Professional Lawyer List
A viewset for viewing and editing Professional Lawyers.
GET /api/sc/professional-lawyers/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 414, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-lawyers/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/professional-lawyers/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Evidence for full-time professional lawyers is not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The court procedure entailed appearing before a judge or judges, who may have been paid for hearing the case, and hiring a bailiff, whose task it was to schedule the trial and assemble the parties and witnesses at the right time and place, for which he too received a fee. A scribe was needed to draw up a summary of the case and finding. No doubt he received a fee as well.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 39) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Alexander is cited by Zoroastrian tradition as having \"killed the magi ... many teachers, lawyers, Herbats [the lower magi], Mobats [the upper magi]. Much of the literature of Persia, notably works of learning and Zoroastrian texts, simply perished during the Alexandrian conquests.\"§REF§(Farrokh 2007, 108) Farrokh, Kaveh. 2007. Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. Osprey Publishing.§REF§This quote seems to imply that Greek women might need the assistance of a lawyer, although a male relative could have been used: In Late Period Egypt \"Egyptian women (unlike Greeks) could act in transactions on their own behalf and without any guardian whatsoever; equally, women could come forward in law-courts totally unaided as plaintiffs or defendants. And it is quite evident that women were capable of independent economic activities regardless of marital status.\"§REF§(Allam 1990, 33) Allam, S. 1990. Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period). Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Vol. 33, No. 1 (1990), pp. 1-34. BRILL§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " jurists, Shi'i legal scholars (Modaressi 1991) §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RARUQPN6/item-list\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RARUQPN6/item-list</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 485, "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic", "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period", "start_year": -7800, "end_year": -7200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"When discussing Iranian legal education, one should bear in mind that teaching law in so-called 'secular' schools has not been in place for very long. In the post-Islamic period, traditional religious schools, or madrasa, were the main institutions to teach Sharia, or Islamic law. During the Safavids dynasty (1500-1722), many Islamic schools were funded to teach religious law as a higher education discipline. Schools had their own campuses with libraries and student residences. The Advanced Law School ... was established in 1919.\"§REF§(Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne.§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Imami Shi'i jurists (<i>faqīh</i>) \"Already by the 14th century the Shi’ite jurists developed an elaborate legal system of private law based on ijtihad, the exercise of logical reasoning by utilizing the sources of the law to form qualified legal opinion within a specific timeframe. The exercise of ijtihad in turn led to the development of an elaborate methodology of jurisprudence, the science of the usul al-fiqh. Some of the best legal minds articulated complex linguistic debates on legal semantics and phenomenological discussions on the authority of the text\" (Amanat 2003, 3) §REF§(A. Amanat, ‘From Ijtihad to wilayat-i faqih: The Evolution of the Shi‘i Legal Authority to Political Power’, in A. Amanat and F. Griffel (eds.), Shari‘a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007))§REF§Debate between Usuli and Akhbari scholars over use of independent legal reasoning (ijtihad) §REF§(Abisaab, R.J., 1994. The Ulama of Jabal ‘Amil in Safavid Iran, 1501-1736: marginality, migration and social change. Iranian Studies, 27(1-4), pp.103-122. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCSEN5RI/item-list\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCSEN5RI/item-list</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The law was based on religion, specifically \"the Holy Scripture of the Avesta and its translation and commentaries in Pahlavi\".§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§<br>The highest legal official was the mowbedan mowbed, the top religious leader within the Zoroastrian church§REF§(Shaki 2011) Shaki, Mansour. 2011. CLASS SYSTEM iii. Encylopaedia Iranica. Vol. V. Fasc. 6. pp. 652-658. Site accessed 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/class-system-iii§REF§, whose precise relationship with the sahr dadwaran dadwar (the judge of the judges of the State, the head of the state judges)§REF§(Shaki 2011) Shaki, Mansour. 2011. CLASS SYSTEM iii. Encylopaedia Iranica. Vol. V. Fasc. 6. pp. 652-658. Site accessed 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/class-system-iii§REF§ is unknown. The mowbed were priest judges.§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§ Judges known as rads were among other city officials including tax officials who \"represented the central government and were responsible to provincial administrators\".§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ The king could \"pass judgement in criminal cases, as we may conclude from the Acts of the Christian Martyrs (see Wiessner 1967).\"§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The law was based on religion, specifically \"the Holy Scripture of the Avesta and its translation and commentaries in Pahlavi\".§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§<br>The highest legal official was the mowbedan mowbed, the top religious leader within the Zoroastrian church§REF§(Shaki 2011) Shaki, Mansour. 2011. CLASS SYSTEM iii. Encylopaedia Iranica. Vol. V. Fasc. 6. pp. 652-658. Site accessed 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/class-system-iii§REF§, whose precise relationship with the sahr dadwaran dadwar (the judge of the judges of the State, the head of the state judges)§REF§(Shaki 2011) Shaki, Mansour. 2011. CLASS SYSTEM iii. Encylopaedia Iranica. Vol. V. Fasc. 6. pp. 652-658. Site accessed 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/class-system-iii§REF§ is unknown. The mowbed were priest judges.§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§ Judges known as rads were among other city officials including tax officials who \"represented the central government and were responsible to provincial administrators\".§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ The king could \"pass judgement in criminal cases, as we may conclude from the Acts of the Christian Martyrs (see Wiessner 1967).\"§REF§(Macuch 2012) Macuch, Maria. 2016. Judicial and Legal Systems iii. Sasanian Legal System. Vol. XV. Fasc. 2. pp. 181-196. Site accessed: 21 September 2016: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iii-sasanian-legal-system§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Evidence for professional lawyers was not discussed in the literature, but may have been present based on the presence of a formal legal code and magistrates.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Present for the Achaemenids." }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A story is told in which Theodoric, in response to a petition, demanded lawyers in two days to decide a lawsuit that had dragged on for thirty years. A settlement was promptly reached and then Theodoric executed the lawyers. §REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The point about these placita was thus that they were standardized occasions, run by high-status legal experts, the palatine judges, and legitimated more widely by Rome’s aristocracy. The whole of the city’s political society came together regularly and frequently to run justice, that is to say, and the choreography of each case, while it was on one level unique every time because every case was different, on another level had considerable regularities as well.\"§REF§(Wickham 2015, 388) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Lawyers became an increasingly important part of the papal <i>curia</i> in the eleventh and twelfth centuries; the future pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) was a lawyer. Bologna, technically a part of the Patrimony, was the major center for legal scholarship in western Europe from the twelfth century onwards." }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several Popes during the thirteenth century, most notably Innocent III, were lawyers.<br>\"The point about these placita was thus that they were standardized occasions, run by high-status legal experts, the palatine judges, and legitimated more widely by Rome’s aristocracy. The whole of the city’s political society came together regularly and frequently to run justice, that is to say, and the choreography of each case, while it was on one level unique every time because every case was different, on another level had considerable regularities as well.\"§REF§(Wickham 2015, 388) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "<br>" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Around 43 percent of cardinals in the period 1512-1519 had a legal background, and canonists and Roman-law lawyers were essential to the papal administration.§REF§Lowe, 202§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§ At this time, lawyers were amateurs. \"With a few exceptions, the leading jurists belonged to the Senatorial aristocracy... expert knowledge and 'professional' in these fields [rhetoric, logic and grammar] were not matters for gentlemen but schoolmasters, frequently Greeks, slaves or freedmen.\" §REF§(Mousourakis, 2007, 61)§REF§<br>Brennan (2004) refers to \"specialists in jurisprudence\" during Republican Rome.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"Certainly by c. 200 B.C. the Roman elite was taking an academic interest in the city-state's legal history.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"In the developed Republic ... some important colleges of priests maintained books of precedents; the senate's part decrees could be consulted in written form.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Latin legal literature began to develop c.200 BCE.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 32) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§ At this time, lawyers were amateurs. \"With a few exceptions, the leading jurists belonged to the Senatorial aristocracy... expert knowledge and 'professional' in these fields [rhetoric, logic and grammar] were not matters for gentlemen but schoolmasters, frequently Greeks, slaves or freedmen.\" §REF§(Mousourakis, 2007, 61)§REF§<br>Brennan (2004) refers to \"specialists in jurisprudence\" during Republican Rome.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"Certainly by c. 200 B.C. the Roman elite was taking an academic interest in the city-state's legal history.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"In the developed Republic ... some important colleges of priests maintained books of precedents; the senate's part decrees could be consulted in written form.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Latin legal literature began to develop c.200 BCE.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 32) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[6]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§<br>Brennan (2004) refers to \"specialists in jurisprudence\" during Republican Rome.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"Certainly by c. 200 B.C. the Roman elite was taking an academic interest in the city-state's legal history.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"In the developed Republic ... some important colleges of priests maintained books of precedents; the senate's part decrees could be consulted in written form.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Latin legal literature began to develop c.200 BCE.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 32) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§<br>Brennan (2004) refers to \"specialists in jurisprudence\" during Republican Rome.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"Certainly by c. 200 B.C. the Roman elite was taking an academic interest in the city-state's legal history.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ \"In the developed Republic ... some important colleges of priests maintained books of precedents; the senate's part decrees could be consulted in written form.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 31) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ Latin legal literature began to develop c.200 BCE.§REF§(Brennan 2004, 32) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[23]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because Emperor Claudius attempted to \"limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy\" to protect \"women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity of their lawyers.\" §REF§(Allcroft and Haydon 1902, 121 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/earlyprincipateh00allcuoft#page/120/mode/2up/search/lawyers\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§ The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE. \"Professional\" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.§REF§(Mousourakis 2007, 163)§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Consilarius, a non-papal job, was a legal adviser.§REF§(Richards 1979, 299)§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Need to confirm exact time period this quote relates too: \"Maintaining this coherence was a diverse class of jurists made up of scholars, lawyers, and judges, who provided a practical and theoretical framework capable of assuring the effectiveness and continuity of the system.\"§REF§(Povolo 2014, 518) Claudio Povolo. Liturgies of Violence: Social Control and Power Relationships in the Republic of Venice between the 16th and 18th Centuries. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Need to confirm exact time period this quote relates too: \"... the defendant's father presented the peace agreeement and a defense document, clearly drafted by a lawyer. In the end, the judge imposed on all the defendants only small monetary penalties.\"§REF§(Povolo 2014, 513) Claudio Povolo. Liturgies of Violence: Social Control and Power Relationships in the Republic of Venice between the 16th and 18th Centuries. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Need to confirm exact time period this quote relates too: \"Maintaining this coherence was a diverse class of jurists made up of scholars, lawyers, and judges, who provided a practical and theoretical framework capable of assuring the effectiveness and continuity of the system.\"§REF§(Povolo 2014, 518) Claudio Povolo. Liturgies of Violence: Social Control and Power Relationships in the Republic of Venice between the 16th and 18th Centuries. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Need to confirm exact time period this quote relates too: \"... the defendant's father presented the peace agreeement and a defense document, clearly drafted by a lawyer. In the end, the judge imposed on all the defendants only small monetary penalties.\"§REF§(Povolo 2014, 513) Claudio Povolo. Liturgies of Violence: Social Control and Power Relationships in the Republic of Venice between the 16th and 18th Centuries. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " professional lawyers were not present until the Meiji Restoration. §REF§Hood, David 1997. ‘Exclusivity and the Japanese Bar: Ethics or Self-Interest?’. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal (Pacific Rim Law & Policy Association) 6 (1).p.201.§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Professional lawyers were not present until the Meiji Restoration§REF§Hood, David 1997. ‘Exclusivity and the Japanese Bar: Ethics or Self-Interest?’. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal (Pacific Rim Law & Policy Association) 6 (1).p.201.§REF§." }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Professional_lawyer", "professional_lawyer": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " professional lawyers were not present until the Meiji Restoration. §REF§Hood, David 1997. ‘Exclusivity and the Japanese Bar: Ethics or Self-Interest?’. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal (Pacific Rim Law & Policy Association) 6 (1).p.201.§REF§" } ] }