Polity List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polities.
GET /api/core/polities/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 862, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/core/polities/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/core/polities/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 54, "name": "pa_cocle_1", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 700, "long_name": "Early Greater Coclé", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 55, "name": "pa_cocle_2", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1000, "long_name": "Middle Greater Coclé", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515, "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886, "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning \"high mountains\", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the \"oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally.\" §REF§ Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>. §REF§ <br>During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. \"Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People.\" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022</a>. §REF§ <br>The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 34, "name": "Chuuk Islands", "subregion": "Micronesia", "longitude": "151.601918000000", "latitude": "7.351343000000", "capital_city": "Chuuk", "nga_code": "MI", "fao_country": "Micronesia", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": 8 } }, { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948, "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning \"high mountains\", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the \"oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally.\" §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 4) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ <br>During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. \"Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People.\" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022</a>. §REF§ <br>The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 34, "name": "Chuuk Islands", "subregion": "Micronesia", "longitude": "151.601918000000", "latitude": "7.351343000000", "capital_city": "Chuuk", "nga_code": "MI", "fao_country": "Micronesia", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": 8 } }, { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000, "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Cretan Neolithic period spans the four millennia between around 7000 and 3000 BCE. §REF§ (Tomkins 2007) Tomkins, P. 2007. \"Neolithic: Strata IX-VIII, VII-VIB, VIA-V, IV, IIIB, IIIA, IIA and IC Groups.\" In Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age (Minoan), edited by N. Momigliano, 9-39. British School at Athens Studies 14. London: British School at Athens. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SRWVHUTT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SRWVHUTT</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Tomkins 2008) Tomkins, Peter D. 2008. \"Time, Space and the Reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic.\" In Escaping the Labyrinth: The Cretan Neolithic in Context, edited by Valasia Isaakidou and Peter D. Tomkins, 21-49. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P6XBRAKC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P6XBRAKC</a>. §REF§ Until archaeological work in 2008‒2009 unearthed evidence for hominin occupation on the island as early as 130,000 years ago (in the Lower Palaeolithic), it was believed that the Neolithic farmers whose settlements appear from c. 7000 BCE were the first people to colonize Crete. §REF§ (Strasser et al. 2010, 145-46) Strasser, Thomas F., Eleni Panagopoulou, Curtis N. Runnels, Priscilla M. Murray, Nicholas Thompson, Panayiotis Karkanas, Floyd W. McCoy, and Karl W. Wegmann. 2010. \"Stone Age Seafaring in the Mediterranean: Evidence from the Plakias Region for Lower Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Habitation of Crete.\" Hesperia 79 (2): 145-90. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VR7DEQG3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VR7DEQG3</a>. §REF§ Nevertheless, one recent genetic study suggests that the Neolithic Cretan population was composed chiefly of newcomers rather than descendants of the island's Mesolithic inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández et al. 2014) Fernández, Eva, Alejandro Pérez-Pérez, Cristina Gamba, Eva Prats, Pedro Cuesta, Josep Anfruns, Miquel Molist, Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo, and Daniel Turbón. 2014. \"Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands.\" PLoS Genetics 10 (6): e1004401. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6</a>. §REF§ They likely sailed from southwestern Asia, §REF§ (Fernández et al. 2014) Fernández, Eva, Alejandro Pérez-Pérez, Cristina Gamba, Eva Prats, Pedro Cuesta, Josep Anfruns, Miquel Molist, Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo, and Daniel Turbón. 2014. \"Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands.\" PLoS Genetics 10 (6): e1004401. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6</a>. §REF§ bringing a characteristic agricultural package of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, bread wheat and other domesticated food plants. §REF§ (Broodbank and Strasser 1991, 236) Broodbank, Cyprian, and Thomas F. Strasser. 1991. \"Migrant Farmers and the Neolithic Colonization of Crete.\" Antiquity 65 (247): 233-45. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RVNBC48R\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RVNBC48R</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900, "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700, "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Old Palace or Protopalatial Era. This period began around 1900 §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘Background, sources, and methods,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ , and ended around 1700, with a series of conflagration across the entire island, possibly caused by earthquake, possibly by inter-island wars §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. \"Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού\" in <i>Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι</i>, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. \"War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou\". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Old Palace period is marked by the appearance of regional states, and, in each of these, political, religious, ideological and/or economic authorities governed from “palaces”, that is, monumental court-centered building compounds such as the ones at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos and Petras §REF§ (Manning 2008, 119) S.W. Manning. 2008. ‘: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ . However, evidence for administration is limited and consists mostly of clay archival documents. §REF§ (Weingarten 2010, 317-318) J. Weingarten. 2010. ‘Minoan seals and sealings,’ in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ .<br>According to Renfrew, each regional state had a population of 215,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. The Emergence of Civilisation. Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ .", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450, "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Neopalatial Era. This period followed a series of conflagrations at the end of the Old Palace era (1700 BCE), which affected almost all Cretan sites. Little agreement exists about the causes of these destructions. Although it has been generally argued that these were possibly caused by earthquake, the senario of war conflicts among major political centers of the period cannot be excluded. §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. \"Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού\" in <i>Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι</i>, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. \"War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou\". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ The Neopalatial era ended, in 1450, in a similar way to the previous phase: the central complexes (except for the one at Knossos), many important buildings and whole settlements were violently damaged by fire and abandoned, and the Cretan presence in the Aegean and the Near East came to an end. The causes of these destructions have also been a topic of vivid debate: a massive natural disaster (earthquake), war, internal disruption or system collapse have all been suggested as possible explanations §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. <i>The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption</i>. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ , though perhaps human rather than natural causes are more likely §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ .<br>Population and Political Organization<br>Some scholars argue that, during the Neopatial period, the island was divided into small independent \"states\" centered upon large monumental complexes generally known as \"palaces\" §REF§ (Cherry 1986, 19-45) John F. Cherry. 1986. “Polities and palaces: some problems in the Minoan state formation,” in <i>Peer-Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change</i>, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. \"Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete.\" <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 94: 193-211 §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 2-7) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bevan 2010, 27-54) Andrew Bevan. 2010. \"Political geography and palatial Crete.\" <i>Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology</i> 23: 27-54. §REF§ Others favour the notion of a Knossian hegemony, that is, the notion that Crete was politically unified under the control of the ruler at Knossos §REF§ (Betts 1967, 15-40) John H. Betts. 1967. \" New light on Minoan bureaucracy. A reexamination of some Cretan seals.\" <i>Kadmos</i> 6: 15-40 §REF§ §REF§ (Hallager and Hallager 1996, 547-556) E. and B.P. Hallager. 1996. \"The Knossian bull-political propaganda in Neo-palatial Crete,\" in <i>POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994</i>, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Wiener 2007, 231-242) M.W. Wiener. 2007. \"Neopalatial Knossos: rule and role\" in <i>Krinoi kai Limenes. Studies in Honor of Joseph and Maria Shaw</i>, edited by Philip Betancourt, Michael Nelson and Hector Williams. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press §REF§ Yet other have favored the idea of independent political formations emulating Knossos §REF§ (Schoep 1999, 201-221) Ilse Schoep. 1999. \"Tables and territories: reconstructing Late Minoan IB political territories throughout undeciphered documents.\" <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 103: 201-21 §REF§ §REF§ (Soles 1995, 405-414) J.S. Soles. 1995. \"The function of a cosmological center: Knossos in palatial Crete\" in <i>POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994</i>, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Knappett and Schoep 2000, 365-371) Carl Knappett and Ilse Schoep. 2000. \"Continuity and change in Minoan political power,\" <i>Antiquity</i> 74: 365-71. §REF§ <br>The population of Crete at this time has been estimated at 242,000 §REF§ (Branigan 2000, 38-50) Keith Branigan. 2000. \"Aspects of Minoan urbanism,\" in <i>Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Keith Branigan. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. §REF§ , 216,000-271,000 §REF§ (Rackham and Moody 1999, 97) Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Alice Moody. 1999. <i>The Making of the Cretan Landscape</i>, Manchester: Manchester University Press. §REF§ and 260,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. <i>The Emergence of Civilization</i>, London: Oxbow Books §REF§ . As for Knossos, the largest urban centre in the whole of Prehistoric Greece, Whitelaw estimated Knossian population to 25,000-30,000 people replacing his previous estimate of 14,000-18,000 individuals §REF§ (Whitelaw 2004, 147-158) Todd Whitelaw. 2004. \"Estimating the population of Neopalatial Knossos\" in <i>Knossos: Palace, City, State: Proceedings of the Conference in Herakleion organized by the British School at Athens and the 23rd Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Herakleion, in November 2000, for the Centenary of Sir Arthur Evans's Excavations at Knossos</i>, edited by Gerald Cadogan, Eleni Hatzaki and Adonis Vasilakis. London: British School of Athens. §REF§ §REF§ (Whitelaw 2014, 143-144) Todd Whitelaw. 2014. \"Political formations in Prehistoric Crete\". <i>BICS</i> 57: 143-144. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300, "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Monopalatial Era. This period began following the destruction of many Minoan sites around 1450, due either to natural catastrophes or human agency §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. <i>The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption</i>. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ , and it ended with the destruction of Knossos §REF§ (Popham 1994, 89-102) Mervyn Popham. 1994. ‘Late Minoan II to the end of the Bronze Age,’ in Knossos: A Labyrinth of History, edited by Don Evely, Helen Hughes-Brock, and Nicoletta Momigliano. British School at Athens; Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ Throughout this period, Knossos was the main political, administrative and economic centre of the island: analyses of both textual and archaeological data shows that Knossos controlled a series of second-order (e.g. Kydonia and Phaistos) and third-order (e.g. Tylissos) centers §REF§ (Bennet 1988, 19-42) John Bennet. 1988. ‘Outside in the distance: problems in understanding the economic geography of Mycenaean palatial territories,’ in <i>Text, Tablets and Scribes. Studies in Mycenaean Epigraphy and Economy Offered to Emmett L. Bennett, Jr.</i>, edited by Jean-Pierre Olivier and Thomas G. Palaima. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. ‘Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete’. <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 94:193-211. §REF§ . However, a resurgence of elite display at second-order sites, starting in 1370, suggests a possible power shift in the final decades of this era, and the decline of Knossian influence over the island §REF§ (Preston 2008, 316-317) Laura Preston. 2008. ‘Late Minoan II to IIIB Crete,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The supreme leader of the state was the king, known as <i>wanax</i> §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 292-295) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy. It is not certain, however, whether he had any military or judicial duties. Ranked second was the <i>lawagetas</i>, a military leader. §REF§ (Nikoloudis, 587-594) S. Nikoloudis. 2008. ‘The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,’ in <i>Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale di Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006</i>, edited by A. Sacconi, M. del Freo, L. Godart, and M. Negri. Rome. §REF§ Below these leaders were the <i>hequetai,</i> followers, who accompanied military contingents and may also performed other functions. Other officials, the so-called collectors, were involved in acquiring and distributing exchange commodities. Among the figures at a lower level were the <i>qasireu</i> who served as overseer of group of workers -the predecessor of the word known from ancient Greek as the word for the king (baseless) - the <i>telestas</i> , officials, the <i>korete</i> and <i>porokorete</i>, mayor and vice-mayor, and scribes §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., 2016 §REF§ .<br>Firth estimates that, at this time, Crete numbered 110,000 inhabitants §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R.J. Firth. 1995. ‘Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B’. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ .", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "At the end of the Late Minoan IIIA2 period, the destruction of the \"palace\" at Knossos, the oldest monumental building compound of the island, marked the end of a political authority which had controlled most of Crete during the Late Minoan II and Late Minoan IIIA periods. Regional centers, once secondary capitals under the Knossian control, subsequently regained a degree of independence. Regional elites exerted their authorities over the land by adopting social instruments and ideological strategies which turned out to be very similar to those used by the previous Knossian power, possibly including the use of Linear B script for bureaucratic purposes. §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. <i>SMEA</i> 45: 153-83. §REF§ Things changed in the eleventh century, with the fall of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers and a resulting period of instability in both the region generally and the island specifically. §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean</i>, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ As for political organization, the supreme leader of the state was the king (<i>wanax</i>), presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy, though possibly lacked military and judicial authority §REF§ (Shelmerdine and Bennet 2008, 292-295) C.W. Shelmerdine and J. Bennet. 2008. 'Mycenaean states. Economy and administration,' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by C.W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000, "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "With the fall or weakening of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers--the Hittites, the Assyrians, Egypt--there is evidence for a correspondingly \"troubled\" phase in Crete's prehistory. Most notably, the population moved from the coast to the hinterland, suggesting the coasts were no longer safe. Minoan culture continued to exist in some form, but contacts with the rest of the world were greatly reduced §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean</i>, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ There are no estimates for the Final Post Palatial Period; settlement patterns, however, point to a considerable population decrease, especially during the 1100-1000 BCE period. §REF§ (Rehak and Younger 2001, 458) P. Rehak and J.G. and Younger. 2001. 'Neopalatial, Final palatial, and Postpalatial Crete', in <i>Aegean Prehistory. A Review</i>, edited by Tracey Cullen. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America. §REF§ §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. <i>SMEA</i> 45: 153-83. §REF§ Similarly, not much is known about political organization at this time. §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710, "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The eleventh century BCE marks the beginning of radical changes in southern Greece generally as well as Crete specifically, largely resulting from the invasion from the North of the Dorians §REF§ (Whitley 1998, 27-39) J. Whitley. 1998. 'From Minoans to Eterocretans: the Praisos region 1200-500 BC,' in <i>Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete held by the British School at Athens and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 10-11 November 1995</i>, edited by W.G. Cavanagh and M. Curtis, M. (eds), London: British School at Athens. §REF§ Overall, however, this period is relatively poorly understood, with no written sources and few archaeological finds. Most likely, Cretans mainly dedicated themselves to farming and pastoralism. Writing disappeared and artistic expression became more abstracted and geometrical. Things started to change in the eighth century, when trade routes were revitalized, and Cretans were able to capitalize on the island's premier location in the Eastern Mediterranean. And the trade in artefacts and products was accompanied by the exchange of new ideas and technologies. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Not much is known about either the island's population numbers at the time, or its political organization. In terms of population, very few settlements have been excavated, and none of these have yielded enough data for a credible estimate; in terms of political organization, it is likely that elite families were in charge but not much else could be said. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500, "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500).<br>There was no capital city as Crete was divided into territorial entities, each one centered upon a city that served as the main political and economic centre of its well-defined region. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles. §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ <br>No information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, however the largest settlement, Knossos, is estimated to have housed about 4,000 people.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323, "long_name": "Classical Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<i>Population and political organization</i><br>In terms of the island's population at this time, estimates vary for a minimum of 200,000 to a maximum of 1,000,000 people; however, the most likely estimate is of 450,000-500,000 people. §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 194-195) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ Political, military and religious control in Cretan city-states was exercised by the Kosmoi (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens. One of the Kosmoi, known as protokosmos or stratagetas, was the president of the board. The council of elders, the Gerousia, whose members were chosen among the best Kosmoi, had legislative and juridical authority. §REF§ (Willetts 1965, 56-75) Ronald F. Willetts. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. §REF§ §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 196-199) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69, "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the Greek world, the Hellenistic era goes from the death of Alexander in 323 BCE to the Roman conquest in 69 BCE. For much of this period, due to its enviable position in the Eastern Mediterranean, the island lay at the centre international conflicts between Alexander's successors, most notably the Ptolemies (who managed to establish an autonomous republic at Itanos in the third century §REF§ (Spyridakis 1970) Stylianos Spyridakis. 1970. <i>Ptolemaic Itanos and Hellenistic Crete</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ ), the Seleucids, Macedonia, and Pergamon. §REF§ (Van Effenterre 1948, 114) Henri van Effenterre, H. 1948. <i>La Crète et le mondes grec de Platon à Polybe</i>. Paris: E. de Boccard. §REF§ This in turn exacerbated conflicts between the island's chief city-states, with few periods of respite, until Crete was conquered by the Romans §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 236-246) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In terms of the island's population at this time, estimates vary for a minimum of 200,000 to a maximum of 1,000,000 people; however, the most likely estimate is of 450,000-500,000 people. §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 194-195) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ Political, military and religious control in Cretan city-states was exercised by the Kosmoi (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens. One of the Kosmoi, known as protokosmos or stratagetas, was the president of the board. The council of elders, the Gerousia, whose members were chosen among the best Kosmoi, had legislative and juridical authority. §REF§ (Willetts 1965, 56-75) Ronald F. Willetts. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. §REF§ §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 196-199) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate (31 BCE-284 CE) refers to the first period of the Roman Empire, when the de facto ruler was termed the <i>princeps</i>, or 'leading citizen'. The period begins with the victory of the first emperor, Augustus (then Octavian) over his rival Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and ends with the accession of Diocletian after the 'crisis' of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Retaining and solidifying many of the institutions, cultural forms, and economic base that had led to Rome's hegemonic position during the Republican period, the Empire became one of the largest, most long-lived, and most prosperous imperial states the world has ever known. Augustus established a dynasty lasting until the death of the Emperor Nero in 68 CE, after which followed a brief civil war between different potential successors. Despite repeated bouts of similar warfare during succession crises following the various dynasties that ruled the Principate, the Empire remained remarkably stable throughout this period. Rome was able to unite - and keep together - a huge swathe of territory encompassing all of western Europe, North Africa, Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean, most of Anatolia, and parts of the Near East. Integrating diverse regions into this single empire facilitated the spread of Roman institutions - notably its legal system, urban infrastructure, cultural forms, and political structure. It also promoted economic development by enabling the safe transport of goods and people to every corner of the empire. §REF§ (Bowman and Wilson 2009) Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson. 2009. 'Quantifying the Roman Economy: Integration, Growth, Decline?', in <i>Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 3-86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ It was during this period that Rome built some of its greatest structures: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the imperial <i>fora</i> (market squares) in the heart of Rome, and many others. The Principate overall produced so much wealth and so many cultural achievements that the great 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon proclaimed the Empire at its peak in the 2nd century CE to be 'the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous'. §REF§ (Gibbon [2003] 1869, 53) Edward Gibbon. [2003] 1869. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, edited by Hans-Friedrich Mueller. New York: Modern Library. §REF§ <br>In the late 3rd century CE, beginning after the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), however, all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Nominally, there was no change in political organization between the Republican period and the Principate. The first princeps, Augustus, kept all Republican institutions and offices, including the Senate, intact. There was clear practical change in the power structure, however, as Augustus, and all emperors after him, asserted personal control over almost the entire Roman army and were granted unprecedented legislative, religious, and judicial powers to shape politics and Roman society at large. Whereas a defining principle of Republican governance was that no individual should be able to hold multiple offices simultaneously, amassing power in several domains (military, legislative, religious, and so on), emperors broke this tradition and drew their authority from numerous offices, titles, and the authority they carried. §REF§ (Noreña 2010) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Roman emperor was also generally one of the wealthiest people in the Principate, controlling huge agriculturally productive estates throughout the Empire, particularly in North Africa and Egypt. §REF§ (Kehoe 2007) Dennis P. Kehoe. 2007. <i>Law and the Rural Economy in the Roman Empire</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ In this period, state revenues were split between the 'public' treasury (<i>aerarium</i>) and an imperial treasury (<i>fiscus</i>) under the direct control of the emperor. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Principate had a fairly limited reach, particularly outside of Italy, but the state did have some significant expenses which it met by collecting tax from the Empire's vast territory and large population, taking in rents from the imperial estates. In addition to paying the salaries of imperial officials - a relatively small expense as only limited central authority was exerted in the provinces (mainly the provincial governors and their retinue) - the emperor was responsible for financing a professional citizen army, the major state expense along with public works projects such as roads, aqueducts, and temples. The costs of these public works, though, were split between the personal fortune of the emperors who acted as patrons, particularly in Italy, and that of wealthy patrons in the provinces, who financed much of the urban growth in these regions. Further, beginning in the later Republican period and continuing throughout the Empire, the imperial state provided grain at reduced prices to citizens living in Rome; another considerable expense. §REF§ (Duncan-Jones 1994) Richard Duncan-Jones. 1994. <i>Money and Government in the Roman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Scheidel 2015) Walter Scheidel. 2015. 'State Revenue and Expenditure in the Han and Roman Empires', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 150-80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Garnsey and Saller 1987) Peter Garnsey and Richard P. Saller. 1987. <i>The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed <i>consilium</i> (advisory council), which was often made up of freedmen (manumitted slaves) and personal slaves. §REF§ (Noreña 2010, 538) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Harries 2010) Jill Harries. 2010. 'Law', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 637-50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Senate, not the emperor, formally retained ultimate executive power and could override or critique the emperor's actions, but in practice this was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic. §REF§ (Harris 2010) W. V. Harris. 2010. 'Power', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies</i>, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 564-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This centralized exercise of power by the Emperor, though, did not extend to the provinces, where the focus of imperial administration was squarely on securing revenue (cash and in-kind tax and rents on imperial properties) and maintaining peace, both internally and against potential external enemies, notably the powerful Persian Empires to the East. Roman provinces were governed by fairly autonomous officials (<i>procurator</i>, <i>curator</i>, <i>praefectus</i>, <i>proconsul</i>, etc.) and priests (<i>flamen</i>, etc.). §REF§ (Talbert 1996) Richard J. A. Talbert. 1996. 'The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts', in <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin and Andrew Lintott, 324-43. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Urbanization was also encouraged throughout the Empire; provincial cities were administered as 'mini-Rome's, with local urban equivalents of the Senate and most administrative, judicial, and religious magistracies. Roman cultural and infrastructural achievements were widely mimicked, with aqueducts, temples, theatres, bathhouses, and material culture (for example, particular ceramic forms, a culture of communal feasting, and the habit of publicizing achievements with inscribed stone tablets) adapted by numerous provincial towns and cities. §REF§ (Wilson 2011) Andrew Wilson. 2011. 'City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire', in <i>Settlement, Urbanization, and Population</i>, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 161-95. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This was true across the Empire, though particularly salient in the west, whereas Roman settlements in the East tended to retain many of their pre-Roman urban forms and cultural traditions. §REF§ (Boatwright 2000) Mary Taliaferro Boatwright. 2000. <i>Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. <i>Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>By the mid-2nd century CE, the city of Rome had reached over one million inhabitants, a significant feat for an ancient urban settlement. The population of the entire Empire is estimated at between 50 to over 60 million. §REF§ (Scheidel 2009) Walter Scheidel. 2009. 'Population and Demography', in <i>A Companion to Ancient History</i>, edited by A. Erskine, 234-45. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Estimating the number of state employees is an extremely difficult task, but one scholar has supposed that if the imperial government at its largest extent in the 4th century CE 'had somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries', then before this time a figure of 10,000-12,000 might be reasonable. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631, "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "We begin our Eastern Roman Empire period in 395 CE, when it was permanently divided from what became the Western Roman Empire §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnwell 1992, 1) P. S. Barnwell. 1992. <i>Emperor, Prefects, & Kings: The Roman West, 395‒565</i>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. §REF§ and end it in 631 CE as the Arab expansion and other developments led to a dramatic social transformations in Byzantium.<br>A phase of 'stagflation' spanned the century between c. 450 and 541 CE, during which large estates became more influential, elites grew in number and formed mutually hostile factions, and 'sociopolitical instability increased'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ Matters were made worse by an outbreak of plague in 541 CE, and further usurpations and civil wars in the 7th century made the staggering empire a ripe target for the Arab conquests. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Christian emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire was the chief lawmaker and military commander but not the most important religious official - instead, in the pagan tradition of Byzantine ceremony, he himself was treated as divine. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ When he entered his <i>consistorium</i> (council), several curtains were raised to herald his arrival in the style of the eastern mystery religions. Meetings of the emperor's council were infused with an atmosphere of sanctity, and the historian H. W. Haussig has pointed out that many important decisions were in fact 'discussed and settled outside this body'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The most important religious official in Constantinople was the patriarch, who was chosen by the emperor; §REF§ (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ the pope in Rome was the most important of the five patriarchs of the Roman Empire as a whole. §REF§ Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015, personal communication. §REF§ <br>Based in the palatial city of Constantinople, the emperor presided over a large professional bureaucracy that sought to intervene in most aspects of its citizens' lives. Departing from the old pattern of relative Roman disinterest in the formal codification of Roman law, the East Roman emperors in the 395‒631 CE period twice brought together and promulgated official legal codes that were sourced from the empire's Christian era (that is, since the time of Constantine the Great). The first of these was the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i> (439 CE), which was followed by the <i>Codex Justinianus</i> (534 CE). The Eastern Roman Empire also maintained a formal alliance with the Western Roman Empire, meaning that laws promulgated in one half of the empire had to be communicated to the other half and applied in both East and West. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. <i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II 408-450</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Below the god-emperor was the office of praetorian prefect, which came with considerable temporal powers. The governmental reforms of 395 CE gave this official 'unlimited jurisdiction' on economic matters, §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ which he used to plan the Roman economy in a similar way to that of Egypt, which had been functioning well for six centuries. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The praetorian prefect also supervised the postal system and public works, managed the guilds, and ran the production of arms and other manufactured goods as a state monopoly. He was responsible for the <i>annona</i> (food distribution) to the cities and army, and was given license to control prices in the cities and order new industrial production. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The government had numerous other officials and departments, including a magister officiorum who, in addition to running the departments of protocol and foreign affairs and the palace guard, was also head of the 'political police (<i>schola agentium in rebus</i>)'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 53) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>In the 6th century, desperate economic times led to the payment of high officials and soldiers in luxury clothes, while manufactured goods and food were used as currency. Coinage was still in circulation but the proportion used as payment for salaries shrank considerably. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 100) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. <i>History of Byzantine Civilization</i>, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. The baseline population of the empire was about 15 million, which peaked at 20 million when times were still good in 500 CE.<br>Fifth-century Constantinople was a monumental city of great splendour and wealth: it possessed five imperial palaces, six <i>domus divinae Augustarum</i> ('mansions of the divine Augustae') belonging to empresses, three <i>domus nobilissimae</i> (mansions for the top nobility) and 4,388 <i>domus</i> mansions. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-55) Diliana N. Angelova. 2015. <i>Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium</i>. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The contemporary source (the 5th-century <i>Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae</i>) also records 322 streets with 153 private baths. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-155) Diliana N Angelova. 2015. <i>Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium</i>. Oakland: University of California Press. §REF§ Public buildings included squares, baths, underground cisterns, aqueducts, shops, and entertainment buildings including theatres and hippodromes. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Gladiatorial combat was banned as part of Constantine's programme of Christian moral reforms in 325 CE and disappeared sometime in the 5th century. The traditional Greek gymnasium, once a central institution in every Graeco-Roman city, where young men trained in athletics, had also fallen out of use but acrobatics was a profession and the nobility enjoyed various sports. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 679) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies</i>, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most impressive large-scale public entertainments, provided by the state, were chariot races. These were held in Constantinople and other cities of the empire. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 680) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies</i>, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ At some point during this era, the government decreed that drinking booths should close at 7 pm to reduce alcohol-related disorder. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 760) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453)</i>, edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The first Byzantine period, which lasts from 632 CE in the reign of Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) to 866 CE at the end of the reign of Michael III (r.842-867 CE) §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ was in many ways characterized by the Greek response to the Arab expansion. This and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ <br>The signature change was the reform of Byzantine control of the regions with the introduction of themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ headed by commanders called strategi. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was a progressive development as provinces still existed with the first themes, the last European theme (Nicopolis or Dalmatia) being set up about 900 CE. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>Reform of the regions into themes was directly reflected with administrative reforms at the capital. At the professional imperial administration in Constantinople, taxation and military administration was 'fused' about 680 CE into a single office called 'logothete tou stratiotikou.' \"In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>From Justinian II (r.668-711 CE) the strategi gained powers of tax collection and each individual theme had a logothete who behaved like the logothete tou stratiotikou in Constantinople. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ \"Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, while control from the center was lost, the Byzantines gained the ability to more flexibly respond to external threats.<br>After the shock of losing 1 million km2 of territory by 700 CE to the expanding Islamic Caliphate the reforms eventually appear to have put the Byzantine state, and its 5 million inhabitants, on a stronger footing. While the 695-717 CE period was known for being a period of anarchy by the ninth century military success had slightly increased the land area to 520,000 km2. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) was able to finance a major construction spree. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961, "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Between 824 and 962, Crete was ruled by Andalusian Arabs. The latter had taken the island from the Byzantines (who subsequently lost the control of the maritime trade routes in the Aegean specifically and the eastern Mediterranean generally), and made it into an emirate, with Khandax, i.e. modern-day Heraklion, as its capital. The surviving evidence for the organization of the emirate and the Cretan society of the period is, unfortunately, scanty, with almost no archaeology and few, contradictory written sources. The original Byzantine sources are biased against the Arabs, and quite a few modern scholars have taken these sources at face value, presenting the Arabs as uncivilized barbarians, overly concerned with piracy. In fact, based on what is known about Arabic civilization in the rest of the Mediterranean at this time, it is likely that the Emirate of Crete was similarly sophisticated in its culture and social organization, though to its prolonged animosity with the Byzantines, it almost certainly retained a strong militaristic character as well. In 962, the Byzantines regained control of the island. §REF§ (Christides 2011, 17) Vassilios Christides. 2011. 'The cycle of the Arab-Byzantine struggle in Crete (ca. 824/6-961 AD) in the illuminate manuscript of Skylitzes (Codex Martinensis Graecus Vitr. 26-2)'. <i>Craeco-Arabica</i> 9: 17. §REF§ §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>A rough estimate of the island's population at this time is of 250,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Papadopoulos 1948, 37) Ioannes B. Papadopoulos. 1948. <i>Η Κρήτη υπό τους Σαρακηνούς (824-961)</i>. Athens: Byzantinisch-Neugriechischen Jahrbücher. §REF§ In terms of its political organization, Crete was divided into forty districts and was ruled by an emir who only nominally recognized the Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The phase of the Byzantine Empire from 867-1072 CE is commonly known as the Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056 CE), which the dates approximate. The Byzantine culture of the period was a military and aristocratic one with palaces serving \"not only as imperial residences but also as administrative centres. They were placed prominently in the centre of cities and surpassed all other public buildings in scale and ostentation.\" §REF§ (Bakirtzis 2008, 374) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the previous period the Byzantines responded to the Arab conquests with the creation of themes, whose local commander governors could raise taxes, that enabled the Byzantine elites and their thematic armies to respond more rapidly to external threats with the result of less centralized control. In this era the powers of the themes were drawn back: the number of officials within the thematic administrations increased and by the end of the period the strategos, military governor, was replaced by a krites (judge). §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 522) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ In the early eleventh century Basil II brought in a professional army directed from Constantinople called the tagmata, which lead to the disappearance of the thematic armies. §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 521) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>The professional Byzantine civil service and palace staff was \"relatively small, and mostly composed of humble clerks or custodians\", although there were some very rich bureaucrats and dignitaries. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 552) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ In the 10th CE the most important official was the Grand Chamberlain, who worked in the Great Palace, and was especially influential during periods of regency or when the Emperor was on military campaign. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 550) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ <br>A significant codification of Byzantine law occurred in this period when Leo VI (886-912 CE) in six volumes and sixty books (variously called the Exavivlos or the Vasilika (Basilika)) presented in the Greek language \"virtually all the laws in the Justinian Corpus, arranged here (as it had not been before) in a systematic manner.\" §REF§ (Gregory 2010, 253-254) Timothy E Gregory. 2010. A History of Byzantium. Second Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ A resurgence of literature began, in the early ninth CE, after the Iconoclasm had motivated copying and reading of religious literature. Intellectuals began to receive government positions under \"iconoclast emperors\". Emperor Theophilus founded Magnaura Palace school, \"the empire's first known public school since the reign of Heraclius.\" §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 559-561) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ <br>The peak of Byzantine military power and international prestige was under Emperor Basil II who conquered the Bulgarian Empire and continued Byzantine expansion into Syria and Armenia. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Byzantine period (1073-1204 CE) began with Michael VII Ducas (r.1071-1078 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ and ended in disintegration with court in-fighting over the regency agenda for Manuel's heir Alexios II §REF§ (Holmes 2008, 276) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ , which preceded the devastating 1204 CE conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ The state had controlled about 500,000 km2 territory and upwards of 6 million people.<br>In ideology the Byzantine Empire carried the Roman worldview of its rightful domain of influence. Byzantine Emperors \"recognized neither the western Frankish Empire nor the Bulgarian Emperor\" and \"never gave up its claims to universal rule. It claimed to be at the apex of the family of kings; it was the father, they were the sons.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 201) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The reality was that, although the state could maintain a professional army of over 100,000 soldiers, §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ increasingly the Byzantine state was dependent on allies for the the projection of military power. \"Emperors from the time of Basil II found it cheaper to call upon allies and dependents, such as Venice, to supply warships, than to pay for an expensive standing fleet at Constantinople.\" §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 560) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Nevertheless the Byzantine government was, in terms of sophistication, with its legion of professional officials employed on state salary, a cut-above that which was present in the western states of the middle ages. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ The Emperor headed a complex imperial government that was led by a Mesazon (Prime minister) who had secretaries and an official called Master of Petitions who took feedback from the people. Provinces were governed by doukes (provincial governors) who had provincial administrations staffed with multiple levels of fiscal administrators. §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 550) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200, "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Formative period in the Cuzco valley (2200-500 BCE) marks the transition from small-scale semi-nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers to sedentary villages associated with ceramic production and agriculture. Traditionally, it has been subdivided into three periods. The Early Formative (2200-1500 BCE) corresponds to the beginning of ceramic production and quinoa cultivation and the establishment of large, permanent villages. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 39) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ During the Middle Formative (1500-500 BCE), Marcavalle ceramics appeared and villages grew, possibly leading to the beginnings of ranked village societies. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 40) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The domestication of camelids was also under way. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 41) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The Late Formative (500 BCE-200 CE) saw the emergence of a three-tiered settlement pattern in the Cuzco and Oropesa basins, dominated by the settlement of Wimpillay. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44-45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This period is also known as Chanapata, in reference to a dominant ceramic style discovered in the 1940s. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ It is possible that other small chiefdoms existed in the region: a few early villages have been found near Raqchi in the Chit'apampa Basin, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 61) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ and there may have been some small independent polities near Paruro and Cusichaca. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ In the Lucre Basin to the east of modern Cuzco, a small chiefdom may have centred around the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The population of these early polities remains unknown, but over 80 archaeological sites dating to this period have been surveyed in the valley by archaeologist Brian Bauer. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Some of these were identified as hamlets and small villages, with between a few dozen and a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 43) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ More research is needed in order to understand sociopolitical relations at the time, but Bauer has interpreted the Late Formative as the period in which chiefdoms begin to emerge. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This process continued and solidified in the Early Intermediate Period.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499, "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100-800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC-800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200-500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ <br>The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649, "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100‒800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC‒800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200‒500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ <br>The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br>The chronological boundaries between this polity and the previous one are not clear-cut. Brian Bauer designates 200-600 CE as the Qotakalli period, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ while Alan Covey states that Qotakalli appeared around 400 CE. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Moreover, Covey refers to a settlement shift after 400 CE in the Sacred Valley (within our NGA, natural geographical area): before 400 CE, he says there was a small chiefdom with a three-tiered settlement hierarchy, and another one in the Cuzco Basin. After 400 CE the large villages were abandoned and new ones built at about 3500 metres above sea level. In the Sacred Valley, the abandoned sites represent 70% of the sample. Qotakalli pottery has been found at the new sites. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60-63) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Depending on the chronology used, we could postulate either continuity or cultural assimilation of the previous polity in the Qotakalli circa 400 CE.<br>What can be noted with more confidence, however, is that the 6th and 7th centuries CE saw the incursion of Wari colonies into the Cuzco valley, interacting with smaller local polities in the south and west of the valley. §REF§ (Bauer and Covey 2002, 850) B. S. Bauer and A. R. Covey. 2002. 'Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru)'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 846-64. §REF§ Araway ceramics may have been one of the markers of elite status, exchanged between local chiefs and Wari representatives. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 77) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ There seems to be strong cultural continuity between the Qotakalli sites and the sites where Araway pottery is present: although Wari colonists were present in the valley, their numbers remained low and evidence suggests that they did not exert political or military dominance over other groups. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 74) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999, "long_name": "Wari Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Following a period of regionalization known as the Early Intermediate Period, two polities came to dominate the Andes. Tiwanaku (Tihuanaco, Tihuanacu) extended from its core on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca to the highlands of western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru. §REF§ (Stanish 2003, 290) Charles Stanish. 2003. <i>Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Meanwhile, the Wari (Huari) polity may have controlled an area incorporating much of the Peruvian coast and highlands. §REF§ (Bergh 2012, xiv-xv) Susan Bergh. 2012. <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>These two spheres of influence appear to have been united by a religious belief focusing on the cult of a 'staff deity'. §REF§ (Cook 2012, 65) Anita G. Cook. 2012. 'The Coming of the Staff Deity', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 103-21. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Cook 2001, 158) Anita G. Cook. 2001. 'Huari D-Shaped Structures, Sacrificial Offerings, and Divine Rulership', in <i>Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru</i>, edited by E. P. Benson and A. G. Cook, 137-63. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This is manifest in the iconography of both polities, together forming the 'Middle Horizon', a period characterized by the substantial spread of uniform material culture across this large territory between the 7th and the 11th centuries CE. §REF§ (Isbell 2008, 731-73) William H. Isbell. 2008. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon', in <i>Handbook of South American Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, 731-60. New York: Springer. §REF§ <br>The exact nature of the Wari phenomenon is debated. While some scholars are of the view that it was a centralized empire, others think it was a smaller state based in Ayacucho with small enclaves of power dispersed across the Andes. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The empire hypothesis describes Wari as a 'mosaic of control': §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 29) Katharina J. Schreiber. 1992. <i>Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. §REF§ regions with Wari architecture may have been under direct Wari domination while large cities that only exhibit Wari pottery and textiles may have been autonomous polities whose ruling class closely cooperated with the Ayacucho polity.<br>Pikillacta in the Cuzco Valley is one of the most prominent Wari-controlled sites outside of its core in Ayacucho. §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 157-58) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Conclusion: The Functions of Pikillacta' in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan 147-64. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ This planned settlement spreading over 47 ha follows a strictly enforced grid pattern regardless of the topography. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 540) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The rectangular cells were interpreted variously as granaries, barracks or houses. §REF§ (McEwan and Couture 2005, 21-23) Gordon F. McEwan and Nicole Couture. 2005. 'Pikillacta and Its Architectural Typology', in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 11-28. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ However, later excavations revealed that the city was composed of several interconnected sites performing different functions: there were administrative, ceremonial, residential, and defensive components. §REF§ (McEwan 1991, 99) Gordon F. McEwan. 1991. 'Investigations at the Pikillacta site: A Provincial Huari Centre in the Valley of Cuzco', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 93-120. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ This settlement appears to have been left unfinished and abandoned sometime before 1000 CE. §REF§ (Glowacki 2005, 123) Mary Glowacki. 2005. 'Dating Pikillacta', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 115-24. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Pikillacta, the spread of Wari in the Cuzco Valley is limited, and local polities still controlled the western half of the valley. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>The capital of the Wari polity, also named 'Wari' or 'Huari', was more organically built: patios and galleries filled the empty spaces between compounds, and have been interpreted as elite residences and administrative buildings. §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 36) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ D-shaped ceremonial spaces were common in the capital but rare in the provinces, §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and may have hosted rituals and sacrifices, as suggested by the trophy heads found at Conchopata. §REF§ (Tung 2014, 246) Tiffiny A. Tung. 2014. 'Making Warriors, Making War: Violence and Militarism in the Wari Empire', in <i>Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian America</i>, edited by A. K. Scherer and J. W. Verano, 229-58. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Library. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Estimating the population under Wari control is problematic. The capital Huari, situated in the Ayacucho valley, stretched over 200-300 ha and may have housed between 30,000 §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and 70,000 people. §REF§ (Isbell et al. 1991, 99) William H. Isbell, Christine Brewster-Wray and Lynda E. Spickard. 1991. 'Architecture and Spatial Organization at Huari', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 19-53. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Ayacucho, Wari architectural compounds only cover an area of a few hundred hectares; §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ the total population under Wari control may have been limited to 100,000-500,000. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>Proponents of the empire hypothesis hold the view that Wari controlled a territory of 320,000 square kilometres, extending from the core near Ayacucho to its provinces in the north (Moche) and to the south near Cerro Baul (Moquegua). §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 39) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Other interpretations are more cautious; as Wari remains have only been found in the Ayacucho valley and small pockets of control beyond the core, its total territory was in no way comparable to that of the later Inca Empire and may have covered 10,000-50,000 hectares at most. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>What is known from archaeological surveys, however, is that four or five tiers of settlement existed: the capital may have controlled colonies situated around the major administrative centres of Pikillacta, Viracochapampa and Conchopata (40-50 ha). §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 1) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Introduction: Pikillacta and the Wari Empire', in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 1-7. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ On the third tier, towns such as Huaro, §REF§ (Glowacki 2012, 190) Mary Glowacki. 2012. 'Imperialismo en el Horizonte Medio: Una reevaluación del paradigma clásico, Cuzco, Perú'. <i>Boletín de Arqueología PUCP</i> 16: 189-207. §REF§ Batan Orqo, Cerro Baul, §REF§ (Moseley et al. 1991, 132) Michael E. Moseley, Robert A. Feldman, Paul S. Goldstein and Luis Watanabe. 1991. 'Colonies and Conquest: Tihuanaco and Huari in Moquegua', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 121-40. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Jincamocco or Wari Willka may have been secondary centres (c. 10 hectares). Finally, villages and hamlets would have produced resources for these larger cities. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 543) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ <br>In terms of political organisation, the Wari king may have held influence over client rulers or Wari nobles: royal tombs with Wari paraphernalia have been found at Huarmey in coastal Peru. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ The Wari may have also had a military hierarchy, as suggested by the ceramic depictions of warriors with distinctive face paint, arms, dress, and shield motifs. §REF§ (Arkush 2006, 502) Elizabeth Arkush. 2006. 'Collapse, Conflict, Conquest: The Transformation of Warfare in the Late Prehispanic Andean Highlands', in <i>The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest</i>, edited by E. Arkush and M. Allen, 286-335. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. §REF§ <br>The Wari left their stamp on technology and infrastructure in the Andes. Some archaeologists see them as the predecessors of the Incas, laying the foundations for the Inca road system; §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 269) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ however, this hypothesis is disputed. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250, "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the collapse of the Wari empire, the Cuzco valley once more underwent a phase of regionalization, known as the Late Intermediate Period (1000‒1476 CE). §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. <i>Ñawpa Pacha</i> 28: 63-92. §REF§ In other valleys of Peru, this period saw the emergence of complex kingdoms such as the Chimu, the Chincha, the Ischma and the Chanchay.<br>In the Cuzco Valley, this period lasted from the early 11th century to the early 15th century and was characterized by incipient state formation in two areas. To the west, the Killke or K'illke may have been the successors to the local Qotakalli chiefdoms of the Early Intermediate period and Middle Horizon. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in <i>Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization</i>, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Centred around the location of modern Cuzco, where Killke material has been excavated, §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 142) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ their sphere of influence extended south of Cuzco for around 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ Smaller undefended polities to the west of modern Cuzco may have been under Killke domination, while it is likely that the developing political units to the north were independent. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin to the east, another powerful cluster emerged, referred to as 'Pinagua' or 'Pinagua-Moyna' by ethnohistorians. These polities developed around the sites of Choquepukio, Cotocotuyoc and Minaspata. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in <i>Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires</i>, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ They may have upheld the cultural legacy of Wari colonizers from the Middle Horizon, §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 93) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ as their ceramics and architecture show profound Wari influence. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in <i>Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization</i>, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Choquepukio in particular exhibits significant continuity with the Wari through its monumental architecture. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Even further to the east, another small state may have existed around the settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro and Urcos. It has been suggested that the Pinagua cluster and these polities together prevented the eastern expansion of the Killke until the late 14th century. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Between these two extremities of the Cuzco Valley, the Oropesa Basin acted as a buffer zone. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 86) B. S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in <i>Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires</i>, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br>The Killke, centred in the Cuzco region, appear to have been the most influential and expansionary of these cultures during the Late Intermediate Period: their ceramics were widely used, in contrast to the limited spread of Lucre Basin styles. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Cuzco Basin and the Sacred Valley experienced significant population growth after 1000 CE, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 89) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ although population estimates are extremely difficult to produce. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The Lucre Basin cluster comprised at least 4 settlements extending over 10 hectares (e.g. Minaspata and Coto-coto), and Choquepukio covered 60 ha. These settlements may have housed several thousand people each. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 81-82) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The capital of the Killke polity, now buried beneath modern Cuzco, may have covered 50 ha. §REF§ (Covey 2003, 339) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> (22): 333-57. §REF§ <br>Little is known about political organization at the beginning of the Late Intermediate period, but archaeological work has revealed that the Killke polity had a four-tiered settlement hierarchy §REF§ (Covey 2003, 338-39) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> (22): 333-57. §REF§ The second half of the Late Intermediate Period would lead to the consolidation of the Killke polity, to the detriment of the Lucre Basin. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 85-86) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Eventually, the Killke elites laid the foundations of what would become the Inca empire.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the collapse of the Wari empire, the Cuzco valley once more underwent a phase of regionalization, known as the Late Intermediate Period (1000‒1476 CE). §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. <i>Ñawpa Pacha</i> 28: 63-92. §REF§ In other valleys of Peru, this period saw the emergence of complex kingdoms such as the Chimu, the Chincha, the Ischma and the Chanchay.<br>In the Cuzco Valley, this period lasted from the early 11th century to the early 15th century and was characterized by incipient state formation in two areas. To the west, the Killke or K'illke may have been the successors to the local Qotakalli chiefdoms of the Early Intermediate period and Middle Horizon. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in <i>Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization</i>, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Centred around the location of modern Cuzco, where Killke material has been excavated, §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 142) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ their sphere of influence extended south of Cuzco for around 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ Smaller undefended polities to the west of modern Cuzco may have been under Killke domination, while it is likely that the developing political units to the north were independent. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ <br>In the Lucre Basin to the east, another powerful cluster emerged, referred to as 'Pinagua' or 'Pinagua-Moyna' by ethnohistorians. These polities developed around the sites of Choquepukio, Cotocotuyoc and Minaspata. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in <i>Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires</i>, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ They may have upheld the cultural legacy of Wari colonizers from the Middle Horizon, §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 93) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ as their ceramics and architecture show profound Wari influence. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in <i>Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization</i>, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Choquepukio in particular exhibits significant continuity with the Wari through its monumental architecture. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Even further to the east, another small state may have existed around the settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro and Urcos. It has been suggested that the Pinagua cluster and these polities together prevented the eastern expansion of the Killke until the late 14th century. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Between these two extremities of the Cuzco Valley, the Oropesa Basin acted as a buffer zone. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 86) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in <i>Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires</i>, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br>The Killke, centred in the Cuzco region, appear to have been the most influential and expansionary of these cultures during the Late Intermediate Period: their ceramics were widely used, in contrast to the limited spread of Lucre Basin styles. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Cuzco Basin and the Sacred Valley experienced significant population growth after 1000 CE, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 89) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ although population estimates are extremely difficult to produce. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The Lucre Basin cluster comprised at least 4 settlements extending over 10 hectares (e.g. Minaspata and Coto-coto), and Choquepukio covered 60 ha. These settlements may have housed several thousand people each. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 81-82) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The capital of the Killke polity, now buried beneath modern Cuzco, may have covered 50 ha. §REF§ (Covey 2003, 339) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> (22): 333-57. §REF§ <br>The second half of the Late Intermediate Period proved to be a gradual phase of consolidation for what would become the Inca Empire. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 85-86) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Indeed, the Killke followed a pattern of 'leapfrogging', conquering new territories on an ad hoc basis. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 88) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Administrative and temple buildings at Qhapaqkancha, Markasunay and Pukara Pantillijlla probably developed during the Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley (1250‒1310 CE). §REF§ (Covey 2006, 129, 134) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ One suggested cause of this expansionary strategy is a period of drought between 1250 and 1310. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. <i>How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ <br>Meanwhile, there was another phase of construction at the site of Choquepukio around 1300 CE, which may have corresponded to the arrival of a new elite group from the Titicaca cultural sphere. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ Our evidence for this incursion comes from DNA analysis as well as from the presence of <i>chullpas</i> (burial towers) and ceramic styles characteristic of the Altiplano. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ The construction of grand niched halls and the presence of luxury items made of ceramic, metal, precious stones, and bone may indicate elite-sponsored feasting. §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. <i>Ñawpa Pacha</i> 28: 63-92. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 258) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. <i>Boletín de Arqueología PUCP</i> 9: 257-80. §REF§ The paramount leader of Choquepukio may have held these feasts in order to establish his power in relation to other local elites. §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 274) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. <i>Boletín de Arqueología PUCP</i> 9: 257-80. §REF§ Early Inca chronicles document these Pinagua leaders or <i>capacs</i> as a rival force, blocking their expansion into the Lucre Basin. §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 274) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. <i>Boletín de Arqueología PUCP</i> 9: 257-80. §REF§ <br>Archaeological evidence of a major burning event between 1400 and 1430 CE indicates that the Choquepukio state finally succumbed to Killke expansion. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 64) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Choquepukio's arts and monumental architecture profoundly influenced the material culture of the Inca Empire: §REF§ (Moseley 2001, 248) Michael E. Moseley. 2001. <i>The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru</i>. Revised edition. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ for example, Inca ceramics blended Lucre ceramic technology with Killke motifs. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in <i>Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization</i>, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ With the demise of the Choquepukio polity and the expansion of Killke dominance across the valley, the conditions were in place for the rise of the Inca Empire during the 15th century, creatively building upon the legacy of its predecessors.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532, "long_name": "Inca Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Inkas or Incas were just one of the multiple chiefdoms competing for power after the collapse of the Wari and Tiwanaku polities of the Middle Horizon. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2002, 48) Terence D'Altroy. 2002. <i>The Incas</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ And yet, they developed to become the largest indigenous empire in the Americas, known as Tawantinsuyu ('the four parts together'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 2) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Growing from the Killke confederation, they started to expand in the Cuzco Valley and beyond over the late 14th and 15th centuries CE. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 25) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ Over a short period from 1480 to 1532, three successive rulers ‒ Pachakuti, Thupa Inka Yupanqui and Huayna Capac ‒ pursued an expansionary policy which saw the empire stretch from southern Colombia to central Chile, covering most of the Andes. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Its geographical extent may have covered between 500,000 and 2 million square kilometres, §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ including dry coastal deserts, snow-capped mountains, and the fringes of the Amazon rainforest.<br>Because of their expansionary policy over huge swathes of land, the Inkas needed to establish adequate ruling strategies. They could exert indirect control through their hegemony over local allies. At Farfán in northern Peru, the blend of Chimú and Inka architectural styles may indicate that local elites were the vessel through which Inka rule was manifested. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 382) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Over the areas they conquered by force, the Inkas established new settlements and imposed their own regional administrators. Near Cañete, they massacred the local Guarco population and installed their own colonists at the site of Cerro Azul. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 100) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The dispersion and relocation of unruly people was one of their strategies to avoid uprisings, and could also serve to foster the empire's productivity. Indeed, resettled populations could be clustered to create specialized centres of production, such as the weavers and potters of Milliraya, Bolivia. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 374) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ <br>In addition to these violent methods, however, the Inka elite used ideological strategies to create a sense of community among conquered populations. Inka art employed a uniform geometric style, easily recognizable throughout the empire. Apart from the fine textiles and metals crafted for the royal lineages by chosen craftspeople, the rest of their ceramics and textiles were mass-produced and mass-distributed. §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 267) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ This meant that Inka identity could be easily replicated and grafted onto existing cultures. The Inka 'package' included ceremonial vessels known as <i>k'eros</i> and <i>aribalos</i>, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 443) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ used to distribute maize beer or <i>chicha</i> in state-sponsored feasts. The Inkas also reused previously important ceremonial shrines (<i>wak'as</i>) ‒ Muyu Orco, for example, was revered from the Late Formative period to the arrival of the Spanish. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ‒ and incorporated them into the network of shrines (<i>z'eque</i>) radiating outwards from Cuzco. §REF§ (Bauer 1998, 3-5) Brian S. Bauer. 1998. <i>The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Every year, important state rituals manifested this state ideology on an impressive scale: the Inti Raymi or solstice festival was a grand state ceremony lasting for eight or nine days. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 262-63) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Cuzco acted as a great ceremonial centre with its sacred precincts; provincial administrators could be formally installed during the course of some of these rituals. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>The empire is also known for its elaborate infrastructure works. The royal highway, known as Qhapaq Ñan, was composed of two north/south axes linked by 20 east/west segments, and stretched over 40,000 kilometres. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 5) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Empire-sponsored storage facilities were located near every major town and village along the Inka roads. These units, known as <i>tampus</i>, were located no further than 15-25 kilometres apart, §REF§ (Hyslop 1984, 303) John Hyslop. 1984. <i>The Inka Road System</i>. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ a distance that corresponds to a day's walk and facilitated the transport of armies and commodities throughout the empire. A highly efficient courier system was also in place, whereby messengers called <i>chaski</i> were stationed every 6-9 kilometres to relay messages, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 370) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ allowing information and commands to travel 250 kilometres in a day. §REF§ (Marchetti and Ausubel 2012, 26) Cesare Marchetti and Jesse H. Ausubel. 2012. 'Quantitative Dynamics of Human Empires'. <i>International Journal of Anthropology</i> 27 (1-2): 1-62. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Inka empire was unprecedented in the Andean region in its ambition and scale. §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 282-83) Katherine J. Schreiber. 1992. 'Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru'. <i>Anthropological Papers</i>, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. 87. §REF§ Working backwards from colonial estimates, archaeologists and historians have estimated that its population in the early 16th century could have reached between 6 §REF§ (Cook 2004, 113) Noble David Cook. 2014. <i>Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 14 million. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 96) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. <i>The Incas: New Perspectives</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ The capital, Cuzco, was a thriving city of 20,000 people §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 189, 227) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ divided into two moieties, <i>hanan</i> and <i>hurin</i>, which represented both status divisions and geographical origin. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 221) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ <br>At the top of the religious, military and administrative hierarchy was the the emperor, the Sapa Inka. Considered to be the Son of the Sun, he was believed to control supernatural powers. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ After their deaths, Inka rulers were still venerated as mummies and their cults were managed by descendants from the same lineage. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 176) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The Inkas used a 10-tiered administrative system, with 80 provinces administered by a governor in a local urban settlement. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 354-55) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ They implemented a characteristic mode of production known as <i>mit'a</i> ('to take a turn'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 395-96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ This built on Andean notions of reciprocal exchange to extract corvée service from heads of households for two or three months each year, ensuring that the state could rely on constant labour on a rotating basis.<br>The empire came to an abrupt end at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sapa Inka at this time, Huayna Khapaq, was stricken with disease ‒ possibly smallpox that had spread southwards from Central America, where it had been introduced by European invaders ‒ and died in 1528 CE. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 107) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ His sons Waskhar and Atawallpa both claimed the throne, and the empire was soon weakened by civil war and disease. The Spanish. arrived in 1532 and conquered the Inka empire in a few years. It took several decades for them to assert their authority over the impressive geographical extent of the former Inka territory: by 1572, they had subdued the last bastion of Inka power at Vilcabamba. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 21) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ However, indigenous resistance continued until Peru obtained its independence in 1821.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": 6 } }, { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715, "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.<br>The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.” §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556. §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially). §REF§ Pocket World History in Figures §REF§ <br>By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": 5 } }, { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187, "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Maurya Empire was one of the first geographically extensive empires in South Asia. The formation of the Mauryan Empire coincided with the invasion of India in the North-West of the armies of Alexander of Macedon in 327 BCE, most likely from territory in the Punjab. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§ <br>From circa 322 BCE until 187 BCE, the Mauryas extended their control over almost the entire subcontinent excluding Sri Lanka and the southernmost coast, as well as expanding northwest in Afghanistan.The exact origin of the empire is not clear. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§ The empire was built on the earlier model of the Nandas. The first three rulers, Chandragupta (324/321 BCE-297 BCE), Bindusara (297 BCE-273 BCE) and Ashoka (268 BCE-232 BCE) oversaw the main period of expansion and codification of the imperial state, with subsequent rulers attempting to preserve the gains made by the first three Kings until 187 BCE. Evidence of diplomacy between the Alexandrian successor state and the Mauryas Empire exist, though whether this was extensive is unclear. Exact details of when the conquests of territory took place are also murky, but evidence seems to indicate that the majority took place under the founder King Chandragupta. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§ <br>The reign of Ashoka was a period of stability and marked the peak of the empire, as well as religious reform. The Maurya Empire entered a period of decline and instability following his death, with weak rulers overseeing a quickly fragmenting state facing outward invasion by Bactrian Greeks. Brihadratha would be the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, killed by his military commander Pushyamitra in 187 BCE. The commander would be the founder of the successor state of the Shunga Dynasty. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The King was the head of state, he controlled the military and the bureaucratic administration. §REF§ (Sen 1999, 137) Sen, Sailendra Nath. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p.137 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5Q53QHG7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5Q53QHG7</a> §REF§ <br>The Empire was organized under a large bureaucracy and divided into four provinces named after the cardinal directions. Each province had a separate hierarchal administration, with the system duplicated at the capital to oversee the empire. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§ <br>A unique account of the Mauryan imperial administration is preserved in The Arthasastra. A handbook for governance which outlines a module of centralized government, although whether it is descriptive or an idealized version of the administration is disputed. §REF§ (Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. 2001. ‘Indian Legacy of Administration’. In: Farazmand, Ali. ed. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.p.80 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5T7BBX36\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5T7BBX36</a> §REF§ <br>Population estimates for this period vary widely ranging from 18,000,000 to 100,000,000. §REF§ (Gabriel 2002, 218) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.218 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VAWK3Z9E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VAWK3Z9E</a> §REF§ The Imperial Capital, Pataliputa was the largest settlement with an estimate of 50,000 inhabitants provided by (Clark 2013, 159). §REF§ (Clark 2013, 159) Clark, Peter, ed. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 159 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/37G4SSGG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/37G4SSGG</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Singh 2008, 118) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p.118 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 64, "name": "North India", "subregions_list": "Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101, "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Here we look at Southern India in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, that is, between the collapse of the Mauryan Empire and the rise of the Satavahana Dynasty. Unfortunately, this appears to be a very poorly understood period in this region.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No population estimates could be found in the literature. Information relating to political organization within our region of interest--roughly corresponding to the Bellary district in the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka--is also lacking, though sources suggest the existence of monarchies and an accompanying bureaucratic apparatus (scribes and mints, for example) in neighbouring regions. §REF§ (Shimada 2012, 118-119) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AVB94HR2\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AVB94HR2</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200, "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Vakataka dynasty ruled over the central Indian region of Vidarbha and surrounding areas between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. This polity was founded by King Vindhyasakti in around 255 CE, reached its zenith around 510, and had been replaced by the Chalukya polity by the mid-6th century. §REF§ (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 44, 123) Ramesh Chandra Majumdar and Anant Sadashiv Altekar. 1986. <i>Vakataka - Gupta Age circa 200-550 A.D.</i> Benares: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. §REF§ The Vakataka period was characterized by the establishment of a centrally ruling authority, agrarian expansion, and the revival of Hinduism, aided by an increase in royal land grants assigned for religious purposes and the construction of new temples. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Vakataka polity was ruled by a king. §REF§ (Sawant 2009, 145) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ Inscriptions suggest that he was aided at court by ministers and administrative personnel, including revenue officers, and in the provinces by a hierarchy of provincial and local authorities. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kadamba dynasty ruled over a region that largely falls within the boundaries of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. §REF§ (Moraes [1931] 1990, 47) George Moraes. 1990. <i>The Kadamba Kula</i>. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. §REF§ An absolute start date could not be found in the specialist literature. However, much is known about this polity's monarchs. Most notably, Kakushtavarma, widely regarded as the greatest Kadamba king, concluded marriage alliances with prominent ruling families (thus extending Kadamba influence over much of the subcontinent) and created an internal police force to ensure the safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 47) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ After Kakushtavarma, the empire was temporarily split among his heirs, each division with its own capital: Halsi for the north and west, Triparvata for the south, and Uchchangi for the east. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 49) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The empire was partly reunited a generation later under Ravivarma. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 48) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, the polity disintegrated rapidly under Harivarma, and much of its territory was seized by the Chalukyas of Badami in the 540s CE. §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as <i>dharmamaharaja</i> §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The dharmamaharaja was assisted at court by a royal council and the crown prince, and in the provinces he was represented by viceroys and governors. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753, "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chalukyas of Badami (or Chalukyas of Vatapi) §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 158) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ ruled over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, the region of South Gujarat, half of the state of Madhya Pradesh, the Rayaseema district and half the Andhra district of Andhra Pradesh. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity was founded in 543 CE, when Pulakesin I established the capital of Badami or Vatapi, §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in <i>Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research</i>, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ and it was supplanted by the Rashtrakuta polity in the 750s. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. <i>History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification</i>. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The peak of the polity can be considered to correspond to the reign of Pulakesin II (609-643 CE), who re-established his dynasty's power throughout much of the Deccan after a period of instability, further extended the empire's bounds through a series of successful military campaigns, and founded new dynastic lines in eastern India and in the Gujarat region. §REF§ (Sastri 1960, 212) K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. 1960. 'The Chalukyas of Badami', in <i>The Early History of the Deccan, Vol. 1</i>, edited by Ghulam Yazdani, 201-46. London: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At the head of this polity was an emperor, who often ruled over conquered territories indirectly, through feudal subordinates or family relations. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 219-21) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. <i>Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami</i>. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§ The emperor was also the polity's supreme military commander. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 267) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. <i>Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami</i>. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§ In both military and administrative matters, he was assisted by the <i>sandhivigrahika</i>, or minister of war and peace: the only minister in the emperor's council mentioned explicitly in Chalukya inscriptions, and probably the most powerful. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 267) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. <i>Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami</i>. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the literature. However, the capital may have been inhabited by as many as 70,000 people. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973, "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Rashtrakuta Empire extended over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Telangana, the state of Maharashtra minus its eastern region (Nagpur), the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and South Gujarat. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ It could be said to have started in 753 CE, when Dantidurga, a rebellious provincial ruler, defeated his imperial overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami, in battle; however, Dantidurga had already begun to annex territories some time before this date. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. <i>History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification</i>. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The empire collapsed around 973, when, weakened by a Pallava raid and an inept king, it was unable to quash the rebellion of one of its feudatories, Tailapa II, who took the capital. Subsequently, a number of other feudatories declared independence from Rashtrakuta rule. Eventually, most of them were brought under control by the newly re-established Chalukyas. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 82-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. <i>History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification</i>. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ <br>The Rashtrakutas rapidly became undisputed rulers of the Deccan Plateau, and organized several successful expeditions in Northern India, even securing, for a time, the long-contested region of Kanauj (under Indra III). However, none of the territorial gains made during these expeditions could be held for more than a short period, and it appears that the main aim of the expeditions was not so much to extend Rashtrakuta rule as to advertise its military might and increase its prestige. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. <i>History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification</i>. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ Under the long and relatively peaceful reign of Amoghavarsa I or Nrpatunga (814-878 CE), literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 120-22) A. P. Madan. 1990. <i>The History of the Rashtrakutas</i>. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Rashtrakuta emperor was the head of the civil, military and judicial administration. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 193) A. P. Madan. 1990. <i>The History of the Rashtrakutas</i>. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 192) A. P. Madan. 1990. <i>The History of the Rashtrakutas</i>. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ <br>No overall population estimates could be found in the literature. The capital, Malkhed or Manyakheta, may have had around 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ However, estimates are made difficult by the fact that the capital was destroyed by Chola armies in the 10th century CE, and what was left was subsequently destroyed by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Today, the Rashtrakuta capital is little more than a village. Not only that, but what little information exists about the city's heyday appears to be strongly influenced by Jain tradition, which may be biased, considering that Malkhed used to be a major centre for the religion. §REF§ (Mishra 1992, 208) Jayashri Mishra. 1992. <i>Social and Economic Conditions under the Imperial Rashtrakutas</i>. New Delhi: Commonwealth. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189, "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Telangana, as well as the Andhra Pradesh districts of Kurnool and Anantapur. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ Taila II re-established Chalukya rule over the Deccan by inflicting several military defeats on the Rashtrakutas and sacking their capital in 973 CE. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ Then, in the 12th century, the Chalukyas lost their empire twice: first, briefly, to the Kalachuris, and then, permanently, in 1191, to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ This polity probably reached its peak during the reign of Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE): during this relatively peaceful time, the capital flourished, as did scholarship, and the Chalukyas' territories and influence expanded. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 92-94) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At the head of this polity was an emperor, aided at court by his <i>yuvaraja</i> (crown prince) and ministers, and represented in the provinces by feudal subordinates. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91-96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to some sources, the Chalukyan administration was insufficiently centralized, and allowed too much freedom and autonomy to provincial rulers. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 116) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for the polity as a whole could be found in the literature. However, the capital, Kalyani, is estimated to have been home to between 50,000 and 125,000 inhabitants in the 12th century CE. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346, "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hoysala dynasty ruled over a territory roughly equivalent to the southern Indian state of Karnataka, plus the eastern and southeastern margins of Andhra Pradesh and the northwest corner of Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ For much of the 12th century CE, the Hoysalas were mere provincial rulers within the wider Chalukya empire, §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 130-32) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ but they rebelled and wrested control over the region from the Chalukyas in 1191. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ They lost their empire with the death of Emperor Vira Virupaksha in 1346. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 136) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ Under Hoysala rule, literature and the arts flourished, particularly architecture, as testified by the Hoysala temples at Halebidu, Belur and Somanathapura. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 111) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Hoysala ruler held judiciary, executive and legislative powers §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 123) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ and was also the polity's supreme military leader. §REF§ (Derrett 1957, 105) J. Duncan M. Derrett. 1957. <i>The Hoysalas: A Medieval Indian Royal Family</i>. Madras: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 137) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 124) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327, "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kampili Kingdom was a small, short-lived polity founded along the northern shore of the Tunghabadra river. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 74) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ An absolute date for its founding could not be found in the specialist literature, but, in 1327 CE, the region was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Little is known about the sociopolitical structures of this polity, §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. <i>The Political Economy of Craft Production</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646, "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Vijayanagara Empire ruled over southern India: specifically, it comprised an area roughly equivalent to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 329) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity could be said to have been founded with the establishment of the fortified city of Vijayanagara itself in 1340, and it fragmented into many smaller polities roughly three hundred years later, due to both civil wars and incursions from Islamic polities to the North. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 2, 13) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Vijayanagara rule, architecture flourished (many temples were built or rebuilt, and the first permanent non-religious buildings, including royal palaces, were constructed), trade and agriculture boomed, new towns were founded, and new notions of legal rights emerged. §REF§ (Stein 1990, xii, 2) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Vijayanagara ruler sat at the top of both administrative and military hierarchies. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers, and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373-74) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ <br>Assuming that the entire population of the Indian subcontinent at this time equalled 150 million, it seems reasonable to estimate that the population of the Vijayanagara empire was about 25 million. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 44) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burton Stein estimates that the city of Vijayanagara at its height in the 16th century had over 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ (Stein 1990, 75) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Carla Sinopoli believes the population could have been over 250,000. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 370) Carla Sinopoli. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 43 (3): 364-98. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern India", "subregions_list": "Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858, "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized states in premodern world history. By the late 1600s, it covered most of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526-1530 CE), who had invaded northern India from central Asia. He defeated the Delhi sultan at Panipat and occupied Delhi and Agra before moving on to Bengal. His grandson, Abu Akbar ('the Great') consolidated Mughal rule in the north through a series of military campaigns, notable for their use of field artillery. Akbar was also a great administrator, establishing a system of salaried civil and military office holding, combined with efficient taxation. Revenue was collected on the basis of land assessments, administered by local tax farmers, and the system served to integrate both Hindu and Muslim elites into the state. This period saw a flourishing of Indo-Muslim culture, particularly in the fields of painting and architecture. Economically, India was the centre of mercantile activity within the Indian Ocean; its manufactured goods, especially cotton textiles, were in huge demand. The reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658 CE) is seen as the high point of Mughal culture, represented above all by the construction of the Taj Mahal. His son Aurangzeb (reigned 1658-1707) was more aggressive military and eventually incorporated most of India into the empire, at least formally. The state was run on increasingly military lines and was more assertively Muslim. After Aurangzeb's death the empire began to disintegrate, encouraged by infighting and corruption among elites. The Mughals had lost much of their territory and power by the mid-18th century. The Marathas, a dynasty of Hindu warriors, became the dominant force in India during the 1700s, followed by the British in the early 19th century. Delhi was taken by the armies of the East India Company in 1803, but the Mughals carried on as rulers of Delhi until 1857. Following the Indian Rebellion, the British exiled the last king, Bahadur Shah II, who had given the rebels his support. §REF§ (Richards 1995, 1-5) John F. Richards. 1995. <i>The Mughal Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The two main branches of the Mughal empire were dedicated to revenue and military affairs. The emperor, seen as a divinely inspired patriarch, supervised his revenue and military officials through frequent travelling, and curbed their political ambitions by transferring them frequently, requiring them to attend court regularly, and assigning them responsibilities that cross-cut those of other officials. §REF§ (Blake 1979) Stephen Blake. 1979. 'The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals'. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i> 39 (1): 77-94. §REF§ <br>At its peak, in the late 1600s, the Mughal Empire comprised between 100 and 150 million inhabitants. §REF§ (Richards 1995, 1, 190) John F. Richards. 1995. <i>The Mughal Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 64, "name": "North India", "subregions_list": "Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal", "mac_region": 9 } }, { "id": 100, "name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565, "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": 7 } }, { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": 7 } }, { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848, "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 29, "name": "Finger Lakes", "subregion": "East Coast", "longitude": "-77.021375000000", "latitude": "42.704980000000", "capital_city": "Seneca Falls", "nga_code": "USNY", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": 7 } }, { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175, "long_name": "Canaan", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "_Short description_<br>Very little is known about the ancient Canaanites and what is known is often through references given by other cultures (such as the Egyptians). Even combined with what is known and not known from archaeological work the overall picture of Canannite society should be taken as a very provisional one.<br>Canaanites seem to have lived between 2000-1175 BCE, from a time contemporary to the Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, the Canaanite Hyksos Period of Egypt and their expulsion, through the New Kingdom of Egypt, to the invasion of the Sea Peoples (which have often been associated with the destruction of Canaanite cities).<br>Outside of the city-state organization the Canaanites did not achieve any territorial centralization in the Levant. The Canaanites lived in hierarchical city-states that would form alliances and fight opposing coalitions of Canaanites. The region as a whole was under Egyptian control after the invasion of Thutmose III.<br>One tentative archaeological interpretation of Canaanite government holds that Canaanite regimes were more similar to an household <i>oikos</i> economy than a Mesopotamian-style redistributive state: \"in sharp contrast to both the Aegean and the entire ancient Near East, there is not a single indication that literate administration ever played any significant role in the [Middle Bronze Age] Canaanite economy.\" §REF§ (Yasur-Landau et al. 2015, 609). Assaf Yasur-Landau, Eric H. Cline, Andrew J. Koh, David Ben-Shlomo, Nimrod Marom, Alexandra Ratzlaff and Inbal Samet. 2015. \"Rethinking Canaanite Palaces? The Palatial Economy of Tel Kabri during the Middle Bronze Age.\" Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 40, No. 6: 607-625. §REF§ <br>However, it appears at least some Canaanites did use writing to record laws. Two fragments of a larger clay tablet (designated Hazor 18) were discovered in 2010 at Tel Hazor, that would possibly have contained as many as 20 or 30 laws (which in turn could have been part of a larger collection of law tablets) in a format similar to the Code of Hammurabi. An earlier tablet, Hazor 5, contains part of the description of a lawsuit, judged by the king personally. §REF§ (Horowitz, Oshima, Vukosavovic 2012) Wayne Horowitz, Oshima Takayoshi and Filip Vukosavovic. 2012. \"Hazor 18: Fragments of a Cuneiform Law Collection from Hazor.\" Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 62, No. 2: 158-176. §REF§ It is likely that at least some Canaanite polities would have had formal law codes.<br>The population of the Canaanites probably never exceeded much beyond 50,000 people in a single polity, though more were likely present towards the end of the period than at the beginning.<br><br/>_Oren's long description_<br>During the Bronze Age, Canaan was composed of dozens of \"city-states,\" some strong enough to lead regional confederations against each other or against outside invaders. These city-states appear to have been significantly institutionalized, featuring standing armies, bureaucracies and public works, and official cults. The social structure was highly unequal; most of the land was concentrated in the hands of the small ruling class, with the vast majority of inhabitants being serfs, slaves, or landless vagabonds or nomads. The economy depended heavily on trade, with intensive agriculture of staples such as wine and oil meant for export in exchange for prestige goods such as imported pottery, and tin for making bronze.<br>Canaan of the Middle and Late Bronze was by no means a unified entity, even as its polities shared significant cultural elements. The varying landscape carried with it different geopolitical conditions for each local polity, strongly conditioning the development of each one and its various political/strategic needs. \"The Coastal Plain, the setting for the region's largest political and economic centers, conventionally seen as the hearth of Canaanite civilization, emerges as a hodge-podge of polities with highly variable structures and their attendant political connotations. The Jordan Rift, normally seen as a smaller-scale backwater off the Mediterranean littoral, features settlement patterns most consistent with a series of highly integrated peer polities or city-states, and subregional political coherence. In contrast to both of these lowland areas, the settlement clusters of the Hill Country are more dispersed, with consistent evidence of less settlement integration. When considered structurally, these results suggest three fundamentally different bases for political development in a region normally viewed as a single, albeit fractious, social and cultural entity during the Late Bronze Age. These distinctions help illuminate the foundations of the particularly volatile political dynamics of the southern Levant.\" §REF§ Savage/Falconer (2003:42). §REF§ <br>During the Middle Bronze, Canaanite polities were wealthy and powerful enough to extend their influence into the Egyptian Delta (via the so-called \"Hyksos). However, the end of the Middle Bronze is marked by the campaign of Thutmose I, who expelled the Hyksos and then campaigned into Canaan proper, imposing Egyptian overlordship over many of the Canaanite cities. As the Late Bronze progressed, Canaanite cities were marked with increasing social turmoil, wracked by repeated uprisings against Egyptian officials or against local elites, and facing periodic invasions from the sea or pressure from the Hittite Empire. The politics of this period are somewhat better understood thanks to the finding of the Amarna Letters, some 350 clay tablets of Egyptian diplomatic correspondence that date to about the middle of the 14th Century BCE. Many of them are from Canaanite \"mayors,\" sending groveling obeisances to the Pharaoh and pleading for military assistance in the face of urgent threats. Finally, during the 12th Century BCE, a series of poorly-understood calamities and city destructions brought the Bronze Age Canaanite civilization to a close; it would be succeeded by the Phoenicians to the north, and the Israelites in the Judean highlands.<br>(A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view: \"When any scholar defends the correctness or appropriateness of a singular point of view, or set of data, everything else tends to be analyzed accordingly - alternative views are intensely criticized, dismissed, or ignored entirely, while complementary views or evidence are presented with little critical reflection. Whether the evidence is archaeological or scientific, often it is only partial or ambiguous and so becomes easy to interpret or manipulate in a manner that serves to perpetuate a preconceived idea or point of view. The outcome is often a selective filtering of data and related information and an unwillingness to contemplate or envisage a counter position.\" §REF§ Knapp/Manning (2016:101). §REF§ <br>This is a particular problem with regard to establishing chronologies. While on a given archaeological site researchers are (usually) able to determine the boundaries of relative temporal layers, tying those layers to an absolute timeline, or even fitting them into a relative relationship with the layers of other sites, is a fraught business; and when the time period in question is as far back as the Middle Bronze, the available evidence becomes correspondingly scarcer and more difficult to correlate with each other. Unfortunately, many researchers are too quick to claim certainty where none exists. §REF§ See extensive discussion in Knapp/Manning (2016). §REF§ <br>In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened—as can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst140/MotelOfMysteries.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">constant danger</a> with motivated archaeologists.)", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 10, "name": "Galilee", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "35.303500000000", "latitude": "32.699600000000", "capital_city": "Nazareth", "nga_code": "IL", "fao_country": "Israel", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": 11 } }, { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332, "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a group of allied cities - rather than a politically centralized state - located in the southern Levant, in present-day Lebanon and northern Israel. It is difficult to assign exact dates to this quasi-polity, §REF§ (Röllig 1983) Röllig, Wolfgang. 1983. “The Phoenician Language: Remarks on the Present State of Research.” In Atti Del I. Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Fenici E Punici: Roma, 5-10 Novembre 1979, 375-85. Rome: Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB</a>. §REF§ but here we focus on the period between c. 1200 BCE and 332 BCE, when the Phoenician city of Tyre fell to Alexander the Great. §REF§ (Briant 2010, 9) Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by Amélie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM</a>. §REF§ The Phoenicians were skilled traders and seafarers. §REF§ (Kaufman 2014, 3-4) Kaufman, Bret. 2014. “Empire without a Voice: Phoenician Iron Metallurgy and Imperial Strategy at Carthage.” PhD Dissertation, Los Angeles, CA: UCLA. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The ruler of a Phoenician city was somewhere between human and divine. He was not a god, but was the highest priest with a privileged relationship to the city's patron deity. §REF§ (Bonnet 2004, 102) Bonnet, Corinne. 2004. I Fenici. Rome: Carocci. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR</a>. §REF§ However, his power was not unlimited: merchant families also wielded considerable influence in public affairs and, at least in Byblos, Sidon, and possibly Tyre, the king was assisted by a council of elders. In Tyre, between 605 and 561 BCE, the monarchy was replaced with a republic, in which the government was led by a series of judges known as <i>suffetes</i>, who ruled for only short terms. §REF§ (Etheredge 2011, 122) Etheredge, Laura. 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK</a>. §REF§ <br>Reliable population figures for the Phoenician cities are lacking.", "shapefile_name": null, "unreliable_instability_events": false, "is_empty_on_polaris_release": false, "home_nga": { "id": 10, "name": "Galilee", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "35.303500000000", "latitude": "32.699600000000", "capital_city": "Nazareth", "nga_code": "IL", "fao_country": "Israel", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": 11 } } ] }