Professional Soldier List
A viewset for viewing and editing Professional Soldiers.
GET /api/sc/professional-soldiers/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 500, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-soldiers/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-soldiers/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were full-time elite warriors§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 71.§REF§. Kalani’ōpu’u of the Big Island had a large standing army§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai’i. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 75.§REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists Even during the colonial period, wage labour was mostly temporary and practiced during the seasonal labour migrations of Iban men: 'In the present day, these bejalai migrations have involved young Iban males (aged 15 to 34 in general) in the petroleum and natural gas industries of Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah and New Guinea, in the military forces of Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah and Malaya, and in timber industries throughout the archipelago. Iban working in the construction industries have been of great importance in the national development efforts of Brunei. All of these activities have permitted the Iban to continue ladang cultivation at their homes, while supplementing family income through outside employment.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederic 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 18§REF§ According to some sources, the White Rajahs employed Iban in their armed forces: 'Sir Charles Anthony Johnson Brooke (b. June 3, 1829, Berrow, Somerset, Eng.-d. May 17, 1917, Cirencester, Gloucestershire), who adopted the surname Brooke, became the second raja. The government of Charles Brooke has been described as a benevolent autocracy. Charles himself had spent much of his life among the Iban people of Sarawak, knew their language, and respected their beliefs and customs. He made extensive use of down-river Malay chiefs as administrators, and encouraged selective immigration of Chinese agriculturalists, while the dominant indigenous group, the Ibans, were employed in military service. In general, social and economic changes were limited in impact, shielding the inhabitants from both the benefits and the hardships of Western-style development.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ But there was no armed corps prior to Brooke Raj rule. Even then, military service was probably of a non-permanent nature and functioned within the Iban system of seasonal labour migration. When head-taking and piracy were practiced, war parties were staffed with male community members: 'The taking of enemy heads then, was the prescriptive act for Iban males an act through which an individual could win for himself prestige and status within the longhouse community, while at the same time enhancing his desirability as a potential suitor and husband in the eyes of the opposite sex. But, as we have indicated, headhunting also had a ritual dimension which was of the utmost significance. It is the latter aspect which chiefly concerns us here, being to do with Iban conceptions of male and female gender roles and relations of production and reproduction within Iban society.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 157§REF§ War parties were led by local war-leaders or village headmen: 'According to Sea Dayak custom, this feast, the fifth of the nine stages of the gawai burong , should be held only by an experienced war-leader. Linggir was undoubtedly a very brave man, but he was young, and certainly far less experienced than Uyut, his father. Linggir had already made a statue of the hornbill in preparation for his festival when the older people of the house warned him that it would be presumptuous for him to hold the feast while Uyut still lived. They said that such a rash action might anger Sengalang Burong.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ 'Before the gawai diri may be held, the patron of the feast must lead his warriors against some enemy. So Uyut and his men set off to raid the Kantu Dayaks of Merakai, in what is now Indonesian Borneo, in order to get some fresh heads. But before they came back, all the food which had been gathered for the feast, including tuak wine and many different delicacies, began to go bad. So a brother-in-law of Uyut named Malang (Pengarah) decided to go ahead and hold the feast anyway, without the war-leader and his men. No sooner was it over than Uyut and his party returned from a victorious expedition. They were naturally outraged. Uyut and the others expelled Pengarah from the Anyut, and he retreated down river to live in the Serudit stream.' §REF§Sandin, Benedict 1967. “Sea Dayaks Of Borneo: Before White Rajah Rule”, 39§REF§ Head-hunting persisted well into the 20th century: 'The persistence of headhunting as a living tradition, up until at least the Second World War, and even beyond (albeit in a drastically curtailed form), has meant that many of the details connected with the taking of heads are well documented. Moreover, the ritual significance of headhunting, and its attendant ceremonies, continue to play an important role in contemporary Iban society. We have already spoken of headhunting festivals ( gawai amat ) held as celebrations of male prestige and achievement, but the traditional role of the Iban warrior continues to survive elsewhere in Iban culture, most notably in connection with mortuary rites. A visit to a Saribas Iban festival for the dead ( Gawai Antu ), for instance, reveals a more than sufficient number of candidates to drink the sacred wine ( ai' garong ) dedicated to those who have passed away. Previously, only those who had distinguished themselves as headhunters could partake in this sacred symposium with the dead; today the taking of a life - usually when on active service in the Sarawak Field Force - suffices. In this instance, and others of a similar nature, the warrior tradition of Iban society is maintained, and the ritual significance of headhunting preserved, as a major component in the Iban value system.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 169§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists During the colonial period, wage labour was mostly temporary and practiced during the seasonal labour migrations of Iban men: 'In the present day, these bejalai migrations have involved young Iban males (aged 15 to 34 in general) in the petroleum and natural gas industries of Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah and New Guinea, in the military forces of Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah and Malaya, and in timber industries throughout the archipelago. Iban working in the construction industries have been of great importance in the national development efforts of Brunei. All of these activities have permitted the Iban to continue ladang cultivation at their homes, while supplementing family income through outside employment.' §REF§Austin, Robert Frederic 1978. “Iban Migration: Patterns Of Mobility And Employment In The 20Th Century”, 18§REF§ According to some sources, the White Rajahs employed Iban in their armed forces: 'Sir Charles Anthony Johnson Brooke (b. June 3, 1829, Berrow, Somerset, Eng.-d. May 17, 1917, Cirencester, Gloucestershire), who adopted the surname Brooke, became the second raja. The government of Charles Brooke has been described as a benevolent autocracy. Charles himself had spent much of his life among the Iban people of Sarawak, knew their language, and respected their beliefs and customs. He made extensive use of down-river Malay chiefs as administrators, and encouraged selective immigration of Chinese agriculturalists, while the dominant indigenous group, the Ibans, were employed in military service. In general, social and economic changes were limited in impact, shielding the inhabitants from both the benefits and the hardships of Western-style development.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ There was no armed corps organized for the Iban specifically, and according to the information provided above, most Iban fighters were not compensated on a regular basis. Military service was therefore probably of a non-permanent nature and functioned within the Iban system of seasonal labour migration. Some Iban may have joined the civil and military administration early on, but expert feedback is needed on the matter." }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Military organisations protected outlying regions.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Commanders, sub-commanders and noble cavalry §REF§(Gaukroger and Scott 2009, 134)§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Standing army fell at different points in the range between free and paid service. Indigenous guardsmen in Mataram did not represent a true stipendiary force, for they received income from land allotments and sustenance from the food grown on these lands, but were not paid directly by the court. Reliance on land allotments meant that the standing army was just as affected by drought and famine as the general population. §REF§(Charney 2004, 231)§REF§ Only a minority of soldiers were professional. §REF§(Schrieke 1957, 127)§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists. We can infer the presence of a well-organized military. There is evidence for armour§REF§(Draeger 1972, 23)§REF§ and noble cavalry§REF§(Gaukroger and Scott 2009, 134)§REF§ which suggest specialization, and a military campaign was launched against Srivijaya.§REF§(Muljana 2006, 246)§REF§ Elephants were used in warfare§REF§(Gaukroger and Scott 2009, 134)§REF§ and their riders were called maliman.§REF§Hall 2000, 65)§REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Distinguishing elite from part-time warriors by different military gear is not an absolute matter. It must be judged separately for each culture and based on the relative distribution and amounts of various types of weaponry. For the MBII period, we have good evidence for elite warriors in the shape of rare ‘gadgets’ like belts, <i>equid</i> burials, etc.\"§REF§Klettner/Levi (2016:10).§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “Both biblical and non-biblical sources confirm that standing armies were in place in Israel and Judah by the Assyrian period in the 9th century.”§REF§Kelle (2007:42-43).§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that there was a standing army §REF§K. Reddy, Indian History (2006), p. A404§REF§." }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " unknown" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1206, "year_to": 1295, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. jandars (king bodyguards). §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 217.§REF§ Under Alauddin Khilji \"a regular muster of armed forces was maintained.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Payment of soldiers in cash was a measure adopted by Alauddin Khilji.§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1296, "year_to": 1526, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. jandars (king bodyguards). §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 217.§REF§ Under Alauddin Khilji \"a regular muster of armed forces was maintained.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Payment of soldiers in cash was a measure adopted by Alauddin Khilji.§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists The office of laskar was introduced even before British occupation, but this was not a military role in the strict sense of the term. ‘As stated earlier the institution of laskar was first introduced by David Scott in his Draft Regulation of 1819, for the effective administration of the Garos. The main duty was to report on killings and serious offences within their jurisdiction. The Act of 1874 gave this office a legal status. Laskar was assisted by sardar in his duties and acted on behalf of laskar in his absence. The Commissioner tried the Garo cases, where he had to consult laskars and sardars connected with the traditional customs and manners of the tribe and also their opinions as to the guilt or innocence had to be taken into consideration.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 54§REF§ The A’chik had no standing armies or professionalized armed corps. During the pre-colonial period, male villagers probably acted as war parties under the leadership of a nokma: ‘In the early days, the Garos used to wage many wars. Such an occasion arose once (perhaps the first of such warfare) when people of one village living under a certain Nokma went to work for their hadang (field for cultivation) beyond their area and entered another Nokma’s jurisdiction. This was a cause of conflict, and they started fighting. There were heavy casualties on both sides. Finally, both the parties ran away to their own area. Thus neither party gained or lost any land.’ §REF§Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 65§REF§ The potential role of Zamindars remains to be confirmed (see above)." }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists Wage labour is mostly unskilled and temporary, supplementing subsistence agriculture rather than replacing it: ‘Opportunities for wage labor, though not plentiful, are available by the day for a few men. A few can work as porters for fellow villagers, or for men of neighboring villages who have a large amount of cotton to carry into market. Occasionally the ‘owner’ of the market, or a Bengali merchant, hires a few Garos to build a tea stall or other kind of market shed. In 1956 a new motor road was being cut through the hills in the neighborhood of Rengsanggri. It was divided into lengths of one-eighth to one-half mile, which were assigned to contractors, each of whom had to hire laborers to do the actual digging and carrying of earth. Some of the labor was paid for by the day, while some was subcontracted in small amounts, so that a worker would be paid a fixed sum for digging or filling a stretch of road no more than fifteen feet long; and a few of these subcontractors even hired a neighbor to help them dig. Wage labor most often brought a rupee per day, but heavy labor might be paid at one rupee eight annas or even two rupees per day.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 283§REF§ During the colonial period, the A’chik had no standing armies or professionalized armed corps. The offices of laskar and sardar are not connected to the military: ‘As stated earlier the institution of laskar was first introduced by David Scott in his Draft Regulation of 1819, for the effective administration of the Garos. The main duty was to report on killings and serious offences within their jurisdiction. The Act of 1874 gave this office a legal status. Laskar was assisted by sardar in his duties and acted on behalf of laskar in his absence. The Commissioner tried the Garo cases, where he had to consult laskars and sardars connected with the traditional customs and manners of the tribe and also their opinions as to the guilt or innocence had to be taken into consideration.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 54§REF§ During the early colonial period, male villagers probably acted as war parties under the leadership of a nokma: ‘In the early days, the Garos used to wage many wars. Such an occasion arose once (perhaps the first of such warfare) when people of one village living under a certain Nokma went to work for their hadang (field for cultivation) beyond their area and entered another Nokma’s jurisdiction. This was a cause of conflict, and they started fighting. There were heavy casualties on both sides. Finally, both the parties ran away to their own area. Thus neither party gained or lost any land.’ §REF§Sinha, Tarunchandra 1966. “Psyche Of The Garos”, 65§REF§ The code is provisional and does not reflect the presence of British colonial forces, as more information on their organizaton is still needed." }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"As in Maurya times, the maula (hereditary soldiers who were Kshartiyas) constituted the core personnel of the Gupta Army. The next best were the mercenaries who were hired on a temporary basis.\"§REF§(Roy 2016, 21) Kaushik Roy. 2016. Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " It is clear that during Ballala II’s time the soldiers were professional §REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 105§REF§." }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Hoysala Kingdom, of which this polity was initially a fuedatory, the soldiers were professional under Ballala II.§REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 105§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§J Duncan M. Derrett, ‘Social and Political Thought and Institutions’, in A. L Basham (ed.), A Cultural History of India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp.128-129; Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007), p.73.§REF§ \"Hymns refer to warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, and vintners.\"§REF§Singh, U. (2008) A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley: Delhi. p190§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Gabriel, Richard A. The great armies of antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. p. 217§REF§<br>The Ksatriya were a hereditary warrior class that formed the backbone of the army. They were supported by auxiliary forces made up of mercenaries, freelance soldiers, subordinate allies, deserters and forest and hill tribesmen.<br>\"a complex war office with six subsidiary departments administered and provisioned a paid standing army of nearly 700,000 men and thousands of elephants.\"§REF§(McClellan III and Dorn 2015, 164) McClellan III, James E. Dorn, Harold. 2015. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press.§REF§<br>\"The army was to be recruited from 'robbers, mountain men, gangs, forest people, and warrior clans'. Soldiers were to receive a regular salary and their equipment\".§REF§(Bradford and Bradford 2001, 126) Bradford, Alfred S. Bradford, Pamela, M. 2001. With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>\"By the time of the Mauryas, whatever sort of conscription had once existed earlier had disappeared, and the imperial armies were armies of professional warrior aristocrats and other professionals fed, equipped, trained, paid, and otherwise maintained at great cost to the state.\"§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 218) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Mughal Empire relied largely on the military force employed from the 'Indian military labor market', which included the 'highly talented, movable warlords and their mounted following' in India. §REF§J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700 (2004), p.67§REF§ The skills of these soldiers ranged from the part-time peasant to the professional warlord or jamadar.§REF§J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700 (2004), p.68§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There was a standing army, and soldiers were paid regularly §REF§A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), pp. 195-196§REF§." }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that the Satavahanas kept a standing army §REF§R. Thapar (?), South Asia from 200 BC to AD 300, in E. Condurachi, J. Hermann, E. Zurcher (eds), History of Humanity from the 7th Century BC to the 7th Century AD (1996), p. 381§REF§." }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The suffix gulma in the name Vatsagulma is also interesting. Manu regards gulma as a station where an army unit was posted for protection of the kingdom (Misra 1987: 645-647).\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 376§REF§§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 70§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Kennedy, Hugh, The Armies of the Caliphate pp. 18-118§REF§<br>\"The armies of the Umayyad and early 'Abbasid period were paid stipends in minted coin. At the beginning of this period, these stipends could be thought of as the hereditary right of those whose names appeared in the diwan registers. During the course of the second/eighth century, the Caliphs and their representatives forced a transformation so that the stipend became a true salary, a payment for work done. Unlike their contemporaries in the West, the soldiers of the Caliphs were never given land grants in lieu of salaries. Sometimes they might be given houses or plots of land on which to build, but not to provide an alternative income. One the rare occasions when larger land grants were given to soldiers it was as a reward for past services, rather than payment for continuing and future ones. Both Umayyads and 'Abbasids normally maintained the separation of the military from tax-collecting: apart from dire emergencies, soldiers were never given the right to collect taxes with which to pay themselves. This was always done by the government diwans.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2001, 88) Kennedy, H. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"decentralized administration of the iqta type\".§REF§(Roberts 1973, 529) Roberts, J. 1973. Civilization: The emergence of man in society. CRM Books.§REF§ Iqta system of land revenue grants used to pay military in late Abbasid times.§REF§(Lapidus 2014, 286) Lapidus, Ira M. 2014. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Recruited mercenaries \"from across ethnic and tribal communities that they hoped would be more loyal.\"§REF§(Volk 2015) Volk, Lucia ed. 2015. The Middle East in the World: An Introduction. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Hamblin 2006, 97§REF§ \"The Akkadian professional army, Diakonoff suggested, gave individual citizens another path to personal advancement, further undermining local community self-government.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 45) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A kind of professional soldiers were present: since campaigning was seasonal, soldiers fought for part of the year and then acted as a kind of police force. Alternatively they might spend their off period farming the land given to them in payment for military service as described by the soldier Ubarrum. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.72§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <i>damgar</i> in Sumerian§REF§Roux 1998, 117§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Copied from IqUrIII. \"Many records clearly show the <i>aga-uš</i> in specifically military activities (...), particularly in the entourage of the king and of the army’s leadership (...). His life was that of a soldier (...); he was provided with weapons, for the use of which a regular regime of training was necessary (...) and he clearly served under a military chain of command\". §REF§Lafont 2009,9-10§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " At least between 727 and 612 BCE §REF§(Davidson 2012, 27)§REF§." }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " There is no information regarding the presence of any army or soldiers, etc. in the Ubaid." }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Many records clearly show the <i>aga-uš</i> in specifically military activities (...), particularly in the entourage of the king and of the army’s leadership (...). His life was that of a soldier (...); he was provided with weapons, for the use of which a regular regime of training was necessary (...) and he clearly served under a military chain of command\". §REF§Lafont 2009,9-10§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Full-time specialists" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[17]</a>)§REF§ Persian army used mercenaries. For example, used Egyptian soldiers during Persian Wars, as mentioned by Herodotus. §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawaṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>\"land grant system practiced since Saljuq times\" (Iqta system) used to pay soldiers. §REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Unlikely at this time since administrative complexity was so low. \"The social structure of these communities was thus characterised by few heads of households (elders), marked gender, age and provenance barriers, but few socio-political differences. Consequently, burials do not display any significant diffferences in status.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Elam was a worthy rival of the Akkadian empire.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 135) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ -- if so, surely must have had full-time, trained soldiers. Earlier Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE \"monopoly of defence forces to protect internal cohesion. The wealth and technical knowledge accumulated in cities had to be defended against foreign attacks, both from other city-states and other enemies (for instance, nomadic tribes). This defence system then turned into an offensive tactic. ... Instrumental for these kinds of activities was the creation of an army, which was divided into two groups. One group was made of full-time workers, specialised in military activities (although this remains purely hypothetical for the Uruk period). In case of war, an army was assembled through military conscription, and was supported by mandatory provisions of military supplies.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Soldiers were paid through a type of feudal system governed by military officers. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.252§REF§<br>\"It has been estimated that in the early fourth/tenth century foot soldiers were being paid about six dinars a month while the cavalry received forty. This meant that the cavalry became a privileged class, anxious to preserve their position, and the conflict was made worse by the fact that the cavalry were Turks while the infantry were almost entirely Daylamites.\" §REF§(Kennedy 2004, 220) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1256, "year_to": 1303, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Originally the Ilkhanid army was a branch of the Mongol army, organised on a tribal basis. The Ilkhans did not adopt the slave-soldier system; instead maintain \"large armies of mounted horse archers (supplemented by infantry and cavalry auxiliaries\" from local rulers.§REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p.557.§REF§<br>After \"the Ilkhanate was no longer expanding and the supply of plunder could not be relied upon\" Ghazan the Reformer introduced the iqta system of land grants to pay soldiers.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§§REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P.555, 557.§REF§<br>However, it is uncertain \"to what extent the distribution of iqtas was actually implemented, for this particular edict was issued only very shortly before Ghazan's early death in 703/1304.\"§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§ More so because our source for the Ilkhanate's apparently successful use of the itqa system is Rashid al-Din who was Ghazan's great minister and the individual responsible for implementing the policy.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75-76) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>In any case, Ghazan's reforms may have put the financing of the army on a better footing, so that eventually warriors were being allocated <i>iqtas</i> [grants of land holding] to provide revenues with which to equip themselves.§REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.148§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1304, "year_to": 1335, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Originally the Ilkhanid army was a branch of the Mongol army, organised on a tribal basis. The Ilkhans did not adopt the slave-soldier system; instead maintain \"large armies of mounted horse archers (supplemented by infantry and cavalry auxiliaries\" from local rulers.§REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p.557.§REF§<br>After \"the Ilkhanate was no longer expanding and the supply of plunder could not be relied upon\" Ghazan the Reformer introduced the iqta system of land grants to pay soldiers.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§§REF§Reuven Amitai, ‘Armies and Their Economic Basis in Iran and the Surrounding Lands, c.1000-1500’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), P.555, 557.§REF§<br>However, it is uncertain \"to what extent the distribution of iqtas was actually implemented, for this particular edict was issued only very shortly before Ghazan's early death in 703/1304.\"§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§ More so because our source for the Ilkhanate's apparently successful use of the itqa system is Rashid al-Din who was Ghazan's great minister and the individual responsible for implementing the policy.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 75-76) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>In any case, Ghazan's reforms may have put the financing of the army on a better footing, so that eventually warriors were being allocated <i>iqtas</i> [grants of land holding] to provide revenues with which to equip themselves.§REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.148§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not present for previous period and read nothing to suggest major change, such as warrior burials (although that alone would not mean professionalism). In previous period a general reference was: \"The social structure of these communities was thus characterised by few heads of households (elders), marked gender, age and provenance barriers, but few socio-political differences. Consequently, burials do not display any significant diffferences in status.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_soldier", "professional_soldier": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not present for earlier periods and read nothing to suggest major change, such as warrior burials (although that alone would not mean professionalism). In 7000-6000 BCE period a general reference was: \"The social structure of these communities was thus characterised by few heads of households (elders), marked gender, age and provenance barriers, but few socio-political differences. Consequently, burials do not display any significant diffferences in status.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" } ] }