (Rostovtzeff 1941, 838) M Rostovtzeff. 1941. The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Volume 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §REF§ .",
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                "id": 11,
                "name": "Konya Plain",
                "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus",
                "longitude": "32.521164000000",
                "latitude": "37.877845000000",
                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
                "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 43,
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        },
        {
            "id": 171,
            "name": "tr_rum_sultanate",
            "start_year": 1077,
            "end_year": 1307,
            "long_name": "Rum Sultanate",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (1077-1307 CE) was probably founded by Suleman Qotlomos after a Turkmen tribe in Syria asked him to lead them. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§  The early years of the Sultanate are, however, extremely murky as it is unlikely that any local Muslim chronicles were written. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ <br>It is likely that the government was a largely military arrangement. The regional apparatus was organised with military officials overseeing local tax collectors. The amirs were granted land by the Sultan in return for military service  §REF§ (Fodor 2009, 197) Pal Fodor. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>At his royal court a core of senior bureaucrats and scribes assisted with the central administration. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§  Land, and the right to collect revenue for it, was also distributed by the Sultan to senior officials. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§  These positions and the land grants often became hereditary. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ <br>The early 13th century was probably the high point of the Sultanate of Rum §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§  before Anatolia came under the authority of invading Mongols in the 1240s CE. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§  Konya was the largest city of the polity with 30,000-40,000 inhabitants. Crusaders who reached there in 1190 reckoned it was “the size of Cologne\". §REF§ (Cahen 2001, 121) Claude Cahen. 2001. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 172,
            "name": "ir_il_khanate",
            "start_year": 1256,
            "end_year": 1339,
            "long_name": "Ilkhanate",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Ilkhanate was a state that began under Mongol commander Hulegu who founded the House of Hulegu. §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§  The nearly eighty years the dynasty lasted was a time of general economic prosperity for the 5 million inhabitants of Persia. The end of the Ilkhanate came when Abu Said, who it is said \"ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols\". §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , died without an heir, which resulted in the Jalayirids becoming the strongest faction in the region. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 78) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Mongol invaders assimilated to the local culture in Persia. They converted to Islam, used the local languages (Persian and Arabic), and maintained existing Persian administrative practices, the financing of which was underpinned by iqta land grants awarded to senior bureaucrats and army officers. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§  §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§  According to the Persian historian Rashid al-Din, who was chief minister to Ghazan §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 228) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , the Mongols assessed the vizier (chief of the bureaucracy) on his ability to extract revenue. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 67) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§  Even so, previously better known in the region as barbarians bent on destruction, the Mongols rebuilt many hospitals, mosques, and observatories, and impressive mausoleums to the rulers appeared in the cities. §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§  §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>During this period, Sultaniya was a famous commercial center and after the intense building activities of Oljetu (r.1304-1316 CE) the 'great city' became the capital. As a result of the work, the circumference of the outer walls almost tripled in length, containing within new fabulous palaces, gardens, and a purpose-built quarter of a thousand houses. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§  The largest city in the Ilkhanate at this time was probably Tabriz which also \"developed into a great metropolis\". §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 69) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§  Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. §REF§ (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) M Th. Houtsma. A J Wensinck. H A R Gibb. W Heffening. E Levi-Provencal. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden. §REF§  In 1300 CE Tabriz may have contained 100,000-200,000 inhabitants.",
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            "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate",
            "start_year": 1299,
            "end_year": 1402,
            "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The polity of the Ottomans was originally one of many small Turkish principalities on the border of the Byzantine realm §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§  against whom their ghazi chieftain launched raids for territory and plunder. Through both warfare and diplomacy with farmers, townspeople and Christian nobles, they eventually forced the submission of the western Balkans and then annexed their rival Turkish principalities in western Anatolia. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§  The massive expansion of the Ottoman polity (18,000 km2 in 1320 CE to 690,000 km2 by 1400 CE) came to an abrupt halt with the invasion of Timur in 1402 CE who conquered the Ottomans and made its ruler a vassal. There was then a civil war for control of the Ottoman state which ends the first period (1290-1402 CE).<br>As the polity rapidly expanded, the Ottoman government was run out of a succession of capitals: Sogut (1299-1325 CE), Bursa (1326-1364 CE), and Adrianople (1364-1413 CE) all provided a base for a period. The title of Sultan was introduced in 1383 CE by Murat I (1362-1389 CE). His government was an extension of his court and the top officials were directly appointed, and increasingly powerful through the period. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 148) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  An Imperial Council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  issued his decrees and made less important and administrative policy decisions. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  Viziers in the government were able to make some appointments in the name of the Sultan at the very least by the fifteenth century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  The date when the Grand Vizier became the most powerful official in the state is disputed; some scholars believe this occurred c1360 CE §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§  while Ottoman tradition has it when Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ <br>Provinces with governors probably did not exist until the 1380s CE. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  The rapid increase in size of the Ottoman state meant that the winner of the Ottoman civil war would gain control of territory that held 5 million people.",
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        {
            "id": 174,
            "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1",
            "start_year": 1402,
            "end_year": 1517,
            "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "During the fifteenth century the Ottomans reconstructed the state following the damaging civil war (which ended 1412 CE) and the devastating Mongol invasion under Timur (in 1402 CE). The period ends with the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which began a \"stronger Islamisation of the Empire.\" §REF§ Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences. §REF§ <br>Ottoman government had an elaborate set of institutions but was ultimately highly autocratic, run out of the court of the Sultan §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§  who would frequently execute men of high rank in rituals of death that \"symbolised the absolute power of the sultan within his own household, and the abject status of even his most powerful counsellors.\" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  The court often \"by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations\" and Colin Imber notes that there was an informal aspect to policy making that depended a great deal on the personality of the Sultan \"and the individuals or factions who had his ear.\" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ <br>The main institution of government was the Imperial Council (divan) which was under the presidency of the Grand Vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  In the regions provinces were run by governors (beylerbeyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-178) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  The Ottoman army was financed by land grants: between 1400-1590 CE army officers were assigned timar holdings from which they could raise revenue as a form of salary.  Numbering 27,500 in 1527 CE they \"formed the most important element in the Ottoman army.\" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 256-257) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ <br>At this time the Ottoman Empire was very heterogeneous in language and culture and while Islam predominated as the state religion the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained some influence within the Ottoman government and served large concentrations of Christians. After their expulsion from Spain in 1492 CE there were also many Jews, in addition to Maronites and Druzes. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 1-2) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§  After the final conquest of Byzantine Constantinople in 1453 CE, the city became the Ottoman capital, now called Istanbul, and boomed in size again from about 50,000 to perhaps as many as 400,000 residents.",
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                "capital_city": "Konya",
                "nga_code": "TR",
                "fao_country": "Turkey",
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        {
            "id": 175,
            "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2",
            "start_year": 1517,
            "end_year": 1683,
            "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "In the 15th century CE, the Turkic Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, took from the last vestiges of the defeated Roman Empire the famous title 'caesar', and added to it the grandiose title 'ruler of the two continents and the two seas'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  However, it was Suleiman I (1520-1566 CE) who earned his sobriquets 'the Magnificent' and 'the Lawgiver' when he reformed the Ottoman system of government, codified Ottoman secular law, and extended the Ottoman Empire into Europe as far as Vienna.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi (in office from 1718 CE) introduced a property tax. §REF§ (Palmer 1992, 33-34) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§  The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§  The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The renowned Ottoman architect Sinan was a tribute slave; he notably designed the Sehzade and Süleyman <i>külliyes</i> (complexes of buildings including mosques and mausoleums) and the Selim Mosque at Edirne (1569-1575 CE), with its four 83-metre-high minarets. §REF§ (TheOttomans.org 2002) TheOttomans.org. 2002. 'Architecture'. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp</a>, accessed 3 April 2017. §REF§  §REF§ (Freely 2011, 15, 29, 215, 269) John Freely. 2011. <i>A History of Ottoman Architecture</i>. Southampton: WIT Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>Ottoman Anatolia further enhanced many aspects of Byzantine culture. In 1331, in an attempt to spread Islam to new territories, Iranian and Egyptian scholars were brought to Iznik in northwestern Anatolia to teach at the first Ottoman college. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Palace schools were created to train the next generation of Ottoman officials. During the 15th and 16th centuries CE, about 500 libraries were built by sultans and high Ottoman dignitaries. These were maintained by <i>waqf</i> religious foundations; the majority in Istanbul, Bursa and Erdine. Initially, these were <i>madrassa</i> libraries and specialist libraries, but the first independent Ottoman <i>waqf</i> libraries were founded by the Koprulu family in 1678 CE. §REF§ (Agoston and Masters 2009, 333-34) Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The Ottoman postal system (<i>ulak</i>) structured around postal stations (similar to the Mongol <i>yam</i>) §REF§ (Królikowska 2013, 59) Natalia Królikowska. 2013. 'Sovereignty and Subordination in Crimean-Ottoman Relations (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)', in <i>The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries</i>, edited by Gábor Kármán and Lovro Kunčević, 43-66. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  spanned an empire of 5.2 million square kilometres at its greatest extent, §REF§ (Turchin, Adams and Hall 2006) Peter Turchin, Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall. 2006. 'East-West Orientation of Historical Empires'. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i> 12 (2): 219-29. §REF§  with a population of approximately 28 million people in 1600 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 137) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§  Istanbul likely had a population of at least 650,000 in 1600 CE. §REF§ (Bairoch 1988, 378) Paul Bairoch. 1988. <i>Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 176,
            "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3",
            "start_year": 1683,
            "end_year": 1839,
            "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§  The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§  The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 178,
            "name": "it_latium_ca",
            "start_year": -3600,
            "end_year": -1800,
            "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Italian Eneolithic (Eneolitico) dates from the 3rd millennium to the first centuries of the 2nd millennium BCE. It mostly corresponds to the Copper Age (Età del Rame) plus the Early Bronze Age (Prima Età del Bronzo). In Latium, the region of Central Italy that roughly matches modern-day Lazio, the main Copper Age sites include Ponte S. Pietro, Porcareccia and Rinaldone (near the modern-day city of Viterbo), Sgurgola and Casamari (near Frosinone), Castel Malnome and Ardea (near Rome), and Cantalupo Mandela (near Sabina). §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 102) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  The period is characterized by low density occupation and scattered material finds, mainly grave sites; nothing in the region comparable to the complex contemporary social formations present in Egypt, China, and the Near East.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>None of the above-mentioned sites is considered a 'nucleated settlement', but they have all yielded useful finds: the Viterbo locations and Sgurgola are small necropolises, while miscellaneous grave goods have been unearthed at the other sites. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 106) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  Overall, it seems likely that Latium Copper Age communities were quite small — one estimate posits 100-200 inhabitants each §REF§ (Whitehouse 1992, 16) Ruth Whitehouse. 1992. <i>Underground Religion: Cult and Culture in Prehistoric Italy</i>. London: Accordia Research Centre, University of London. §REF§  — and some estimates for the Early Bronze Age even go so far as to say that each settlement probably only had a few dozen inhabitants. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-35) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  The burial data appear to reflect a patriarchal, war-oriented culture: men and women are associated with very different types of grave goods, and male burials are always accompanied by weapons. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 106) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  §REF§ (Whitehouse 1992, 21) Ruth Whitehouse. 1992. <i>Underground Religion: Cult and Culture in Prehistoric Italy</i>. London: Accordia Research Centre, University of London. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 179,
            "name": "it_latium_ba",
            "start_year": -1800,
            "end_year": -900,
            "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Italian Bronze Age (Età del Bronzo) starts at the tail end of the Eneolithic, but enters its mature phase between 1800 and 1200 BCE (Middle Bronze Age, Età del Bronzo Media), and begins its transition towards the Iron Age between 1200 and 1000 (Late Bronze Age, Tarda Età del Bronzo). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 113-48) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  Because Middle Bronze Age material culture is remarkably uniform throughout the peninsula, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  it is difficult to single out any developments that specifically distinguish Latium, the region of Central Italy that roughly corresponds to modern-day Lazio. However, it is worth noting that most sites of this period cluster along the Apennine mountain range; for this reason, Italian Bronze Age culture is sometimes referred to as 'Apennine culture' (<i>cultura appenninica</i>). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  In the Late Bronze Age, the main cultural traditions were the Subapennine (12th century BCE, <i>subappenninica</i>) and the Proto-Villanovan (11th and 10th centuries BCE, <i>protovillanoviana</i>) §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 137-39) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  These traditions brought greater sophistication in agricultural techniques, a greater number and variety of agricultural tools, and advances in metalworking. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is difficult to infer much about the political organization of the average Italian settlement, either in the Middle or in the Late Bronze Age. There are very few signs of status differentiation, whether in burials, architecture, or material culture more generally. §REF§ (Barker 1995, 156) Graeme Barker. 1995. <i>A Mediterranean Valley: Landscape Archaeology and Annales History in the Biferno Valley</i>. London: Leicester University Press. §REF§ <br>Population was probably sparse up to the Middle Bronze Age in Italy, with settlements of no more than a few dozen inhabitants each. In contrast, the Late Bronze Age witnessed a significant demographic increase, suggested by an increased number of sites and increased site size. Settlements were probably home to a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ ",
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                "id": 1,
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        {
            "id": 180,
            "name": "it_latium_ia",
            "start_year": -1000,
            "end_year": -580,
            "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "In Latium, the region of Central Italy roughly corresponding to modern-day Lazio, the earliest evidence for the emergence of a distinctive regional culture dates to the 10th century BCE. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 140) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§  Iron Age  Latial culture has been divided into the following phases and sub-phases: LC I (1000-900), LC IIA (900-830), LC IIB (830-770), LC IIIA (770-740), LC IIIB (740-720), LC IVA (720-620) and LC IVB (620-580). §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. <i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  This period is known by several names, including Old Latium (Latium Vetus in Latin and Lazio Antico in Italian) and the Southern Villanovan. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 33-55) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The first and second phases of the Latial culture correspond respectively to the Proto-Villanovan and Villanovan archaeological cultures of Italy as a whole. The fourth phase is contemporary with the Orientalizing period of Etruscan civilization, and the third phase is transitional between the second and fourth phases. LC I is characterized by simple undecorated pottery and cremation as the dominant funerary rite, while in LC II cremation is replaced by inhumation, and pottery is decorated with simple patterns. Foreign influences can be detected in the pottery of LC III, and in the fourth and final phase both foreign pottery and its local imitations are represented. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. <i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Major sites include Osteria dell'Osa and Castel di Decima.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is difficult to reconstruct the exact political organization of Iron Age settlements in Latium. At Osteria dell'Osa, one of the most well studied LC II sites  likely inhabited by between one and three hundred people, the distribution and quality of grave goods suggest that status was largely determined by age and gender. Men were usually buried with weapons, women with weaving equipment and jewellery, and the elderly with drinking cups. LC III and IV burials provide evidence for increasing social differentiation, a decrease in the importance of gender and age for determining status, and greater receptivity to external (i.e. Greek and Etruscan) influences. Most of the burials at Castel di Decima (LC III and IV) are quite simple inhumations, with no or modest grave goods, but a minority of graves are accompanied by high-quality goods such as amber beads, gold fibulae, and even chariots. The wealth of this minority appears to increase throughout the 8th and 7th centuries. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. <i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>There appear to be no reliable estimates for the overall population of Latium at this time. However, a few estimates exist for the population size of settlements. At one extreme, some sources suggest that thousands of people lived at some Iron Age settlements. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  However, Osteria dell'Osa likely only had between one and three hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. <i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 181,
            "name": "it_roman_k",
            "start_year": -716,
            "end_year": -509,
            "long_name": "Roman Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Regal Period refers to the period at the end of the Iron Age during which Rome developed as a uncleared settlement in the heart of Latium (modern-day Lazio), ruled over by 'Etruscan kings'. Although there is archaeological evidence for the permanent occupation of Rome from the Iron Age 'centuries before' the city's mythic foundation date of 754 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 80) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  perhaps from as early as 1000 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 72) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  we have chosen to begin this polity in 716, with the traditional death date of the city's legendary founder Romulus. §REF§ (Martin 2012, 42) Thomas R. Martin. 2012. <i>Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Justinian</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§  The city prospered during this time, which saw the development of many of the institutions - political administration, legal system, religious practices - characteristic of the later Roman Republic. The last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 BCE), was expelled from Rome for his and his family's tyrannical excesses. In his place, the leading Roman elites established an aristocratic city-state, ushering in the Republican period. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 118, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>By end of the Regal Period, Rome was a well-developed city-state, boasting civic infrastructure (marsh drainage, roads), political institutions (assemblies, Senate), monuments (temples), and a powerful military. It held at least one third of the area of Latium vetus (Old Latium) §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 205) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  and had a population of 20,000-50,000 people.<br>According to legend, Rome became a city when the eponymous founder Romulus slew his twin brother Remus, both outcasts from a nearby Latium settlement, in a contest over where to found their new city. Numa Pompilius (r. 715-673 BCE), of Sabine origin, was the next king. Pompilius is traditionally credited with establishing 'all the major religious institutions of the state, including the calendar and the priesthoods'. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  Starting with Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-579 BCE), Rome was ruled by a series of kings of Etruscan descent, who could thus draw on the legacy of this powerful and complex culture from north-central Italy (around modern-day Etruria). The Roman king served as chief legislator, military commander, highest judge and chief priest. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 62) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 252) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  Archaeological remains found on the Palatine Hill dating to the late 8th century BCE suggest that the king lived in a palace from the earliest times. Rome's relationship with other settlements in Latium, particularly on military matters, were important. §REF§ (Armstrong 2016, 73) Jeremy Armstrong. 2016. <i>War and Society in Early Rome</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The hereditary clan system (<i>gens</i>) formed the basis of the Roman nobility, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 115) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  likely serving first as the king's advisors, although administrative structures gradually became more institutionalized (for example, through the establishment of a formal senate and voting assemblies) throughout the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE.<br>The city of Rome, with a population somewhere between 14,000 and 57,000 during this period, fared well in military and economic terms. Several kings claimed important victories over nearby settlements in Latium and Etruria, expanding Rome's sphere of influence and establishing economic connections throughout central Italy. The Via Salaria ('salt road') and the Sacra Via in Rome were in existence from the beginning of the Roman Kingdom §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 48, 96) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  - although at this time the roads would not have been paved. A port known as Caere was situated 50 kilometres northwest of Rome. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  The first bridge, thought to be the Pons Sublicius, may have been built in 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  Roman kings also reclaimed marshland and carried out drainage works. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 164) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 182,
            "name": "it_roman_rep_1",
            "start_year": -509,
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            "long_name": "Early Roman Republic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period. The early period is notable for the establishment of the governing institutions of the new Republic, a lingering tension between the wealthy, senatorial elites and poorer members of society (the 'plebeians'), and the establishment of Rome as the preeminent power in the Western Mediterranean.<br>In 390 BCE, just over a century after the establishment of the Republic, Rome suffered a near-fatal defeat at the hands of Gallic tribes, who invaded Italy from southern France and breached the city walls. Rome quickly recovered, however, and throughout the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE proceeded to conquer all of their neighbours in Italy, notably the larger and more populous Sabine, Etruscan, Samnite, and Graeco-Italian peoples. §REF§ (Cornell 1995) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  Over the course of this dramatic expansion, Rome established colonies of Roman citizens throughout Italy and gained access to important sources of natural wealth in the process. §REF§ (Bispham 2006) Edward Bispham. 2006.<i> 'Coloniam Deducere</i>: How Roman Was Roman Colonization during the Middle Republic?', in <i>Greek and Roman Colonization: Origins, Ideologies and Interactions</i>, edited by Guy Bradley, John-Paul Wilson, and Edward Bispham, 73-160. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. §REF§  The rise of Rome in the west eventually caught the attention of other Mediterranean powers, notably the Punic peoples of North Africa. Indeed, the central narrative of the Middle Republic period is the continued expansion of Roman hegemony into the eastern Mediterranean.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws. The first codification of Roman law was laid down in this period (mid-4th century BCE) in the form of the Twelve Tables, a series of legal proclamations establishing certain penalties and procedures for enforcing ritual and customary practices. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 46) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Consuls were drawn from the senatorial elite - Rome's wealthy aristocratic families - until 367 BCE, when plebeians were first entitled to stand for this prestigious office. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  This change followed a period known as the 'Conflict of the Orders', a time which poses intractable problems for historians because most sources date from after 367 BCE. §REF§ (Beck et al. 2011, 5) Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo. 2011. 'The Republic and Its Highest Office: Some Introductory Remarks on the Roman Consulate', in <i>Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo, 1-16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The conflict essentially pitted Rome's wealthy elite, who enjoyed nearly all of the prestige and power of political office as well as controlling most of the city's agricultural land, against the poorer members of society (plebeians), mainly small-scale or tenant farmers who had contributed to Roman territorial expansion by serving as soldiers during the wars of the early Republic. §REF§ (Raaflaub 2005) Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in <i>Social Struggles in Archaic Rome</i>, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§  Early on in the Republican period, in 494 BCE, the plebeians essentially went on strike, refusing to march to war against a coalition of tribes from central Italy. §REF§ (Raaflaub 2005) Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in <i>Social Struggles in Archaic Rome</i>, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§  A settlement was reached when Rome's aristocrats extended to the plebeians the right to vote for certain magistrates, known as the Tribunes of the Plebs (essentially the 'people's magistrates'). This was an important office charged with looking after the needs of Rome's poorer citizens, who held veto powers against decisions made in the Senate. Nevertheless, tensions between the aristocrats and the plebeians lingered throughout the 4th century BCE.<br>Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>As Rome defeated nearly all other powers in the region during this period, establishing colonies and turning many former enemies into new allies and confederates, the territory it claimed increased dramatically until it included nearly all of central and southern Italy. This amplified its agricultural wealth and access to other natural resources, leading to a period of economic and demographic expansion. Rome grew from around 100,000-200,000 people at the beginning of the period to perhaps as many as 1,000,000 by the start of the Middle Republic. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in <i>People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14</i>, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§",
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            "id": 183,
            "name": "it_roman_rep_2",
            "start_year": -264,
            "end_year": -133,
            "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.<br>During the 3rd century BCE, Rome fought two separate wars (264-241 BCE and 218-201 BCE) against the Punic people, inhabitants of a former Phoenician colony in North Africa, Sicily, and southern Spain. The latter conflict featured a bitter contest against the famous Punic general Hannibal, who nearly defeated the Romans on his dramatic march through Italy from 218 to 216 BCE. However, Rome recovered, won control of Punic holdings in Sicily and Spain, and established what were essentially vassal kingdoms in North Africa. In the early 2nd century BCE, Rome became embroiled in another series of wars in Greece, Macedonia, and Anatolia. The 3rd and 2nd centuries were a somewhat chaotic time in the eastern Mediterranean, following the fragmentation of Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire after his death in 323 BCE. Alexander's Empire had essentially dissolved into a series of successor states, which engaged in near-constant warfare in their attempts to expand at the others' expense. §REF§ (Eckstein 2006, chapter 4) Arthur M. Eckstein. 2006. <i>Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  By 148 BCE, at the conclusion of the fourth and final Macedonian War, Rome was either in possession of or was firmly established as hegemon over the entire Mediterranean basin, from Spain in the west to Anatolia in the east, and France in the north to Libya and Egypt in the south. This position brought new territory along with a flood of new peoples, culture, and wealth from the ancient civilizations in Greece, Egypt, and Anatolia. By the end of the Middle Republic period, Rome was virtually unchallenged by external enemies, although this newfound wealth and power was accompanied by the period of internal turmoil that characterized the Late Republic.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.<br>Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Middle Roman Republic saw many firsts in Rome's economic development. The first paved road was the likely the military road to Capua known as the Appian Way, commissioned around 312 BCE. The first Roman coins (large cast bronze coins) appear around 270 BCE, followed by struck bronze and silver coins imitating Greek forms. §REF§ (von Reden 2010, 50) Sitta von Reden. 2010. <i>Money in Classical Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Crawford 1974, 6-11) Michael H. Crawford. 1974. <i>Roman Republican Coinage</i>. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ​​​​ This period also saw a further population increase in the total population of Roman-controlled Italy to between about three and five million people, with Rome itself likely supporting over 200,000 people by the end of the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in <i>People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14</i>, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 184,
            "name": "it_roman_rep_3",
            "start_year": -133,
            "end_year": -31,
            "long_name": "Late Roman Republic",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.<br>The Late Republican period began once Rome was firmly established as the major power throughout the Mediterranean basin. By the end of the period, Romans had taken control of the entire Mediterranean region, with further territorial expansion into North Africa, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt. Success abroad, however, was not matched by stability at home. The Roman state entered a prolonged period of crisis during the 1st century BCE. Civil wars were frequent, pitting different military leaders such as Sulla, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar and their supporters against each other. An underlying tension persisted between the wealthy and elite and the rest of the population. These tensions intensified in 133 BCE, when a Plebeian Tribune (an elected official charged with looking after the interests of the poorer members of society) named Tiberius Gracchus proposed legislation to redistribute land that had been taken over (legally and extra-legally) by wealthy aristocrats to landless Romans, particularly those who had served in the army. This move upset the ruling elite, leading to a riot in the streets of Rome and, ultimately, to Gracchus' death. The city's different political factions were polarized by these events, leading to a series of violent contests for power by military leaders supported either by the elites (notably Sulla and Pompey the Great) or styled as champions of the people (Marius, Caesar, and Octavian/Augustus).<br>The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (soon to take the title of Augustus as the first ruler of the imperial Roman state, known as the Principate) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.<br>Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican \"Constitution\"', in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic</i>, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Despite the internal strife, Rome remained essentially unchallenged by external forces and continued to make military advances. The significant reforms of the consul Marius helped modernize the ever-expanding Roman army around 105 BCE by removing property qualifications for military service, paving the way towards a fully professional fighting force. The period also saw some extensive engineering projects that increased urbanization and economic development: roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres, theatres, public baths, as well as Roman administrative and legal institutions spread alongside the military throughout the Mediterranean. Though this time was a period of political instability, it also was the start of a 'golden age' in the cultural history of Rome, with literary figures like Cicero, Horace, Sallust, Caesar and Catullus, among others, leaving important and influential writings.<br>The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in <i>People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14</i>, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 185,
            "name": "it_western_roman_emp",
            "start_year": 395,
            "end_year": 476,
            "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The period of the Western Roman Empire begins in 395 CE, when it was divided from what became the Eastern Roman Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§  After the Empire recovered from the crises of the 3rd century CE, a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of imperial rule, known as the Dominate. The Dominate was split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half with its capital at Rome and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius emperor in the east and Honorius emperor in the west. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br>Beginning with Honorius, the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993, 187) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Burns 1991, 73-86) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Roman Emperor in principle maintained a formal alliance with the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, which meant that all legislation generated in one half of the Empire was to be communicated to the other half and promulgated across the entire Empire. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. <i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450)</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  In practice, the Western Roman Emperor was the slightly weaker party whose position depended on the acquiescence of the Eastern Empire; for instance, the term of the Western Emperor Valentinian III (r. 423-455 CE) required the agreement of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. §REF§ (Maenchen-Helfen 1973, 477-78) Otto Maenchen-Helfen. 1973. <i>The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Further, significant differences between the 'twin Empires' - the language of Latin in Rome, Greek in Constantinople - always strained the commitment to unity. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 2) Fergus Millar. 2006. <i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450)</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Western Emperor did not control the army. Instead, it was held by the <i>magister equitum</i> ('master of the cavalry') and the <i>magister peditum</i> ('master of the infantry'), a new military office that gradually gained seniority over the magister equitum. Legislation in both halves of the Empire was enacted by decree, in practice meaning letters addressed to officials or to the Senate. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 7) Fergus Millar. 2006. <i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450)</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  Directly beneath the emperor were praetorian prefects who acted on the emperor's behalf, 'governing in his name with legal, administrative and financial powers'. §REF§ (Hughes 2012) Ian Hughes. 2012. <i>Aetius: Attila's Nemesis</i>. Barnsley: Pen &amp; Sword Books. §REF§  Overall, the Roman bureaucracy was comparable in size to that of Constantinople; by the end of the 4th century CE, the state provided civil positions for an estimated 40,000 people across the Empire. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 49) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The Western Empire covered roughly two million square kilometres in 400 CE. The region was divided into large prefectures, which in turn were split into dioceses containing provinces, which were then further subdivided into cities and towns managed by civic councils. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§  ​The Roman aristocracy remained a powerful influence, at least until 439 CE, when invading Vandal tribes took Carthage and much of North Africa, depriving Rome of valuable North African revenue streams. §REF§ (Hughes 2015) Ian Hughes. 2015. <i>Patricians and Emperors: The Last Rulers of the Western Roman Empire</i>. Barnsley: Pen &amp; Sword Books. §REF§ <br>Rome maintained a sizeable population, roughly 500,000 in 400 CE. However, a feature of the late Western Roman bureaucracy was that it 'shifted ... between four or five different imperial centres, dislocating with each change the networks of patronage and kinship, often regionally based, that supplied civil personnel'. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 50) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 186,
            "name": "it_ostrogoth_k",
            "start_year": 489,
            "end_year": 554,
            "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br>In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. <i>The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern</i>. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§ <br>The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§  The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§  The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i> edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§  but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007.<i> 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere</i>: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in <i>The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§  This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§  and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. <i>A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§  Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. <i>A History of the Ostrogoths</i>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 187,
            "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate",
            "start_year": 568,
            "end_year": 751,
            "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "We begin our Exarchate of Ravenna polity in 568 CE, the date of the last praetorian prefect in Italy, although the first 'exarch' (essentially a governor with political and military authority) known by name dates to the last decades of the 6th century. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. <i>The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  This year saw Lombard and Germanic tribes invade northern Italy, expelling the Byzantine influence in the area which the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) had established only about a decade earlier. The Exarchate of Ravenna together with most of central Italy and parts of the south were the only parts of the former Ostrogothic Kingdom to remain under Byzantine authority after this time. Shortly afterwards, perhaps around 575 CE or slightly later, the first exarch of Ravenna was created under the aegis of the Byzantine emperor. §REF§ (Nicol 1988, 5) Donald M. Nicol. 1988. <i>Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The Exarchate period ended when the last exarch, Eutychius, was killed during the Lombard conquest of the territory in 751 CE. However, recognition of the nominal Byzantine authority in the region persisted until 781 CE, when the years of the emperor's reign were no longer used for dating papal documents or on the coins minted in Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) P. Grierson and M. Blackburn. 2007. <i>Medieval European Coinage, Volume 1: The Early Middle Ages (5th-10th Centuries)</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Exarchate of Ravenna was essentially a special province of the East Roman Empire and the exarch owed nominal allegiance to the emperor in Constantinople. The Roman Senate was last known operating in 580 CE §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and many of the senators moved to Constantinople 'to maintain access to court appointments'. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Italy, Ravenna was the undisputed home and capital for the army and civil administration. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207-10) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The exarch was a ruler who combined civil and military powers, §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  commanding over 50,000 square kilometres of land in Italy after a period of protracted warfare had destroyed the Roman-friendly Ostrogothic governmental system. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  His duties included leading the army in Italy, publishing and enforcing laws and canons of church councils, and appointing most subordinate officials. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. <i>The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  Exarchs were appointed by the East Roman Emperor from among the personnel of his palace administration in Constantinople 'and rarely had served in any capacity in Italy before being named exarch'. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. <i>The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§  The criteria for choosing exarchs is not entirely clear, nor is it certain how long they might have expected their official tenure to last. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  What is clear is that the exarch retained a great deal of authority and autonomy in the region.<br>Under the exarch, dukes of provinces ruled from cities (e.g. Rome, Naples, Rimini, Venice) and tribunes governed in towns. Like the exarch himself, the role of dukes and tribunes combined both military and civic duties. However, these men, 'along with the lower-level officers and troops, administrators, clerks, and tax collectors were drawn primarily from the local population, including educated laymen, although on occasion an official might be sent from Constantinople'. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Ravenna was governed both directly by the exarchal administration §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and, until the mid-7th century, a city council (<i>curia</i>) responsible for tax collection and certifying and storing legal documents. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Decentralization from 600 to 750 CE weakened the authority of the exarch, §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 278) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and as government collapsed, the dukes in the provinces gained power. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 287) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The 7th century CE saw the development of an 'increasingly closed and hereditary land and officeholding aristocracy'. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 7) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. <i>The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ <br>Another important rival of the exarch's authority was the archbishop of Ravenna. The exarch worked with the archbishop of Ravenna 'in legal cases, foreign affairs, papal relations, and other similar sorts of situations', §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 210, 287) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  but sometimes they clashed on 'doctrinal matters'. §REF§ (Brown 1979, 26) T. S. Brown. 1979. 'The Church of Ravenna and the Imperial Administration in the Seventh Century'. <i>The English Historical Review</i> 94 (370): 1-28. §REF§  The Church also financed public works projects, such as building churches and public baths. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 201) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. <i>Ravenna in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Italy experienced a slight population expansion during this period, and had perhaps over one million inhabitants. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 8) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. <i>The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ ",
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            "id": 188,
            "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1",
            "start_year": 752,
            "end_year": 904,
            "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Papal State originated in the Patrimony of St. Peter, which initially included over four hundred estates, many of them in Sicily. These came from donations from wealthy Christians, whose philanthropy accelerated after Emperor Constantine. §REF§ (Brown 2003, 206) Brown, Peter. 2003. The Rise of Western Christendom. Triumph and Diversity, 200-1000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, Inc.  §REF§  The eighth century popes called their state \"The Republic of St. Peter\". The popular name \"Papal States\" was only used from the late middle ages. §REF§ (Noble 2011, xxi) T F X Noble. 2011. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ <br>The Republic of St Peter (711-904 CE) was under nominal Byzantine suzerainty until 781 CE when the capital of the Byzantine exarchate was at Ravenna §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§  which was connected to Rome by the thin strip of Byzantine territory running across the Appennines and through Perugia. The Pope was elected by citizens and the army - usually based on the choice of the clergy. Representatives would the certify the choice to the Exarch in Ravenna for imperial approval. The Exarch could make the choice himself in case of disagreement.  §REF§ (Trevor, 1869, 113) G Trevor. 1869. Rome and Its Papal Rulers, A History of Eighteen Centuries, The Religious Tract Society, London <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/cu31924029388695#page/n127/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a> §REF§ <br>In 781 CE Charlemagne asserted Frankish suzerainty over the region. After this time, the years of the Byzantine Emperor's reign were no longer used for dating Papal documents or on the minting of imperial coins in the mint of Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) §REF§  During the ninth century the Papacy was released from Carolingian influence as the Frankish empire began to break up. §REF§ (Barraclough 1968, 55) Geoffrey Barraclough. 1968. <i>The Medieval Papacy</i> Norwich: Harcourt, Brace &amp; World, 1968. §REF§ <br>This also meant that between the end of the ninth century and the 960s, the papacy had no powerful protectors outside Italy. Political power in Rome and Lazio lay in the hands of elite families, such as the Theophylacti and other powerful Roman baronial families. §REF§ (Stearns 2001 173) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke &amp; Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§ <br>Papal governmental administration was small-scale but effective and organized into departments, with separate heads for the chancery and archives. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§  Notaries were career bureaucrats with the primicerius notariorum the head of college of notaries. §REF§ (Richards 1979, 290-292) J Richards. 1979. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul §REF§  The governance of the wider mountainous region was characterised by small countships and marquisates centered upon a fortified <i>rocca.</i><br>The population of the polity is hard to estimate but it is likely the city of Rome lost half its population between 800 CE and 900 CE when it held a mere 40,000 people.",
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            "id": 189,
            "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2",
            "start_year": 904,
            "end_year": 1198,
            "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The term \"Papal States\" was not adopted until around 1200 CE §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. <i>Roma Medievale.</i> Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ ; at this time the polity of the Papacy at Rome was called the Patrimony of St. Peter, Republic of St. Peter or Land of St. Peter. The population of Rome languished at a relative historical low of 35,000 people throughout this period, which was marked by a high degree of fragmentation and sub-regional autonomy. Various areas of the Patrimony of St. Peter were virtually independent of the Papacy or subject to central authority only in a very nominal way. §REF§ (Wickham 2009, 164) Chris Wickham. <i>Early Medieval Italy. Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000.</i> Ann Arbor, MA: University of Michigan, 2009 [1981]. §REF§ <br>Through the 904-1198 CE period the polity, with its capital at Rome, was dominated by powerful families and a powerful foreign state. The Theophylacti, a noble family from Tusculanum, were the first of a number of aristocratic families who dominated the papacy. §REF§ (Marazzi 2001, 64) Federico Marazzi. \"Aristocrazia e società (secoli VI-XI),\" in Vauchez, ed., 41-69. §REF§  In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the papacy was frequently at war with the German emperors, which caused serious destabilization of political authority in the Patrimony. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 231) Peter Partner. 1972. <i>The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. §REF§  The German Emperor Henry III, became the <i>de facto</i> guardian of the papacy and the Patrimony. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 151) Kreutz, Barbara M. <i>Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.</i> College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ <br>When Henry III granted the city of Benevento to Pope Leo IX this marked the furthest extent of (nominal) papal power until Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE) began consolidating what would be called the Papal States. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 152) Kreutz, Barbara M. <i>Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.</i> College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§   It could be argued that the peak of the polity was under the Tusculan Reform Papacy c.1012-1036 CE because of internal and external stability and socioeconomic and (even if limited) demographic expansion.",
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        {
            "id": 190,
            "name": "it_papal_state_1",
            "start_year": 1198,
            "end_year": 1309,
            "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "In the 1198-1309 CE period the Papacy, from Innocent III, extended its power over the temporal realm, and over Christendom. The period ends with the Angevin exile from 1309 CE.<br>The term Christendom (Christianitas) reflects the supranational scope of the Papacy, which being also an international religion, had a degree of control beyond the territorial borders of the Papal State. §REF§ (Madigan 2015) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§   Whilst in previous times Rome was dominated by France and then German monarchs, under the rule of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE), 'the king maker of Christendom', papal authority, particularly in influence around Europe, was at its medieval height. He initiated several crusades and presided over the Fourth Lateran Council §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. <i>Roma Medievale.</i> Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§  that defined an important Catholic ritual, the Eucharist.<br>Innocent III \"viewed himself explicitly as the vicar of Christ, priest and king, who possessed unrivaled temporal and religious authority\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§  and this combined with a \"general acceptance that the pope was the vicar of Christ and the growing sense of Christians, nourished by the reforms of the eleventh century, that they were part of a supranational entity, Christendom (Christianitas), and that their primary loyalty was to that body and to the pope as head of Christendom, rather than to any local, regional, or even national entity.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ <br>Armies of the Papal States were a conglomeration of international allies, friendly towns and nobles, volunteer crusaders, and the forces directly raised by the pope. §REF§ (Waley 1957, 1-30) D P Waley. January 1957. Papal Armies of the Thirteen Century, Vol. 72, No. 282, The English Historical Review. pp. 1-30 §REF§  The papal state formed many alliances with during this period, held the nominal allegiance of some polities (the Norman duchies to the south are just one good example of both of these), and held vassals of its own (albeit ones that were notoriously difficult to control). War with the Holy Roman Empire characterised the Papal State's international relations.<br>Based at the Lateran Palace in Rome, the Papal bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city §REF§ Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75 §REF§  which at this time was no greater than the size of a large town, with about 35,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Brentano 1991, 13) Robert Brentano. 1991. <i>Rome Before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ ",
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            "name": "it_papal_state_2",
            "start_year": 1378,
            "end_year": 1527,
            "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period",
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            "general_description": "The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who \"concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§  The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. <i>The Economy of Renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§  Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§  the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000.<br>The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§  However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the <i>curia</i> became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§  The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and <i>le Marche</i>. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§  Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were <i>de facto</i> independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§  During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 <i>The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe.</i> Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§ <br>As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. <i>The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ",
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            "id": 192,
            "name": "it_papal_state_3",
            "start_year": 1527,
            "end_year": 1648,
            "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The polity period begins with the imperial sack of Rome (1527). This devastating sack at the hands of largely Protestant mercenaries-theoretically in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V-marks an absolute nadir of papal fortunes for the early modern period. The sack provoked the papacy to reform itself, take the Protestant revolt seriously, and initiate the Counter-Reformation (aka the Catholic Reformation). §REF§ (Martin 2002, 39-42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  The age of the Council of Trent (1543-1563) dramatically altered the Catholic Church, enhancing the papacy's power within the Church and enhancing its ability to police the laity, with institutions such as the Roman Inquisition being established in 1542 by Paul III. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  The index of banned books was established, tighter clerical control over canonization imposed, and in general the Catholic Church ratcheted down on orthodoxy in the face of the Protestant threat. §REF§ (Schutte 2002, 126-127) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The sack of Rome was compounded by malaria epidemics and food shortages, to drastically reduce the population of Rome to perhaps 10,000 in 1527-28. §REF§ (Black 2001, 9) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§  Despite this, the city soon recovered and boomed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the capital of a more or less stable Papal State, under Spanish protection. By the turn of the century, Rome's population may have been around 100,000. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§  Marino has characterized the early modern city's economy as parasitic, consuming and not producing wealth §REF§ (Marino 2002, 66) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ ; Goldthwaite, similarly, describes late medieval and early modern Rome thus: \"Rome, however, was a city that consumed but did not produce; in contrast to Avignon, it was not a regional export market of any importance.\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§   A major part of this consumption was cultural: \"Rome...exploded [in the sixteenth century] into an enormous market for luxury goods....\" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. <i>The economy of renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§  Despite the sack, the most important papal building project of the early modern period, St. Peter's Basilica, was completed in 1626. Spanish financial and military support was crucial to the survival of the Papal State; a famous letter of Charles V, written to his son Philip II between 1545 and 1558, declared that \"'the states of the church are in the center of Italy, but [they are] surrounded by ours in such a way that one can say that they form one kingdom.'\" §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§  <i>De facto</i> Spanish hegemony over the Papal State would not be seriously challenged between the mid-16th century and the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623-44). §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ <br>By the sixteenth century, the papacy was firmly in control of the Papal State, and the polity was at peace after the end of the Great Italian Wars (1559). The Spanish alliance remained a cornerstone of papal policy into the early 18th century. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 29) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  The papacy ruled Rome and the State through a sophisticated bureaucracy based on patronage, cronyism, and the purchase of offices. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 20) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 696-698) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§  The feudal barons and nobles were subject to clerical officials appointed by the Papacy. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 114) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  Although this bureaucracy was usually able to meet the basic requirements of government-collecting taxes, administering justice, and protecting subjects-this does not mean that the Papal State was free of violence, famine, and so forth. Banditry remained a major problem during the period and would straight through to the late nineteenth century. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 110) John M Marino, ed. 2002. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§  §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 745-746) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>After the end of the Wars, military action involving the papacy shifted to the Mediterranean. The Ottomans had begun raiding papal possessions on the Adriatic littoral from the mid-15th century, following the fall of Constantinople. These raids were not preludes to conquest, but were a serious disruption to trade and daily life in <i>le Marche</i>; in 1518, Selim I's forces had torched Porto Recanati, the port for Loreto, site of a major shrine to the Virgin. This imminent threat, compounded with the papacy's traditional role as organizer and propagandist of the crusade, resulted in deep papal involvement in the struggle against the Ottomans. Initially, these efforts were not successful. The major Turkish victory at Prevesa (1538) opened the Central Mediterranean to Turkish raiding and piracy; the Ottomans' alliance with the French even allowed the Turkish fleet to winter in Toulon. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 906) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§  This ability of the Turks to winter in the western Mediterranean exposed the coast of Lazio to Turkish piracy; for example, Andrea Doria, leading a mixed papal-Genoese fleet, was defeated by Turks and North Africans off Terracina in 1552. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 924) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ <br>Confronted with this Turkish menace, the papacy was crucial in organizing Christian campaigns against the Turks in North Africa and Greece, and in funding coastal defences for Lazio and the Kingdoms of Sicily &amp; Naples. Pius V (1566-1572) was of particular importance in this effort, laying the groundwork for a papal fleet. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1083) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§  Pius granted major sources of ecclesiastical revenue to the Spanish Philip II, and was instrumental in organizing the councils and diplomatic wrangling that led to the creation of the Holy League in 1570, in particular convincing the Spanish to come to the aid of the Ventians. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1029) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§  The Holy League consisted of the Papacy, Spain, and Venice; by the final agreement, each party agreed to contributions for 3 years, for an annual expedition consisting of 200 galleys, 100 roundships, 50,000 infantry and 4,500 light infantry. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1091) Fernand Braudel. 1973. <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.</i> Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§  The Christian fleet met and decisively defeated a comparable Turkish squadron at Lepanto, off the Greek Ionian littoral, on 7 October 1571. It was the greatest battle in the Mediterranean in the 16th century, and it marked a substantive end to Turkish raiding on the papal lands and, more importantly, led to the division of the Mediterranean into a Turkish east and a Christian west. The papacy's international prestige rose to new heights with the victory, as well, but declined during the seventeenth century due to the grasping annexation of the duchy of Urbino and Urban VIII's foolish war of Castro in the early 1640s. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§ <br>Italy enjoyed several decades of peace following the peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559 between France and Spain. Yet economically and demographically, the 1590s and the first half of the seventeenth century were a period of general crisis in Italy. The \"decline of Italy\" is a venerable aspect of early modern historiography, but depends on a particular view of what counts in assessing quality of life: see Black, (2001, 32), for an approving echo of Braudel's comments to the contrary §REF§ (Black 2001, 32) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§  Papal revenues were aided by the popes' ability to draw on Spanish ecclesiastical revenues. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§  Demographically, the first half of the seventeenth century was a succession of plagues and famines in many parts of the peninsula. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§  A particularly virulent plague cycle hit Rome in 1656, §REF§ (Cipolla 1981, 90) Carlo M Cipolla. 1981. <i>Fighting the plague in Seventeenth-century Italy.</i> Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. §REF§  dropping its population from 120,000 to 100,000. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. <i>Early modern Italy. A social history.</i> London: Routledge. §REF§",
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            "id": 193,
            "name": "it_papal_state_4",
            "start_year": 1648,
            "end_year": 1809,
            "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The papacy was victorious in the Second War of Castro (1649). This was only the denouement of a minor episode, however, and in general the Papal State was a political fossil, undertaking no reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and increasingly irrelevant to European affairs. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 118) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The first part of this period marked the definitive eclipse of the papacy as a power of any reckoning in international relations. Pope Urban VIII had annexed the Duchy of Urbino to the Papal States in 1631, thereby alienating the papacy from the other Italian powers. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  The first war of Castro broke out in 1641 when Urban declared war on the Farnese, the ruling family of Parma, over the poor finances of Castro, a small fiefdom held by the Farnese just north of Rome. Tuscany, Modena and Venice joined the Farnese to resist the papacy, and inflicted humiliating defeats on the papal armies. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  In 1644, the French imposed a peace settlement. Although Pope Innocent X's troops took Castro and razed it to the ground in 1649, the papacy was now isolated internationally and increasingly irrelevant. The papacy took no part in the Peace of Westphalia, and it was also not consulted in the Franco-Spanish Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). §REF§ (Sella 1997, 11) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  The papacy took no part in European wars for the rest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.<br>The papacy's irrelevance internationally can be seen as part of the decline of the Spanish empire, as had benefited from Spanish protection during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§  The French came to dominate European affairs during the reign of Louis XIV, but the struggle for power in Europe did not seriously affect the Papal State until the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Warfare ravaged the peninsula in the early eighteenth century, as the (Austrian) Habsburgs and French Bourbons battled to fill the vacuum created by Spain's gradual eclipse. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 29) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§  These wars were external events imposed on the Italian states, and they took as little part as possible. Spanish attempts to recruit troops at Rome in the 1730s were met by serious riots, for example. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§  The War of the Austrian Succession devastated areas of the Marches and Romagna, but the papacy, it seems, was powerless to prevent foreign armies' depredations. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ <br>As the eighteenth century progressed, this weakness, even impotence, became ever more marked. Clement XI in 1720 and Clement XII called for an Italian league to expel northern rulers, but these appeals were meaningless because the papacy controlled no armies worth speaking of. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 37) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§  Thus, international relations between the papacy and the European powers during the later 18th century consisted of papal resistance to European states' attempts to restrain the power of the Church. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 68) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  This took its characteristic form in the French and Spanish expulsion of the Jesuit Order from their domains; in 1773, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 40) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  As a reward, the French restored Avignon and the Spanish Benevento to the papacy. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 42) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ <br>The papacy opposed the French Revolution from the beginning, and by 1792, there was a schism in France between Catholics who supported the Church sanctioned by the Revolutionary regime, and those who remained faithful to Rome. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  Pius VI sympathized with the Habsburgs and the revolutionary regime's enemies, and his successor was powerless in the face of Bonaparte's 1796 invasion of the peninsula. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80-81) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  Indeed, the papal ambassador Zelada's reply to British requests for papal approval of the war against the French was the following: §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  \"'It is true that there was a time when the voice of the Roman Pontiff was heard, respected, and obeyed; now...it is scarcely listened ever listened to, and never has any effect.'\" Although the British fleet had briefly protected the Papal States' coasts from the French, by 1796 the British had withdrawn. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  Napoleon did not initially invade the Papal States proper, only the Legation cities of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara; in the following peace treaty, the French annexed Ravenna, Bologna, Ancona, and the right of entry to all papal ports. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 99) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  The papacy furthermore had to pay Napoleon 21 million crowns. War recommenced in 1797, and Bonaparte marched almost unopposed down the eastern coast of the peninsula, stealing whatever the papal government had not yet removed of the treasury at Loreto and forcing terms on the papacy at Tolentino in mid-February. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 101) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§  Refusing to acquiesce in French domination, Pius VI was arrested in February 1798 and bundled off to prison in Valence, France.<br>The second half the 1600s was marked by a renewal of \"Christianization\" efforts, i.e., to educate the laity and ensure a stricter adherence to post-Tridentine Catholicism. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 106-115) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  The wars, famines, and epidemics between 1610 and the mid-1650s had disrupted these efforts, but there was a \"Tridentine revival\" in the second half of the century resulting in Jesuit missions to the Kingdom of Naples, and more frequent pastoral visits by bishops. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 107) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  The Inquisition, which had been institutionalized as the Roman Inquisition in the sixteenth century, was still active, although it may not have burnt as many heretics and witches as authorities north of the Alps. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  The Inquisition censored books, although it was not necessarily successful at preventing their spread. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London &amp; New York: Longman. §REF§  Pilgrimage remained popular, especially in Jubilee years (in this period, 1725, 1750, and 1775), and confraternities showed remarkable staying power, especially in the duchy of Benevento and the kingdom of Naples. Baptism and the Mass remained little changed, although parish records became a standard part of the Church's institutional machinery.<br>The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 47) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§  Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million <i>scudi</i>; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times. §REF§ (Gross 1990, 88) Gross, Hanns. <i>Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime.</i> Cambridge, CUP. §REF§  Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 15) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§  The city consisted of a small plutocracy and a vast mass of artisans, courtiers, workers, and a major substratum of the permanently indigent; pilgrims added to the city's population and its coffers periodically. Ancona, on the other hand, experienced revived prosperity in the mid-18th century following Clement XII's decree making it a free port. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§  Bologna's economy was in decline due to the implosion of the textile trade. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§  An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 48) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§",
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            "long_name": "Sakha - Early",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology &amp; Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§  Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§  For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find population estimates for Sakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§  The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 25,
                "name": "Lena River Valley",
                "subregion": "Siberia",
                "longitude": "129.379494854000",
                "latitude": "63.462822242300",
                "capital_city": "Yakutsk",
                "nga_code": "YAK",
                "fao_country": "Russia",
                "world_region": "Central Eurasia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 11,
                "name": "Siberia",
                "subregions_list": "Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia",
                "mac_region": 3
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 195,
            "name": "ru_sakha_late",
            "start_year": 1632,
            "end_year": 1900,
            "long_name": "Sakha - Late",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology &amp; Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§  Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§  After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§  For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find population estimates forSakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§  The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 25,
                "name": "Lena River Valley",
                "subregion": "Siberia",
                "longitude": "129.379494854000",
                "latitude": "63.462822242300",
                "capital_city": "Yakutsk",
                "nga_code": "YAK",
                "fao_country": "Russia",
                "world_region": "Central Eurasia"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 11,
                "name": "Siberia",
                "subregions_list": "Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia",
                "mac_region": 3
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 196,
            "name": "ec_shuar_1",
            "start_year": 1534,
            "end_year": 1830,
            "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 32,
                "name": "Lowland Andes",
                "subregion": "Amazonia",
                "longitude": "-77.674190401400",
                "latitude": "-2.895375197160",
                "capital_city": "Logrono",
                "nga_code": "EC",
                "fao_country": "Ecuador",
                "world_region": "South America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 31,
                "name": "Amazonia",
                "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states",
                "mac_region": 6
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 197,
            "name": "ec_shuar_2",
            "start_year": 1831,
            "end_year": 1931,
            "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ",
            "shapefile_name": null,
            "unreliable_instability_events": false,
            "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false,
            "home_nga": {
                "id": 32,
                "name": "Lowland Andes",
                "subregion": "Amazonia",
                "longitude": "-77.674190401400",
                "latitude": "-2.895375197160",
                "capital_city": "Logrono",
                "nga_code": "EC",
                "fao_country": "Ecuador",
                "world_region": "South America"
            },
            "home_seshat_region": {
                "id": 31,
                "name": "Amazonia",
                "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states",
                "mac_region": 6
            }
        },
        {
            "id": 198,
            "name": "eg_new_k_1",
            "start_year": -1550,
            "end_year": -1293,
            "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "During the New Kingdom, the Egyptian king acquired the title of 'pharaoh', meaning 'great house'. In the Thutmosid Period, or Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1293 BCE), the pharaohs turned the Egyptian 'home' into a great empire stretching from Kush in northern Sudan (conquered by Thutmose I) to the south to Palestine and Syria in the northeast (taken by Thutmose III). §REF§ (Sherif 1981, 265) N. M. Sherif. 1981. 'Nubia before Napata (-3100 to -750)', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 245-77. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5) R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. 2007. <i>The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present</i>. 4th ed. London: BCA. §REF§  For the first time, the capital of a great Egyptian state was in Upper Egypt, at Thebes (although in 1373 BCE Akhenaten briefly had the capital moved to El Amarna in Middle Egypt).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The pharaoh, a living god-king, was also the chief priest, highest judge and top military commander; he usually fought in battle, as Thutmose III apparently did at the famous Bronze Age battle of Megiddo in the 15th century BCE. §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 111) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The professional army was augmented by troops from conquered places such as Nubia and Libya. §REF§ (Spalinger 2005, 6-7) Anthony J. Spalinger. 2005. <i>War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. §REF§ <br>During the New Kingdom, labyrinthine networks of imperial power and wage-earning agents we know as scribes §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  were overseen by two viziers: one for the north and one for the south of Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The Egyptian vizier was the second-highest judge; §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  he supervised the activities of the state bureaucracy and served as a representative of the pharaoh's interests. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Most of the viziers' duties seem to have been judicial, involving dispute settlement, answering petitions, and authorizing transfers of property. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  For most of the two to three million people who occupied New Kingdom Egypt, however, the law was usually administered at the local level, §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  under chiefs of towns (the capitals of nomes) and mayors of villages.<br>The resources commanded by the New Kingdom Egyptian state enabled the pharaohs to carry out grand architectural and tomb-building projects. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 182) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The most prolific builder of the Thutmosid Period was a female pharaoh called Hatshepsut. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 229) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  At Deir el-Medina, in the Valley of the Kings, opposite Thebes, a workers' village was created at the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty to house craftsmen dedicated to building royal tombs. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 213) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The community was managed by a palace scribe appointed by the vizier. The scribe oversaw supervisors, who managed two teams of five workers on ten-day shifts. §REF§ (Ziskind and Halioua 2007) Bernard Ziskind and Bruno Halioua. 2007. 'Occupational Medicine in Ancient Egypt'. <i>Medical Hypotheses</i> 69 (4): 942-45. §REF§  In the village, oracle statues attended by priests served as the 'highest local voice of authority'. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 235) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Although not a typical town, documents written by skilled workers at Deir el-Medina reveal that writing was not confined to the elite, but had become important in wider society. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 156) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Major temples across Egypt included libraries and archives, most likely managed by scribes educated in local schools. §REF§ (Lazaridis 2016) Nikolaos Lazaridis. 2016. 'Education and Apprenticeship', in <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i>. Accessible online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&amp;y=5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&amp;y=5</a>. §REF§  Documents attesting to the sophistication of this Late Bronze Age state include government archives, wills, title deeds, census lists, conscription lists, orders, memos, tax lists, letters, journals, inventories, regulations, and transcripts of trials. §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. <i>Egypt and the Egyptians</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 199,
            "name": "eg_new_k_2",
            "start_year": -1293,
            "end_year": -1070,
            "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Ramesside era of the New Kingdom (1293-1070 BCE) is known as the last of the great native Egyptian states, when Egypt lost its foreign territories and the system of centralized government broke down once again. In contrast to the Thutmosid Period, which was dominated by an administration located in Upper Egypt, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (known as the Rammeside period) were based in the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt - first at Memphis, then at a new grand capital at Per-Ramesses.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The New Kingdom had a centralized administration that split the country under two viziers, who oversaw the Northern Tchety and Southern Tchety. Within these large units were nomarchs of nomes, village chiefs and local constables. §REF§ (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Bob Brier and A. Hoyt Hobbs. 2008. <i>Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians</i>. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  The important local officials were directly responsible to the bureau of the vizier, and they had to travel back and forth between the vizier's seat and their local posts in the course of their duties. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§  The draw of the centre both indicates the degree of power of the centralized administration and shows that the regions had the necessary administrative complexity to run themselves without the presence of their local ruler. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§ <br>Governmental administration during the later New Kingdom Dynasties was 'characterized by the growing strength of hereditary office', and the position of provincial nobles grew more secure. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 192, 229) David O'Connor. 1983. 'New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  During this period, the god Amun, the central deity of the priests at Thebes, became merged with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra was worshipped throughout Egypt, including at Memphis. Rites connected with this 'king of gods' served to legitimize the rule of the Egyptian king on earth, who was believed to be the 'bodily son of Amun'. §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Government grants were bestowed on temples in return for 'formal blessings' for state activities. §REF§ (Abu Bakr 1981, 102) A. Abu Bakr. 1981. 'Pharaonic Egypt', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 84-111. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§  However, the pharaoh's power to appoint the high priest was 'nominal', especially from the time of Ramesses III onwards, §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-300) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and the priests of Karnak in Upper Egypt became powerful hereditary rulers who acted independently of the administration at Per-Ramesses in the delta. §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 568) Fekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in <i>The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns</i>, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The city of Per-Ramesses, established around 1270 CE, had an immense population of about 250,000, §REF§ (Moreno García 2014, 11) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2014. 'Invaders or Just Herders? Libyans in Egypt in the Third and Second Millennia BCE'. <i>World Archaeology</i> 46: 610-23. §REF§  while the kingdom supported a peak total population of more than three million. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 200,
            "name": "eg_thebes_libyan",
            "start_year": -1069,
            "end_year": -747,
            "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Theban-Libyan Period in Egypt (Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties, 1069-747 BCE) §REF§ (Baines 2017) John Baines. January 2017. Seshat workshop. Oxford. §REF§  represents another time of decentralization in Egypt and, together with the subsequent Kushite period, makes up the Third Intermediate Period. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 183) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The governments at Memphis and Thebes followed the traditional 'intermediate period' pattern of rulers (pharaoh at Memphis, high priest at Thebes) who ran a bureaucratic system managed by a vizier and overseers of departments. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  However, the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries were unable to project their influence over the regions §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and Egypt in this period is best characterised as 'a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 338) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Egyptian pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1077-943 BCE), based at Memphis near the Nile Delta, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  served only as nominal heads of state for the whole of Egypt; §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  a formal agreement ceded control of Middle and Upper Egypt to priest-rulers at Thebes. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 232) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The priests, who doubled as military commanders, derived their right to rule from the oracles of the 'Theban triad' of gods, Amun, Mut and Khons. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327-28) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-first Dynasty pharaohs, perhaps in an effort to provide greater legitimacy for their rule over Upper Egypt, turned Tanis in the delta into a 'holy city', building royal tombs within temples built for the Theban triad. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The most powerful pharaoh of this period, however, was the first Libyan ruler and founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Shoshenq I (r. 945-924 BCE). He embarked on an 'ambitious royal building programme' and attempted to regain control of the entirety of Egypt, curtail Thebes' independence, and expand into the Levant. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 329) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The high point did not last long. The perennial problem of Upper Egyptian independence eventually led to the formal division of the state, an imaginative if drastic solution that created a parallel Twenty-third Dynasty based in Leontopolis, or perhaps Herakleopolis. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The new dynasty was enjoined to reassert control of the south, allowing the Twenty-second Dynasty rulers to concentrate on Lower Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  This did not work: by the time of Shoshenq III (r. 827-773 CE), the Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs could barely even control the north: 'numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 330) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Unfortunately, due to scant evidence, there are no reliable population estimates for this time.",
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        {
            "id": 203,
            "name": "eg_saite",
            "start_year": -664,
            "end_year": -525,
            "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "If scholars are in disagreement over whether Egypt of the Kushite Empire experienced a period of centralized rule, this undoubtedly did occur during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BCE), §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 364) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  which has been called the 'Saite Renaissance'. The Saite kings, from their palace at Memphis, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 965-69) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  gradually managed to construct a considerably more centralized state than that of the preceding period. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§  The high point of Saite power was the reign of Amasis II, whose administration commanded sufficient revenues to enable him to build a fleet to conquer Cyprus. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 986) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  An important phenomenon of this period was the development of the Demotic script (from the Greek word <i>demos</i>, 'the people'), which originated in the delta but spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt under Psamtik I and his successors. §REF§ (Donker van Heel 2012, 25-26) Konrad Donker van Heel. 2012. <i>Djekhy &amp; Son: Doing Business in Ancient Egypt</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§  Based on Hieratic, a cursive script using simplified Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic was useful in everyday contexts such as accounting, letter-writing and non-religious literature, which grew in importance during the period.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Upper Egypt, which before the Kushites had long been ruled by a militarized priesthood, was always a difficult nut for the central administration in the Nile Delta to crack. At first, the main influence the Saites had over the Twenty-fifth Dynasty aristocracy at Thebes was through the priestly position of the God's Wife of Amun. This was held by a Saite priestess at the Amun temple, and an observer (<i>rsw</i>) based in Thebes who was often called 'governor'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 978) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§  Established in the Kushite Period, the God's Wife of Amun role was of 'very great and publicly acknowledged' political importance. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 275) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>To increase their hold over Egypt, Saite strategy, under the first ruler Psamtik I, sought the removal of the nome system of administration; instead a military official was directly appointed to oversee the whole Southern Land (covering the region from Aswan to Memphis). §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Named leader of the fleet and based in Herakleopolis, this official also acted as the 'revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The Saite king ruled from Memphis, where there was a High Council of aristocrats who reported directly to him. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§  The vizier acted as the supreme judge of the realm. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 974) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  In the Late Period, almost all officials were also priests §REF§ (Baines 1991, 198) John Baines. 1991. 'Society, Morality, and Religious Practice', in <i>Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice</i>, edited by Byron Esely Shafer, John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman, 123-200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  and oracles featured in the elections of officials and even of kings. §REF§ (Gee 2002, 83) John Gee. 2002. 'Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context', in <i>Magic and Divination in the Ancient World</i>, edited by Leda Jean Ciraolo and Jonathan Lee Seidel, 83-88. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The military was usually led by the supreme chief of the expedition, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 29) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  but under Amasis II the chief physician also occupied important military roles such as 'leader of the Aegean foreign (troops)' and 'admiral of the royal fleet'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 972) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Theban Egypt was not brought under the effective control of the Memphite kings until Psamtik II's campaign against the Kingdom of Napata between 592 and 591, which ended what had essentially been a 'period of compromise' in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979-81) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Before that time, Saite authority was so weak that they were forced to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Kushite pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. After Psamtik II's military successes of the 590s, however, their policies changed and they began to portray the Nubian kings as usurpers. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  With the Saite Dynasty now in a more powerful position, there was a return to the nome system of provincial organization, with governors once again stationed in the regions. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  The title of leader of the fleet seems to disappear around this time, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  and by 592 BCE Herakleopolis had a 'governor'.<br>Unfortunately, again, reliable population estimates at this time are difficult to find, but every indication suggests that the total population remained fairly steady at roughly three million people. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",
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        {
            "id": 205,
            "name": "eg_inter_occupation",
            "start_year": -404,
            "end_year": -342,
            "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period",
            "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
            "general_description": "The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt's external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the 'Late Period' of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. §REF§ (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§  his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§  Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of 'First Generalissimo of His Majesty'. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. §REF§ (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. <i>Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.<br>The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. §REF§ (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. 'Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 33 (1): 1-34. §REF§  Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. §REF§ (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. 'Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt'. <i>Mediterranean Historical Review</i> 18 (1): 1-31. §REF§ <br>A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the <i>qanat</i> water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> London: Allen Lane. §REF§ ",
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