Nonwritten Record List
A viewset for viewing and editing Nonwritten Records.
GET /api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 339, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Historians, notaries, and the full range of other record-keepers were active throughout the period." }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Written records of all kinds were employed during this period. Examples include the documents produced by the Council of Constance (1418) from early in the period, and the writings of Guicciardini and Machiavelli from the end of the period." }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The 303 CE civil law by Flavius §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§. 508 BC \"First treaty between Carthage and Rome (according to Polybius).\" §REF§(Fields 2011)§REF§ Only a small number of Romans in this period could write." }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cicero's (born Arpinum, 106 BC) letters, Caesar's speeches." }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The 303 CE civil law by Flavius. §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Art. E.g. Black-figure pottery painting." }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <i>Liber Pontificalis</i> §REF§(Partner 1972, 6)§REF§ Constitutum Constantini imperatoris (known as \"Donation of Constantine\", fictional historical document created to justify paper rule). §REF§(Partner 1972, 23)§REF§ 817 CE Ludovicianum, example of Frankish-Papal treaty which assured military protection for the Papal state. There were earlier ones. §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004)§REF§" }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources, though seems reasonably likely." }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " 'it was during the age of Nara that Chinese writing led to the appearance of the first real books produced in Japan, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles of 712 and 720. These were followed shortly afterwards by the first poetry anthologies, the Kaifuso (Fond Recollections of Poetry) of 751 and the Manyo¯shu¯ (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves) of 759. Some documents were even printed - another Chinese influence. §REF§Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition].p.24-25§REF§" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.242.§REF§" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ However, 'now and then Chinese characters appeared on Yayoi pottery, showing a degree of literacy among craftsmen.' §REF§Kidder Jr., J. Edward, 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Kingdom of Yamatai Honolulu: Hawaii University Press. p. 113§REF§" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Compendium of the Turkic Dialects.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Sogdian contributions to the Türk Empire were important. Chief among them was unquestionably writing. In fact, the Sogdian alphabet, adapted progressively to Turkic phonology, was used throughout the history of the Türk and then Uighur Empires to write Turkic texts, aside from a rather brief period of national xenophobic reaction within the elites at the beginning of the 8th century, during which the runic alphabet was used.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 202)§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coe (2003) provides a image of a 'Bronze official seal in the shape of a squirrel. Classic period, twelfth to thirteenth centuries [...].'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 142)§REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coe (2003) provides a image of a 'Bronze official seal in the shape of a squirrel. Classic period, twelfth to thirteenth centuries [...].'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 142)§REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Not mentioned by sources." }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum</i> mentioned above, of the 6058 Phoenician inscriptions listed, only about one hundred of these had been found in the Phoenician Levantine homeland.\"§REF§Dixon (2013:32).§REF§ \"The Phoenician alphabetic script was easy to write on papyrus or parchment sheets, and the use of these materials explains why virtually no Phoenician writings - no history, no trading records - have come down to us. In their cities by the sea, the air and soil were damp, and papyrus and leather moldered and rotted away. Thus disappeared the literature of the people who taught a large portion of the earth’s population to write.\"§REF§Lipiński (1995:1321-1322)§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " For example, a copious epistolary literature§REF§M. El Fasi, Morocco, in B.A. Ogot (ed), General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (1992), pp. 200-232§REF§." }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral tradition sources. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral tradition sources. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)§REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral tradition sources. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)§REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral tradition sources. §REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral histories, songs, poems, art?" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13)§REF§ Written language was culture of an urban élite, that did not absorb surrounding cultures and languages §REF§(Cissoko 1984, 2010)§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Oral histories inferred present in previous polities." }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Abaoji had two new scripts developed to write Khitan, and the dynasty supported monastic Buddhism, artisanal and agricultural production in the steppes, and established two hundred cities or more in what is now Inner Mongolia.\" §REF§(Sneath 2007, 27)§REF§ \"In 920 the first Khitan script (the \"large script,\" an adaptation of the Chinese script to the very different, highly inflected Khitan language) was presented, and by the end of A-pao-chi's reign this script was widely used. In 925, when Uighur envoys visited the court, the emperor's younger brother Tieh-la (whom A-pao-chi recognized as the most clever member of his family) was entrusted with their reception and, after learning their script (which was alphabetic), devised a second \"small script\" for Khitan.\" §REF§(Twitchett 1994, 67)§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There could be diplomatic letters perhaps with the Uyghurs. There could be individuals who knew Chinese writing." }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral histories?" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"They had no written alphabet, so that they could not keep written records, but later they learnt to make records well by making notches in wood...\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 316)§REF§ \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§ to place, wherever he could find water and grass\"" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are several major inscriptions in the Turkic runic script from Khoshoo Tsaidam but also from the Tuul, Ongi, and Selenge River basins.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 226)§REF§" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Oral histories? \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Oral histories likely: \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Oral histories likely: \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " This quotation refers to simple mark-making (not complex enough to qualify as nonwritten records) among the Rouran (considerably later than the Xiongnu), but uses the example to illustrate a general point: \"the early steppe peoples would not have been a promising vehicle for the diffusion of complicated, textually based knowledge; according to the Northern Wei dynastic history, the Rouran were illiterates whose leaders at first kept records of their troop numbers by piling up sheep turds as counters but eventually graduated to scratching simple marks onto pieces of wood. Not surprisingly, there is no evidence of the transmission of Chinese military theories and texts to the West by way of the Avars, other steppe nomads, Silk Road caravans, or any other channel prior to the activities of the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 146) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " oral tradition?" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Soninke people have oral traditions, such as the \"Legend of Wagadu\" which is told by gesere who are \"professional storytellers and musicians.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 25)§REF§" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Soninke people have oral traditions, such as the \"Legend of Wagadu\" which is told by gesere who are \"professional storytellers and musicians.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 25)§REF§" } ] }