Professional Lawyer List

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    "count": 414,
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    "results": [
        {
            "id": 301,
            "polity": {
                "id": 613,
                "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5",
                "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I",
                "start_year": 100,
                "end_year": 500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The following reconstruction of small communities consisting of extended families based in autonomous homesteads suggests minimal social diffrentiation. ”For the first 400 years of the settlement's history, Kirikongo was a single economically generalized social group (Figure 6). The occupants were self-sufficient farmers who cultivated grains and herded livestock, smelted and forged iron, opportunistically hunted, lived in puddled earthen structures with pounded clay floors, and fished in the seasonal drainages. [...] Since Kirikongo did not grow (at least not significantly) for over 400 years, it is likely that extra-community fissioning continually occurred to contribute to regional population growth, and it is also likely that Kirikongo itself was the result of budding from a previous homestead. However, with the small scale of settlement, the inhabitants of individual homesteads must have interacted with a wider community for social and demographic reasons. [...] It may be that generalized single-kin homesteads like Kirikongo were the societal model for a post-LSA expansion of farming peoples along the Nakambe (White Volta) and Mouhoun (Black Volta) River basins. A homestead settlement pattern would fit well with the transitional nature of early sedentary life, where societies are shifting from generalized reciprocity to more restricted and formalized group membership, and single-kin communities like Kirikongo's house (Mound 4) would be roughly the size of a band.”§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 27, 32)§REF§ "
        },
        {
            "id": 302,
            "polity": {
                "id": 615,
                "name": "ni_nok_2",
                "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok",
                "start_year": -900,
                "end_year": 0
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " \"In sum, we have not found unambiguous evidence of social complexity and the often suggested highly advanced social system of the Nok Culture.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 251) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 303,
            "polity": {
                "id": 642,
                "name": "so_geledi_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Sultanate of Geledi",
                "start_year": 1750,
                "end_year": 1911
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The quote below suggests that legal affairs were informal matters for local leaders rather than carried out through Sharia law. “As power devolved to local leaders, customary rather than Sharia’atic law dominated political relations at the local level. We saw in the previous section how the saints of Somali tradition contributed to the evolution of xeer (customary law) in the various communities where they settled. They mediated disputes, helped assess blood-wealth (diya) payments, and assisted at rituals of reconciliation. Such mediation was particularly critical in the evolving Rahanwiin confederations, which typically consisted of lineages of diverse genealogical origins and perhaps different marriage and inheritance customs. §REF§ (Cassanelli 1982, 130) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library §REF§  "
        },
        {
            "id": 304,
            "polity": {
                "id": 650,
                "name": "et_kaffa_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa",
                "start_year": 1390,
                "end_year": 1897
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The following quote suggest that there was not a formal legal code with courts, professional judges and lawyers, but instead there was a group of local arbitrators for various communal disputes. “Every gafo (aggregate of houses) had its clan elder, called duke niho, father of the people, who was a functionary only in the most general sense of the word, acting as an arbitrator in disputes and as a link between his gafo and that of the rashe showo. In fact, all of the positions lower than rashe showo were engaged primarily in matters of justice. The duke niho was considered to be a nali areto or ari gecho, ‘one who knows’. The tatikisho and the gudo were also in the category of ‘those who know,’ and they were asked to arbitrate and to sit in judgement in all cases affecting a gafo or subdistrict. Usually the duke niho was asked his opinion, but a binding judgement was left to the tatikisho. If this judgement was not acceptable to either of the parties, they could appeal to the gudo. Up to this level decisions could involve the division of a piece of land or compensation for damages. The rashe showo represented the next level of appeal, although the right to arrest people or to lock them in irons was reserved for the worabi rasho.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 292) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 305,
            "polity": {
                "id": 665,
                "name": "ni_aro",
                "long_name": "Aro",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1902
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " “Let us note that in the Igbo traditional setting, the oracle held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.” §REF§Innocent, Rev. (2020). A Critical Study on the Ibini Ukpabi (Arochukwu Long Juju) Oracle and its Implications on the International Relations During the 20th Century. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(10): 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZXZGZSM3/collection§REF§ "
        },
        {
            "id": 306,
            "polity": {
                "id": 622,
                "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6",
                "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow II",
                "start_year": 501,
                "end_year": 700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The following quote suggests the emergence of social differentiation in this period, but little appears to be understood about this phenomenon apart from the appearance of specialised smiths and the formation of senior and cadet social segments. \"During Yellow II, the inhabitants of Mound 4 began a process that eventually led to centralization of iron production, as described in detail above. Iron ore extraction involves profound digging in the earth, the realm of spirits, and historically in Bwa society the practice is reserved solely for specialized smiths, who also excavate burials (see discussions below). The mid first millennium A.D. therefore witnessed a transformation from redundant social and economic roles for houses to specialization in at least one craft activity. While houses were still highly independent, even producing their own pottery, a formalized village structure was likely present with both cadet and senior social segments, founded upon common descent with a common ancestor.\"§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 28)§REF§ "
        },
        {
            "id": 307,
            "polity": {
                "id": 663,
                "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Oyo",
                "start_year": 1300,
                "end_year": 1535
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " \"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977).\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2005: 151-152)§REF§ Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes:  \"Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known.\"§REF§(Law 1977: 33)§REF§ Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable."
        },
        {
            "id": 308,
            "polity": {
                "id": 570,
                "name": "es_spanish_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Spanish Empire II",
                "start_year": 1716,
                "end_year": 1814
            },
            "year_from": 1716,
            "year_to": 1814,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In 1771, for example, the former Jesuit Colegio Imperial de Madrid became the Reales Estudios de San Isidro, with a new curriculum stressing experimental physics, logic, and the law of nature and nations, all to be taught “according to the lights given by modern authorities and without scholastic disputes.” The king decreed that study of natural law was to be a prerequisite for a law career…”<ref>(Bergamini 1974: 92) Bergamini, John D. 1974. The Spanish Bourbons: The History of a Tenacious Dynasty. New York: G. P Putnam’s Sons. https://archive.org/details/spanishbourbons00john. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5A2HNKTF</ref> “The Conspiracy of San Bias uncovered just before that saint’s day in February, 1795, was an exception: a schoolmaster, a lawyer, and a doctor were involved in a pathetically private effort to collect arms and print propaganda in favor of a Spanish republic. Nonetheless, such conspiracies on top of the military defeats decided Godoy to make peace.”<ref>(Bergamini 1974: 120) Bergamini, John D. 1974. The Spanish Bourbons: The History of a Tenacious Dynasty. New York: G. P Putnam’s Sons. https://archive.org/details/spanishbourbons00john. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5A2HNKTF</ref>"
        },
        {
            "id": 309,
            "polity": {
                "id": 569,
                "name": "mx_mexico_1",
                "long_name": "Early United Mexican States",
                "start_year": 1810,
                "end_year": 1920
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " "
        },
        {
            "id": 310,
            "polity": {
                "id": 568,
                "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1310,
                "end_year": 1526
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " “In the political thought of the 13th and 14th centuries, the idea of the transpersonal nature of the kingdom was further elaborated to the point of regarding kingdoms as entities existing in themselves… The concept of mystic body (corpus mysticum) was at the same time adopted by lawyers to refer figuratively to some kind of legal entity—a corporation or society.”§REF§(Antonin 2017: 27) Antonín, Robert. 2017. The Ideal Ruler in Medieval Bohemia, trans. Sean Mark Miller, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450-1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill.  https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G2S9M8F6§REF§ “This raises the obvious question about Jan of Jesenice. He was a legal expert and Hus’ lawyer. Unfortunately, had Jesenice been able to advise Hus directly, at every turn in the legal process, Hus would have fared much better. But Jesenice left Prague in late 1410 and went to Rome as Hus’ representative.”§REF§(Fudge 2010: 130) Fudge, Thomas A. 2010. Jan Hus: Religious Reform and Social Revolution in Bohemia. London; New York: I. B. Tauris.  https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z325C95F§REF§ "
        },
        {
            "id": 311,
            "polity": {
                "id": 575,
                "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction",
                "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive",
                "start_year": 1866,
                "end_year": 1933
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 312,
            "polity": {
                "id": 302,
                "name": "gb_tudor_stuart",
                "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart",
                "start_year": 1486,
                "end_year": 1689
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " “Among professionals, the lawyers and physicians did best. A successful barrister (criminal lawyer) might make £3,000–4,000 a year, an attorney £1,500. A prosperous country physician might bring in £500 a year. The average for both groups, however, was closer to £200 a year. In theory, legal professionals continued to be trained at the universities, followed, in the case of barristers, by instruction at the Inns of Court.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 379-380) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley &amp; Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “It should be obvious from this discussion why Catholicism, with its emphasis on hierarchy, ritual, and obedience, should have appealed to Henry VIII and much of the ruling elite. It should also be obvious why Protestantism, with its European origins and its emphasis on literacy, should have struck root in England among continental travelers, merchants, lawyers, and other literate professionals, usually based in port cities.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 96) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley &amp; Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “The wealthiest continued to dominate their local corporations as mayors and aldermen. Increasing numbers served as MPs: there were 55 merchants and a handful of lawyers in the Parliament of 1641; by 1754 there would be 60 merchants, but also 60 lawyers and 40 military or naval officers, albeit mostly younger sons of the gentry.”§REF§(Bucholz et al 2013: 382) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley &amp; Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§ “Although the Caroline attorneys-general lacked the political stature of their Elizabethan and Jacobean predecessors, they were none the less able lawyers: Sir Robert Heath (1625–31), Sir William Noye (1631–4) and Sir John Bankes (1634–41) all proved themselves men of integrity and ingenuity in prosecuting crown cases.37 As early as the 1580s, the crown lawyers determined on exemplary prosecutions in several great cases of state.”§REF§(Hindle 2002: 73) Hindle, Steve. 2002. The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, 1550–1640 (London: Palgrave https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GVIZDIC9§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 313,
            "polity": {
                "id": 567,
                "name": "at_habsburg_2",
                "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II",
                "start_year": 1649,
                "end_year": 1918
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " “In part, election results like this heralded a significant shift in liberal politics that would become much clearer in the 1860s and 1870s, as artisans, manufacturers, and other members of the economic middle classes entrusted their political fates no longer to the bureaucrat with his legal education, but rather to another legally educated white-collar professional: the lawyer. “Th e lawyer,” argues Thomas Götz, “embodied the prototypical educated citizen (Bildungsbürger) like no other; his specialized knowledge and fluent speaking abilities gave this professional enormous potential usefulness for the new legal functions assigned to the newly set-up civic communes.”69 Although the bureaucrats and lawyers shared much in common, particularly a common educational background, they occupied professions that related quite differently to the public. In Innsbruck, for example, those communal elections of 1850 constituted a breakthrough for lawyers who, as an occupational group, now replaced state bureaucrats— also educated in law—as the acknowledged political voice of the middle classes. When constitutional life resumed in the 1860s, lawyers would dominate elected institutions at all levels of government, from village councils to Imperial Parliament.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 248) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ "
        },
        {
            "id": 314,
            "polity": {
                "id": 295,
                "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp",
                "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire",
                "start_year": 1157,
                "end_year": 1231
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Lawyers were trained specialists. They worked with the ruler and government officials to make the laws.§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 103-104. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 315,
            "polity": {
                "id": 797,
                "name": "de_empire_1",
                "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty",
                "start_year": 919,
                "end_year": 1125
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "There were lawyers throughout the various countries of the Empire. §REF§Wilson 2016: 604. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§ In the 1090s lawyers were tasked with piecing together old Roman Empire laws. There were law schools in Italy and France.§REF§Wilson 2016: 606. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 316,
            "polity": {
                "id": 573,
                "name": "ru_golden_horde",
                "long_name": "Golden Horde",
                "start_year": 1240,
                "end_year": 1440
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " The khans had professional lawyers who worked alongside his officials.§REF§Khakimov and Favereau 2017: 243, 896. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QL8H3FN8§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 317,
            "polity": {
                "id": 587,
                "name": "gb_british_emp_1",
                "long_name": "British Empire I",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1849
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "§REF§(Chambers and Chambers 1847: 275) Chambers, Robert and Chambers, William. eds. 1847. History and Present State the British Empire. London: W.R.Chambers. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K77JRGEL§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 318,
            "polity": {
                "id": 566,
                "name": "fr_france_napoleonic",
                "long_name": "Napoleonic France",
                "start_year": 1816,
                "end_year": 1870
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Lawyers were present throughout the polity period. §REF§Crook 2002: 57. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/29D9EQQE§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 319,
            "polity": {
                "id": 567,
                "name": "at_habsburg_2",
                "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II",
                "start_year": 1649,
                "end_year": 1918
            },
            "year_from": 1867,
            "year_to": 1918,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“New courts of general jurisdiction under Joseph II operated on the first and second levels of adjudication and appeal and ignored ständisch differences; all citizens became subject to the same criminal code, with local inhabitants having a theoretical right of appeal from manorial courts to the royal courts. Local judges were forced to know the law, since appeals to royal courts were written, not oral. The regional Estates were nearly powerless to resist—they had no army, the great aristocrats had torn loyalties, and the provinces did not trust each other.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 8) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§ “Over the course of the 1870s generational tensions became apparent as younger Liberals began to act out their ambitions and frustrations against their elders, which contributed to the instability of the regime by 1879. The Liberals were heavily juristic and academic in their occupational backgrounds, from the state service as well as private lawyers and university professors, as well as encompassing a large number of property owners and independent businessmen.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 119) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§ “Of the men elected to the City Council in Vienna on anti-Semitic/anti-Liberal election slates between 1886 and 1891 most were wealthy artisans or owners of middle-sized businesses or stores, lawyers, schoolteachers (mostly senior teachers), and public or private employees.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 237) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 320,
            "polity": {
                "id": 579,
                "name": "gb_england_plantagenet",
                "long_name": "Plantagenet England",
                "start_year": 1154,
                "end_year": 1485
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 321,
            "polity": {
                "id": 305,
                "name": "it_lombard_k",
                "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom",
                "start_year": 568,
                "end_year": 774
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": " Lawyers have not been mentioned in the sources consulted"
        },
        {
            "id": 322,
            "polity": {
                "id": 561,
                "name": "us_hohokam_culture",
                "long_name": "Hohokam Culture",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 1500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 323,
            "polity": {
                "id": 360,
                "name": "ir_saffarid_emp",
                "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate",
                "start_year": 861,
                "end_year": 1003
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "unknown",
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 324,
            "polity": {
                "id": 786,
                "name": "gb_british_emp_2",
                "long_name": "British Empire II",
                "start_year": 1850,
                "end_year": 1968
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": null
        },
        {
            "id": 325,
            "polity": {
                "id": 571,
                "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2",
                "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II",
                "start_year": 1776,
                "end_year": 1917
            },
            "year_from": 1776,
            "year_to": 1864,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Prior to the judicial reforms of 1864, the legal profession in the Russian Empire was not as formally structured or professionalized as it later became.\r\nThe administration of justice was primarily carried out by local authorities and the nobility, with a less distinct separation between the roles of administrators and legal professionals.\r\n\r\nThe period from 1864 to 1917 is known as \"The Golden Age\" of Russian law and the legal profession, primarily due to judicial reforms and the establishment of the \"Advokatura\", a professional society of legal professionals representing litigants​​.\r\nThese reforms were a culmination of earlier efforts towards the professionalization of the Russian civil service under Alexander I and the establishment of law faculties in urban centers, leading to a cadre of Russian jurists in administrative, judicial, and academic roles​​.\r\nThe reforms initiated under Alexander II in 1864 marked a significant shift, creating a more formal and professional legal environment and contributing to the evolution towards a constitutional monarchy by 1906​​.§REF§Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F93JTAI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F93JTAI</b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 326,
            "polity": {
                "id": 571,
                "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2",
                "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II",
                "start_year": 1776,
                "end_year": 1917
            },
            "year_from": 1864,
            "year_to": 1917,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": null,
            "description": ""
        },
        {
            "id": 327,
            "polity": {
                "id": 600,
                "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1",
                "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I",
                "start_year": 1614,
                "end_year": 1775
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Prior to the judicial reforms of 1864, the legal profession in the Russian Empire was not as formally structured or professionalized as it later became.\r\nThe administration of justice was primarily carried out by local authorities and the nobility, with a less distinct separation between the roles of administrators and legal professionals.§REF§Peter H. Solomon, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F93JTAI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F93JTAI</b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 328,
            "polity": {
                "id": 88,
                "name": "in_post_mauryan_k",
                "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms",
                "start_year": -205,
                "end_year": -101
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 329,
            "polity": {
                "id": 92,
                "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp",
                "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami",
                "start_year": 543,
                "end_year": 753
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "unknown",
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 330,
            "polity": {
                "id": 93,
                "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp",
                "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire",
                "start_year": 753,
                "end_year": 973
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "unknown",
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 331,
            "polity": {
                "id": 94,
                "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp",
                "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani",
                "start_year": 973,
                "end_year": 1189
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "unknown",
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 332,
            "polity": {
                "id": 95,
                "name": "in_hoysala_k",
                "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1108,
                "end_year": 1346
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "unknown. Dharmadhikari was the minister of justice.  <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, p. 137]</a>",
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 333,
            "polity": {
                "id": 96,
                "name": "in_kampili_k",
                "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom",
                "start_year": 1280,
                "end_year": 1327
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 334,
            "polity": {
                "id": 87,
                "name": "in_mauryan_emp",
                "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire",
                "start_year": -324,
                "end_year": -187
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 335,
            "polity": {
                "id": 698,
                "name": "in_cholas_1",
                "long_name": "Early Cholas",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": 300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 336,
            "polity": {
                "id": 700,
                "name": "in_pandya_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Early Pandyas",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": 300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 337,
            "polity": {
                "id": 385,
                "name": "in_sunga_emp",
                "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire",
                "start_year": -187,
                "end_year": -65
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 338,
            "polity": {
                "id": 416,
                "name": "in_ayodhya_k",
                "long_name": "Kingdom of Ayodhya",
                "start_year": -64,
                "end_year": 34
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 339,
            "polity": {
                "id": 702,
                "name": "in_pallava_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire",
                "start_year": 300,
                "end_year": 890
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 340,
            "polity": {
                "id": 388,
                "name": "in_gupta_emp",
                "long_name": "Gupta Empire",
                "start_year": 320,
                "end_year": 550
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 341,
            "polity": {
                "id": 390,
                "name": "in_magadha_k",
                "long_name": "Magadha",
                "start_year": 450,
                "end_year": 605
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 342,
            "polity": {
                "id": 697,
                "name": "in_pandya_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty",
                "start_year": 590,
                "end_year": 915
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 343,
            "polity": {
                "id": 417,
                "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn",
                "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty",
                "start_year": 650,
                "end_year": 780
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 344,
            "polity": {
                "id": 418,
                "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn",
                "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty",
                "start_year": 730,
                "end_year": 1030
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 345,
            "polity": {
                "id": 397,
                "name": "in_chola_emp",
                "long_name": "Chola Empire",
                "start_year": 849,
                "end_year": 1280
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 346,
            "polity": {
                "id": 405,
                "name": "in_gahadavala_dyn",
                "long_name": "Gahadavala Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1085,
                "end_year": 1193
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "From an essay on \"The Rajput Administration\". The Gahadavala dynasty are sometimes considered Rajputs or perhaps proto-Rajputs as strictly speaking the Rajputs date from a later time in this location: \"The talara, dandapasika or araksika, as a policeman was called, looked to the security of life and property and carried out preliminary investigation in criminal cases.\" talaraksa. class of officers called Sadhanikas \"whose duty was almost that of the modern Prosecuting Police Inspectors.\" Vyavaharin was a type of officer. \"In small principalities the chief himself must have presided over his court. But in coming to a decision about the case before him and the punishment that was to be given to the accused he was assisted not only by experts in dharmasastra but also Karanikas. If Karanika be regarded as an abbreviated form of dharmadhikaranika, he could have been a judicial officer.\"  <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5CEUP25X\">[Bakshi_Gajrani_Singh 2005, p. 402]</a>",
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 347,
            "polity": {
                "id": 627,
                "name": "in_pandya_emp_3",
                "long_name": "Pandya Empire",
                "start_year": 1216,
                "end_year": 1323
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "IFR",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In the below quote, Rocher argues that professional lawyers did not exist in India for much of its history. Unhelpfully, Rocher does not provide dates or much in the way of temporal boundaries. However, the use of the word “ever” in the sentence “no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court” may perhaps be taken to mean that professional lawyers did not exist in India before the colonial era.\r\n\r\n“Thus, we believe that at an early date—let us roughly say at the time of the dharmasutras—professional lawyers or, to be more precise, specialized dharmasastrins could not exist. The Indian sage in those days was a specialist in all of the texts related to a particular Vedic school. His specialized knowledge concentrated on a specific version of the Vedic samhita and all its related texts: brahmana, aranyaka, upanisad, srautasutra, grhyasutra, dharmasutra, etc. There were no specialists on dharmasastra, and, a fortiori, no specialists on law that were part of it.\r\n\r\n“But the situation changed. The texts on dharma grew away from the Vedic schools. Gradually there may have come into being a specialized group of learned men whose main interest was dharma, and the various dharmasastras as such.\r\n\r\n“Finally, as the amount of textual material increased, we may assume that certain experts, without detaching themselves completely from aspects of dharmasastra and from Hindu learning generally, accumulated a very specialized knowledge of one aspect of dharma: vivada and vyavahara, or, in modern terminology, law. It is very possible that at this stage the nature of legal representation (niyoga) also underwent a certain change. We do not want to exclude the possibility that, at that moment, in a number of cases legal competence played a role in the choice of a representative. We are even willing to accept that Vyasa refers to the very special circumstance in which the representative was paid for his services. However, no written source allows us to draw the conclusion that the experts on legal matters ever developed into a professional group whose regular activities consisted in representing parties in the court. The impression which we gather from the texts is that, even in cases where the representative was chosen because of his special competence on legal matters, and, a fortiori, in all other cases, the necessary condition for a person to represent a party was the existence, between the former and the latter, of a certain form of close personal relationship.”§REF§(Rocher 1969: 399-400) Rocher, L. 1969. \"Lawyers\" in Classical Hindu Law. Law & Society Review 3 (2/3): 383-402. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QKMEMIHW/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 348,
            "polity": {
                "id": 306,
                "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
                "start_year": 543,
                "end_year": 687
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": "unknown",
            "description": "\"During the Lombard and Carolingian periods, only the profession of notary survived in Italy, in the courts of bishops or counts. Along with the rediscovery of Roman law and the rise of canon law, the figure of the lawyer reappeared during the 12th-13th centuries, when, too, the profession of notary spread from Italy as it obtained from the pope, emperor or princes the privilege of certifying writs as authentic.\"§REF§Jean-Louis Halpérin. Panorama historique des métiers du droit en France et à l’étranger. Annales des Mines - Enjeux Numériques, 2018, Les métiers du droit au défi du numérique, 3. halshs-03282138. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VMZMGQK2/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 349,
            "polity": {
                "id": 74,
                "name": "gr_crete_emirate",
                "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete",
                "start_year": 824,
                "end_year": 961
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "absent",
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In order to deal with the essential conditions that Claude Cahen and Gabriel Baer laid down so well in their articles, I would like to take as an example of an Islamic guild the Islamic legal professions, called madhhabs, and their institutional organization of legal education, as of the second half of the ninth century. The first steps toward the pro- fessionalization of legal studies were taken after the Inquisition, Mihna, which ended at the midpoint ofthe ninth century. The Inquisition was the culmination of an on-going struggle between two movements: one, of phil- osophical theology, the other, of juridical theology. It was fought over a theological question: whether the Koran was the created or uncreated word of God? We need retain here only that the philosophically-oriented movement entered the Inquisition supported by the central power; which power fifteen years later, made an about-face and came out in support of the juridically-oriented movement. To put it in simple terms: law won out over philosophical speculation. In the century following the Inquisition, the available sources make possible the recognition of the first colleges where law was taught. In the eleventh century, legal professions reached the height of their development with yet a new set of colleges, and a clear-cut structure of scholastic personnel, with various grades and functions.”§REF§(Makdisi 1985) Makdisi, G. 1985. The Guilds of Law in Medieval Legal History: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Inns of Court. 34 Clev. St. L. Rev. 3: 3-16. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4CNJ8Q5/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 350,
            "polity": {
                "id": 171,
                "name": "tr_rum_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Rum Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1077,
                "end_year": 1307
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Professional_lawyer",
            "professional_lawyer": "present",
            "comment": "unknown",
            "description": "The following suggests that the legal profession had been established in the Islamic world by now.\r\n\r\n“In order to deal with the essential conditions that Claude Cahen and Gabriel Baer laid down so well in their articles, I would like to take as an example of an Islamic guild the Islamic legal professions, called madhhabs, and their institutional organization of legal education, as of the second half of the ninth century. The first steps toward the pro- fessionalization of legal studies were taken after the Inquisition, Mihna, which ended at the midpoint ofthe ninth century. The Inquisition was the culmination of an on-going struggle between two movements: one, of phil- osophical theology, the other, of juridical theology. It was fought over a theological question: whether the Koran was the created or uncreated word of God? We need retain here only that the philosophically-oriented movement entered the Inquisition supported by the central power; which power fifteen years later, made an about-face and came out in support of the juridically-oriented movement. To put it in simple terms: law won out over philosophical speculation. In the century following the Inquisition, the available sources make possible the recognition of the first colleges where law was taught. In the eleventh century, legal professions reached the height of their development with yet a new set of colleges, and a clear-cut structure of scholastic personnel, with various grades and functions.”§REF§(Makdisi 1985) Makdisi, G. 1985. The Guilds of Law in Medieval Legal History: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Inns of Court. 34 Clev. St. L. Rev. 3: 3-16. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4CNJ8Q5/library§REF§"
        }
    ]
}