Stone Walls Mortared List
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{ "count": 372, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-mortared/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-mortared/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 12 km walls around Ninevah.§REF§(Modelski 2003, 179)§REF§ Chaldea and Assyria: \"What we find in the remarkable encrusted earth ramparts of Chaldea ... Stone was not used at all, but the clay brick walls were given a dressing of stucco or fired brick.\" \"Like the Assyrian walls on which they are modeled, Persian walls were built of air-dried brick\".§REF§(Semper 2004, 754-755) Gottfried Semper. 2004. Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts; Or, Practical Aesthetics. Getty Publications. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Present in previous and subsequent polities." }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 472, "name": "iq_so_mesopotamia_nl", "long_name": "Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic", "start_year": -9000, "end_year": -5501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"As with the rest of the Near East, there is little evidence for warfare in Neolithic Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Hamblin 2006: 33) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4WM3RBTD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4WM3RBTD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The remains of any fortifications have not been yet discovered. §REF§Stein 1994, 39§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2md millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at this time because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2md millennium BCE text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Citadel on the ridge above Urfa had stone walls: \"The Mamelukes tended to use smaller stones, while the Ak Koyunlu Uzun Hasan in his rebuilding campaign of 1462-63 imitated the original masonry.\"§REF§Francis Russell. 2017. 123 Places In Turkey. A Private Grand Tour. Wilmington Square Books. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There was a city wall at Medina, built to protect against Qarmatis. There was also a walled citadel in Shīrāz. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.281§REF§" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ghazan built a new wall around Tabriz.§REF§(Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) Houtsma, M Th. Wensinck, A J. Gibb, H A R. Heffening, W. Levi-Provencal, E. 1993. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden.§REF§ The summer palace built by Hülegü’s son Abaqa near Lake Urmia had \"massive oval walls protected by towers and accessed by a new gate\". §REF§Sheila S. Blair, 'IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Al Untash-Napirisha, a new city, was built with walls enclosing 100 hectares.§REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ <i>Were these walls of mud or stone?</i> Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Al Untash-Napirisha, a new city, was built with walls enclosing 100 hectares.§REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ <i>Were these walls of mud or stone?</i> Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Al Untash-Napirisha, a new city, was built with walls enclosing 100 hectares.§REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37§REF§ <i>Were these walls of mud or stone?</i> Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 503, "name": "ir_neo_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam I", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§ \"Like the Assyrian walls on which they are modeled, Persian walls were built of air-dried brick\".§REF§(Semper 2004, 754-755) Gottfried Semper. 2004. Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts; Or, Practical Aesthetics. Getty Publications. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 505, "name": "ir_neo_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam III", "start_year": -612, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Elam in the Iron Age: stone wall technology used for burial chambers.§REF§Javier Alvarez-Mon, ‘Elam in the Iron Age’, In Daniel T. Potts (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran, 2013, p. 468§REF§ Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ During the Shutrukid Period new construction activity replaced mudbrick with glazed and baked brick (but no specific mention is made of defensive structures).§REF§(Bryce 2009, 676). Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§ \"Like the Assyrian walls on which they are modeled, Persian walls were built of air-dried brick\".§REF§(Semper 2004, 754-755) Gottfried Semper. 2004. Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts; Or, Practical Aesthetics. Getty Publications. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " City walls of Dura-Europos 1st century AD. §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. 3, p.718.§REF§ Walled cities mentioned in Chinese records.§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ Parthian walls at Hatra.§REF§(Rawlinson 2014, 213) Rawlinson, George. 2014. The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, Or: Parthia; Sassanian, or New Persian empire; Notes and index. Gorgias Press LLC.§REF§ \"Other than a few cities in Mesopotamia, Parthian cities seem not to have been surrounded by walls, although some defensive preparations, such as the aforementioned fortresses and moats, have been identified in some sites.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " City walls of Dura-Europos 1st century AD. §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. 3, p.718.§REF§ Walled cities mentioned in Chinese records.§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ Parthian walls at Hatra.§REF§(Rawlinson 2014, 213) Rawlinson, George. 2014. The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, Or: Parthia; Sassanian, or New Persian empire; Notes and index. Gorgias Press LLC.§REF§ \"Other than a few cities in Mesopotamia, Parthian cities seem not to have been surrounded by walls, although some defensive preparations, such as the aforementioned fortresses and moats, have been identified in some sites.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 485, "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic", "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period", "start_year": -7800, "end_year": -7200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"With Tehran established as the capital in 1786, the urban fabric was further developed by the expansion of the bazaar ..., palaces, and military fortifications.” §REF§(Gharipour 2012, 133) Mohammad Gharipour. Architecture. Andrea L Stanton. ed. 2012. Sage. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Los Angeles.§REF§ Tehran: \"In addition to the construction of palaces which served both as royal residences and administrative centres, bazaars and thoroughfares all within a ring of defensive walls, it was also necessary to cater for religious needs and to demonstrate, publicly, piety and charity through sponsorship of mosques and madrasas, and repairs and additions to important Shi'i sanctuaries.\"§REF§(Scarce 2005, 432) Jennifer Scarce. Some interpretations of religious and popular culture in Qajar tilework. Robert Gleave. ed. 2005. Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. RoutledgeCurzon. London.§REF§ In the early 19th century Tehran was surrounded by a wall and ditch.§REF§(Bosworth ed. 2007, 508) ???. Tehran. C Edmund Bosworth. ed. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Safavid cities' fortifications were not that impressive. Isfahan was surrounded by a wall with eight gates. ... The Safavids, after making Isfahan their capital, did not rebuild the wall. ... Since Isfahan faced no threat, there was no point in constructing time-consuming and costly fortifications.\" §REF§(Roy 2014, 105) Roy, Kaushik. 2014. Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships. A&C Black.§REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Nikitin 1996, 63) Nikitin, A. V. Customs, Arts and Crafts. in Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.59-80. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Sassanid city planning incorporated walls.§REF§(Chegini 1996, 46) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ unknown whether walls were mortared" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Walls of Darband, 20 meters high (Khosrau I).§REF§(Nikitin 1996, 63) Nikitin, A. V. Customs, Arts and Crafts. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.59-80. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§ Most Sasanian cities were fortified.§REF§(Nikitin 1996, 61) Nikitin, A. V. Customs, Arts and Crafts. in in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.59-80. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Doura-Europos, built on the middle-Euphrates by Seleucus I, was surrounded by a wall enclosing an area of roughly 45 hectares. §REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p92§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Present for the walls at Isfahan. At Merv there was a mud-brick wall.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 241) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ City walls built under Indatu 11, son of Tanruhurater: “Nada podemos colegir de la situación en Elam. El rey debía ser Indatu 11,hijo de Tanruhurater, el cual conmemora en sus inscripciones, redactadas en sumerio y acadio, fundaciones piadosas y la construcción de la muralla de la acrópolis de SusaL6.\"§REF§(Quintana 2007, 39)§REF§ <i>Are these walls of brick or stone - mortared or non-mortared?</i>" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 498, "name": "ir_elam_4", "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text (perhaps for the region of Mesopotamia rather than Elamite Susiana): \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§ <i>Mortar existed at the time of Sumer because they also built with brick which would have required mortar.</i> Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE Sumerian text: \"Now Aratta's battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows.\"§REF§Lugalbanda and the Anzud bird: c.1.8.2.2. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Technology not yet available" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " [The walls were non-mortared.]" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " During earlier period at Tufariello in Southern Basilicata, none so far in Latium itself §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 16§REF§." }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " At Tufariello in Southern Basilicata, none so far in Latium itself §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 16§REF§." }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " According to the Bishop of Ravenna, Theodoric built walls around Verona and Pavia. §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ On Rome, from the Anonymous Valesianus text: \"for the restoration of the Palace and the rebuilding of the walls of the city he ordered two hundred pounds to be given each year from the chest that contained the tax on wine.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 90)§REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Many of these would have been Roman-era survivals, however. The most notable example is Aurelian's Wall at Rome, which remained the main wall circuit for Rome up to 1870. (These walls may have required some maintenance?)." }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " I should emphasize, however, that stone walls of all sorts had largely given way by this period to earthworks and integrated, artillery-resistant fortifications (such as the <i>fortezze stelle</i>, the famous Italian star-forts." } ] }