Stone Walls Mortared List
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{ "count": 372, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-mortared/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/wf/stone-walls-mortared/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not clear whether this information applies to pre-contact polities. \"The Hawaiians generally did not build fortifications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu'uhonua.\" Pg 4. §REF§Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§. Nevertheless, there does appear to evidence for some stone walls, but I'm not sure if they are used in warfare. The “Great Wall” at Hōnaunau, built around 1600 CE, was over 300m long, 3m high and 5m wide§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pp. 162-4§REF§§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 164.§REF§. Lapakahi also had a “Great Wall”, which was built between about 1450 and 1500 CE§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 178.§REF§." }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not clear whether this information applies to pre-contact polities. \"The Hawaiians generally did not build fortifications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu'uhonua.\" Pg 4. §REF§Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§. Nevertheless, there does appear to evidence for some stone walls, but I'm not sure if they are used in warfare. The “Great Wall” at Hōnaunau, built around 1600 CE, was over 300m long, 3m high and 5m wide§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pp. 162-4§REF§§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 164.§REF§. Lapakahi also had a “Great Wall”, which was built between about 1450 and 1500 CE§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 178.§REF§." }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Hawaiians generally did not build fortifications, but non-combatants could find sacred sanctuary in places of refuge known as pu'uhonua.\" Pg 4. §REF§Hommon, Robert, J. 2013. The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§. Nevertheless, there does appear to evidence for some stone walls, but I'm not sure if they are used in warfare. The “Great Wall” at Hōnaunau, built around 1600 CE, was over 300m long, 3m high and 5m wide§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pp. 162-4§REF§§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 164.§REF§. Lapakahi also had a “Great Wall”, which was built between about 1450 and 1500 CE§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 178.§REF§." }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No references in the literature. RA." }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 46, "name": "id_buni", "long_name": "Java - Buni Culture", "start_year": -400, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'fortress' and 'siege'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "id_kalingga_k", "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'fortress' and 'siege'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " In Medang period Ratu Boko had stone walls as defensive structure.§REF§(Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)§REF§ Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'fortress' and 'siege'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. §REF§(Miksic 2000, 115)§REF§ <i>This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification.</i> Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'fortress' and 'siege'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Introduced by the Dutch. <i>What is the reference for this?</i> Sultan Agung built a new capital at Plered which had \"much greater walls\" than the previous one.§REF§(Santosa 2007, 10) Revianto Budi Santosa. 2007. Kotagede: Life Between Walls. Penerbit PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta.§REF§ <i>The material the wall was made out of is not mentioned.</i>" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'fortress' and 'siege'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Aside from the above, chipped stone was often used as filler material in mudbrick walls and earthen ramparts, or as a protective patina." }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Smaller fortifications were often mortared." }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Smaller residential buildings were often mortared with clay, but whether this technique was used for fortifications is unknown." }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 416, "name": "in_ayodhya_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Ayodhya", "start_year": -64, "end_year": 34 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"According to A. N. Bose (1961, 205-6), Saketa and Ayodhya, both celebrated in the Buddhist sources and the Ramayana, were the same city. The excavations conducted at the site in 1975-77 showed a burnt-brick fortification wall with a ditch outside dating possibly from c. BC 200 (IAR, 1975-76, 1976-77).\"§REF§(Allchin et al. 1995, 298) F R Allchin. George Erdosy. R A E Coningham. D K Chakrabarti. Bridget Allchin. The Mauryan Empire and its aftermath. F. R. Allchin. ed. 1995. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ <i>Was stone used for fortifications, or was it all brick?</i>" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Satavahana period towns were protected by \"high walls\" §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 27§REF§ but the construction materials and methods are not mentioned. \"The temple is enclosed by a stone wall and has evidently been used as a fort. On the outside of the east wall of the temple is a stone inscription of the Early Chalukya dynasty...\"§REF§(1884, 546) 1884. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Bijápur. Government Central Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Kolanupaka \"served as an alternative administrative and military capital for the Kalyani Chalukyas (Western Chaluyaks) in the 11th Century CE.\"§REF§V Hari Saravanan. 2014. Gods, Heroes and their Story Tellers: Intangible cultural heritage of South India. Notion Press. Triplicane.§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Lower Deccan (Krishna-Tungabhadra River Valleys; Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab) 1100-100 BCE: \"Preferred settlement location are on high hilltops or on the slopes of outcrops, with some evidence for walls and other defensive features.\"§REF§(? 2002, 365)? South Indian Iron Age. Peter N Peregrine. Melvin Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Lower Deccan (Krishna-Tungabhadra River Valleys; Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab) 1100-100 BCE: \"Preferred settlement location are on high hilltops or on the slopes of outcrops, with some evidence for walls and other defensive features.\"§REF§(? 2002, 365)? South Indian Iron Age. Peter N Peregrine. Melvin Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.§REF§ <i>Walls existed but not known what materials were used or whether the walls were mortared or un-mortared.</i>" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": -2700, "year_to": -1701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": -1700, "year_to": -1200, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. Fortifications Firuz Shah §REF§Stein, Burton, A History of India (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), p.148.§REF§ Example of wall with mortar in photograph. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://archnet.org/sites/3982/media_contents/2968\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://archnet.org/sites/3982/media_contents/2968</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "in_ganga_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 405, "name": "in_gahadavala_dyn", "long_name": "Gahadavala Dynasty", "start_year": 1085, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Deloche notes that between the third and fourteenth centuries, the Hindu rulers constructed complex gateways, towers and thicker walls with earthen embankments in order to make their durgas (forts) impregnable.\"§REF§(Roy 2011, 123) Kaushik Roy. Historiographical Survey of the Writings on Indian Military History. Sabyasachi Bhattacharya. ed. 2011. Approaches to History: Essays in Indian Historiography. Primus Books. Delhi.§REF§ <i>Deloche's studies on Indian fortifications are in French.</i>" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cannot find any data other than passing references to city walls and that the later Guptas didn't build enough fortifications. The Guptas held a vast territory (where resources available differed greatly from one place to the next) so one could infer this included cities which already had stone walls, earth ramparts, moats and ditches, and palisades." }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Reference for Kanauj in the 7th century CE: The city of Kanauj under Harsha was \"a magnificent, well-fortified city\".§REF§(Sen 1999, 259) Sailendra Nath Sen. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. Second Edition. New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers. New Delhi.§REF§ <i>Were there any stone walls?</i>" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Forts were built. §REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 95§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The Banavasi fort was surrounded by a stone wall. It is not indicated whether or not it was mortared §REF§S.K. Joshi, Defense Architecture of the Kadambas, in B.R. Gopal and N.S. Tharanatha, Kadambas: Their History and Culture (1996), p. 74§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Kingdom of Kampili on the Raichur Doab between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers was protected by the strong forts of Kunmata and Anegondi. The Muslim armies repeatedly attacked Kampili and captured Kunmata on their third attempt.\"§REF§(Sadasivan 2011, 191) Sadasiva, Balaju. 2011. The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.§REF§ <i>-- how were the effective fortifications at Kunamata and Anegondi built?</i>" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanauj in the mid-7th century CE and reported a moat and tower fortifications.§REF§1917. The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay. Volume 10. Antropological Society of Bombay.§REF§ <i>It is logical to presume the moat was located outside of a circumvallating wall or rampart and that the tower was made from stone or brick.</i>" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 390, "name": "in_magadha_k", "long_name": "Magadha", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Reference for Kanauj in the 7th century CE: The city of Kanauj under Harsha was \"a magnificent, well-fortified city\".§REF§(Sen 1999, 259) Sailendra Nath Sen. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. Second Edition. New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers. New Delhi.§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Ancient Rajagriha, the first capital of Magadha, dates from the early phase of the NBP or at least the sixth century BCE ... There is a core of pre-NBP BRW occupation inside the hill girt area of Rajgir, which is also defended by a cyclopaean masonry wall at least at the major entrances to the valley.\"§REF§(Chakrabarti 2006, 14) Dilip K Chakrabarti. Relating History to the Land: Urban Centers, Geographical Unites, and Trade Routes in the Gangetic and Central India of circa 200 BCE.\" Patrick Olivelle. ed. Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ <i>Have no idea whether this wall was dry stone or mortared.</i> Moats around defensive walls are known in the Ganga valley in India from about 500 BCE, or perhaps earlier.§REF§(? 1990, 298) Amalananda Ghosh ed. 1990. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. Volume I. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g around the village of Rajagriha. §REF§Schlingloff, Dieter. Fortified Cities of Ancient India: A Comparative Study. Anthem Press, 2013. p. 39§REF§ §REF§Allchin, F. Raymond. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995., p.225.§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Typical fortification of town or city e.g. Delhi. §REF§William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The first part Manya would be written Manne in Kanarese and could be Mannai in Tamil. This is described as of unapproachable strength and that is the strength of the fortress that was built by the Rashtrakutas and in building the walls of which the Eastern Chalukyas were compelled to assist after defeat.\"§REF§(? 1922, 321) ? . 1922. Journal of Indian History. Volume 2. University of Kerala.§REF§ <i>\"Amoghavarsha developed the city of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district) and its fortifications and made it the famous capital.\"§REF§(Hosamani 2019, 18) Ratnakar D Hosamani. 2019. A Study of Historical Monuments in Bidar District (1st Century-17th Century CE). Laxmi Book Publication. Solapur.§REF§</i>" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Towns were protected by \"high walls\".§REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 27§REF§ Satavahana cities \"were surrounded by high walls, ramparts and gates constructed with brick and mortar.\"§REF§(Roy 2013, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2013 Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. Routledge. London.§REF§ <i>Were walls also made out of stone?</i>" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the preceding Mauryans: Kautilya's Arthashastra recommended walls made of stone. Depended on resources available at location. Some are known at Rajgir (period not stated).§REF§(Allchin 1995, 223) F R Allchin. 1995. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Bilav - Kuji Nala, district Nagpur. Remains of fortification wall.§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.§REF§ During the Satavahana period towns were protected by \"high walls\" §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 27§REF§ but the construction materials and methods are not mentioned." }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Stone walls were \"permitted only in the case of places on the frontier\" and the \"most important forts in the interior\".§REF§(Ramayanna 1986, p. 120)§REF§ \"The one variety of monument which most significantly demonstrates the hierarchical arrangement of settlements under Vijayanagara's control is its walls. ... masonry was employed in the construction of walls at Vijayanagara. Mortar appears not to have been used, but other stone walls elsewhere on the site show evidence of once having been covered by a layer of plaster. Granite was cut into large rectangular blocks and was held in place by smaller pieces of cut stone. Although arches are found at the top of the structure, the actual gateway is held up by corbels which support a horizontal stone slab. This gateway represents a mere fragment of the once extensive network of stone walls which surrounded Vijayanagara duing the sixteenth century ...\"§REF§(Howes 2003, 44-45) Jennifer Howes. 2003. The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship. RoutledgeCurzon. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " As used around Baghdad. §REF§Kennedy, the Armies of the Caliphs pp. 185-192§REF§ The technology to create fortifications was present, but in the case of large cities not implemented as the Caliphs preferred battles over sieges, and because of concerns that citizens would use them for protection during revolts. The Arabic word for castle or fortress was Hisn, with the Qasr more often used for a fortress. The use of fortifications depended on local tradition. In Syria, pre-existing walls were maintained. In other areas of conquest or after rebellions fortifications were torn down. Baghdad stands out as an exception in terms of a fortified urban centre. Baghdad was surrounded by large walls, and fortified gates were secured with two sets of iron covered doors and large numbers of guards. §REF§Kennedy, the Armies of the Caliphs pp. 185-192§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Around Baghdad but by 1258 CE had suffered decades of neglect.§REF§(DeVries 2014, 207) Devries, Kelly in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No evidence to code." }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Late 3rd - early 2nd millennium BCE text: \"Its walls were built from stone.\"§REF§The death of Gilgameš: c.1.8.1.3. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL). etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Stone_walls_mortared", "stone_walls_mortared": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Partly stone walls were discovered at Tall Taja.§REF§Roux 1998, 113§REF§ <i>Were these defensive stone walls or the walls of a building? More detail needed.</i>" } ] }