Stone Walls Mortared List
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City wall restoration after 708 CE §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004)§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html</a>)§REF§ The 392 BCE conquest Veii gave the Romans access to a quality building stone, the Grotta Oscura tufa. In 374 BCE a stone wall constructed around Rome used this stone.§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§ opus caementicium - Roman concrete. Servian wall constructed from 378 BCE. §REF§(Fields 2011)§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html</a>)§REF§ 392 BCE conquest Veii gave access to quality stone, Grotta Oscura tufa. 374 BCE stone wall constructed around Rome, using this stone. §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html</a>)§REF§ The 392 BCE conquest Veii gave the Romans access to a quality building stone, the Grotta Oscura tufa. In 374 BCE a stone wall constructed around Rome used this stone.§REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§ opus caementicium - Roman concrete." }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.romeartlover.it/Costroma.html</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " opus caementicium - Roman concrete. Stone walls have been dated to the 8th Century. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 72)§REF§Archaeologist Patrizia Fortini dated an earlier wall from nearby ceramic remains \"between 9th century and the beginning of the 8th century.\" §REF§(Hooper, J. Sunday 13 April 2014 17.38 BST. \"Archaeologists' findings may prove Rome a century older than thought\" The Guardian. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/13/archaelogists-find-rome-century-older-than-thought\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/13/archaelogists-find-rome-century-older-than-thought</a>)§REF§ There was no complete fortification of Rome in the 6th Century. Parts had walls. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 200)§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Maintenance of Rome's walls became a Papal responsibility by end of seventh century. §REF§(Partner 1972, 9)§REF§. City wall restoration after 708 CE §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=spKxJeHJgTAC&pg=PA852&dq=organization+papal+states+ninth&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HqXnUaPfOIWV0AWVsYCoBQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=organization%20papal%20states%20ninth&f=false\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Important towns \"normally defended by strong walls and canons\".§REF§(Arbel 2014, 205) Benjamin Arbel. Venice's Maritime Empire in the Early Modern Period. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Important towns \"normally defended by strong walls and canons\".§REF§(Arbel 2014, 205) Benjamin Arbel. Venice's Maritime Empire in the Early Modern Period. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"These yamashiro (mountain castles) were hilltop fortresses consisting only of wooden stockades, gates and towers, joined to one another across valleys and peaks to form a complex defensive arrangement. With no stone or mudbrick walls to batter down, these castles were almost always overcome by infantry assault, often supported by arson attacks launched by fire arrows.\"§REF§(Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ 'Interestingly enough, after the fiasco of 663, when the Japanese in trying to aid Paekche were disastrously routed in a naval battle off the west coast of Korea, they rushed home to start building defenses against an expected invasion from Silla. About eighteen hilltops were fortified with stone walls in north Kyushu'.§REF§Kidder Jr., J. Edward, 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Kingdom of Yamatai (Honolulu: Hawaii University Press). p. 126§REF§ <i>Were the stone walls mortared or unmortared?</i>" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Momoyama Period: \"The stone walls so characteristic of the Japanese castle were built on a foundation of earth covered with small stones over which were placed the larger surface stones. Except at the corners, which were fashioned of stone slabs arranged much like the corner of a brick wall, the stones were of no uniform size or pattern. Generally, however, they were wedge-shaped and were placed with the smaller end of the wedge at the surface and the larger on the inside. This arrangement held them locked in position by their own weight and made them resistant to earthquakes. It also necessitated giving the wall a curve, and records show that this was geometrically determined. The basic earthen wall was known as a doi and the finished wall of stone as an ishigaki. Since no mortar was used to hold the stones in place, free drainage of water was permitted. Nevertheless, openings for drainage were used, although they were kept small so as not to be of advantage to the enemy.\"§REF§(Kirby 1962) John Kirby. 1962. From Castle to Teahouse: Japanese Architecture of the Momoyama Period. Tuttle Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " 'Up to the beginning of the feudal era, three forms of fortifications were built, according to archaeologists. The grid-pattern city form was inspired by Chinese planning precedents, and included gates or walled enclosures. Mountain fortresses appear to be an indigenous form, and were typical of remote areas. Plateaus or plains often utilized the palisade, a semi-permanent defense. Typical defenses included a rampart, a ditch, and a palisade. Grid-pattern cities were surrounded by walls that served as a demarcation point rather than as true protection, and eventually such barriers disappeared.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.173.§REF§ \"These yamashiro (mountain castles) were hilltop fortresses consisting only of wooden stockades, gates and towers, joined to one another across valleys and peaks to form a complex defensive arrangement. With no stone or mudbrick walls to batter down, these castles were almost always overcome by infantry assault, often supported by arson attacks launched by fire arrows.\"§REF§(Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ Some stone walls were built during the Asuka period in the 7th century: \"eighteen hilltops were fortified with stone walls in north Kyushu'.§REF§Kidder Jr., J. Edward, 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Kingdom of Yamatai (Honolulu: Hawaii University Press). p. 126§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No archaeological evidence for this. Moreover, the scholarly consensus is that the Jomon were relatively peaceful." }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 1274 CE. hardly any use seems to have been made of stone at Kamakura, even though fortifications built of stone had recently made a brief reappearance on the Japanese scene as a result of the attempt by Kublai Khan, the Yuan (Mongol) Emperor of China, to invade Japan in 1274' §REF§Turnbull, Stephen. 2008. Japanese Castles AD 250--1540. Vol. 74. Osprey Publishing. P.19.§REF§ \"With no stone or mudbrick walls to batter down, these castles were almost always overcome by infantry assault, often supported by arson attacks launched by fire arrows.\"§REF§(Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Tomb-era villages were quite different from their Yayoi predecessors. ... Villages might range from ten to sixty or more pit dwellings, along with several storehouses, and residences might be grouped in units of two or three, suggesting that they contained extended families. In larger settlements, archaeologists have uncovered the remains of sizable wooden structures, sometimes surrounded by a moat or stone walls.\"§REF§(Farris 2009, 17) William Wayne Farris. 2009. Japan To 1600: A Social and Economic History. University of Hawai'i Press. Honolulu.§REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"These yamashiro (mountain castles) were hilltop fortresses consisting only of wooden stockades, gates and towers, joined to one another across valleys and peaks to form a complex defensive arrangement. With no stone or mudbrick walls to batter down, these castles were almost always overcome by infantry assault, often supported by arson attacks launched by fire arrows.\"§REF§(Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ \"Up to the beginning of the feudal era, three forms of fortifications were built, according to archaeologists. The grid-pattern city form was inspired by Chinese planning precedents, and included gates or walled enclosures.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.173.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Eventually, stone bases began to be used, encasing the hilltop in a layer of fine pebbles, and then a layer of larger rocks over that, with no mortar. §REF§Stephen Turnbull. 2003. Japanese Castles 1540-1640. Osprey Publishing. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'since no mortar was used to hold the stones in place, free drainage of water was permitted.’ §REF§Kirby, John. 1962. From Castle to Teahouse: Japanese Architecture of the Momoyama Period. Tuttle Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Walls of Central Asian cities generally constructed with \"sun-dried bricks faced with fired bricks\".§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§ Inferred from Eastern Turk Khaganate of the same time" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.' On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'We do not know how much of the walled area of Yasodharapura was settled nor the size of its population.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 18)§REF§ 'The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.' On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.' On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'The wall [of Angkor Thom] is entirely made of superimposed blocks of stone; it is about two [sic] fathoms high. The bonding of the stones is very compact and solid, and no weeds are found there. There is no crenellation.' On the ramparts, in certain places gangling [kuang-lang, kouang-lang] trees have been planted. At regular distances are found empty casemates. The inner side of the wall is like a ramp wider than ten fathoms. On top of each ramp are huge doors, closed at night, and open in the morning. There are also guards at the gates.'§REF§(Zhou and Smithies 2001, p. 19)§REF§§REF§(Dumarcay 2003, 25)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Walls found at Oc Eco are brick i.e. mud wall so counts as a rampart rather than a stone wall." }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " A brick wall is not a stone wall." }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 35, "name": "kh_cambodia_ba", "long_name": "Bronze Age Cambodia", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The term “Memotian” culture is now used to refer to 40 circular ramparted and moated sites (banteay kou in Khmer) in a hilly area of east Cambodia and a corner of southwest Vietnam measuring 85 kilometers east-west and 35 kilometers north-south, occupied between the early third millennium to early first millennium bce; about 15 have been intensively studied. The oldest sites seem to cluster in the west of this area, from whence they spread gradually east. Their components include an outer rampart, interior depression or “moat”, and a gap in the rampart, probably an entrance/exit.\"§REF§(Miksic and Goh 2016: 113) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 36, "name": "kh_cambodia_ia", "long_name": "Iron Age Cambodia", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 224 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The term “Memotian” culture is now used to refer to 40 circular ramparted and moated sites (banteay kou in Khmer) in a hilly area of east Cambodia and a corner of southwest Vietnam measuring 85 kilometers east-west and 35 kilometers north-south, occupied between the early third millennium to early first millennium bce; about 15 have been intensively studied. The oldest sites seem to cluster in the west of this area, from whence they spread gradually east. Their components include an outer rampart, interior depression or “moat”, and a gap in the rampart, probably an entrance/exit.\"§REF§(Miksic and Goh 2016: 113) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2EZ3CBBS</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Andronovo: \"Larger fortified settlements were built in the steppe, protected by walls and ditches.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 16) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer. Cham.§REF§ \"The Andronovans employed as building materials birch, pine and cedar (Siberian pine), rarely other species.\"§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 42) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Stone was used where there were no trees.§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 38) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ The Liventsovka fortress near Rostov on Don \"is a semicircular promontory fort, 20-24m high, enclosed by a double semi-circle of massive stone walls and surrounded by ditches, 2-6m wide and 2-3m deep.\"§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 33) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Note: The Liventsova fortress is not Andronovan.</i>" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Massive Canaanite-style fortifications persisted from the Bronze Age, and in many cases were improved upon. For example, \"[The Late Bronze Age fortification at Beirut] was replaced before the Early Iron Age by a massive new stone fortification wall with a large glacis of steeper angle (33 degrees) compared to the curved perimeter of the settlement mound.\"§REF§Markoe (2000:81).§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Closest relevant data: the capital of the Hausa kingdom of Kebbi, Surame, had \"substantial\" stone walls.§REF§(Smith 1989, 101) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " hypothesised non-defensive functional wall was built with mud §REF§(Reader 1998, 229-230)§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " hypothesised non-defensive functional wall was built with mud §REF§(Reader 1998, 229-230)§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " mud-walled towns §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 62)§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Closest relevant data: the capital of the Hausa kingdom of Kebbi, Surame, had \"substantial\" stone walls.§REF§(Smith 1989, 101) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Khar Bukhyn Balgas in Mongolia: \"Built in stone by the Khitan, it was surrounded by ramparts and a moat.\"§REF§(Baumer 2016) Christoph Baumer. 2016. The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. I.B. Tauris.§REF§ Internet search of photographs - wals looked dry-stone in construction. Lots of tiny stones between bigger stones/rocks." } ] }