Nonwritten Record List
A viewset for viewing and editing Nonwritten Records.
GET /api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 339, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/nonwritten-records/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"Several inscriptions also document the history of Muhammad Singa, Kampili-Raya, and Kumara Ramanatha, Kampili’s son (Patil 1991a).\"§REF§(Sinopoli 2003, 74-75)§REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The earliest parts of the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the Vedas, may have been composed as early as, or even earlier than, 1700 BCE, but was written down only after 500 BC. For forty generations and more it was handed down by word of mouth by bards and poets, who chanted the sacred hymn and the ritual prayers.\"§REF§Avari, B. (2007) India: The Ancient Past: A history of the India sub-continent from c. 7,000 BC to AD 1200. Routledge: London and New York. p76§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The pillar Edicts of Ashoka, the Arthashastra. §REF§Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education.§REF§ The primary evidence of the writing in use during the period are the inscriptions of Asoka. The two major writing systems seem to have been Brahmi and Kharosthi. §REF§Salomon, Richard. \"On the origin of the early Indian scripts.\" Journal of the American Oriental Society (1995): 271-279.§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Manuscripts in Persian, Sanskrit. §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 245.§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Manuscripts and inscriptions in Sanskrit, Kannada, Apabhramsa, Telugu, and Marathi §REF§Jayashri Mishra, Social and Economic Conditions Under the Imperial Rashtrakutas (1992), pp. 115-137§REF§." }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Incriptions on coins, sacred structures and commemorative stelae §REF§C. Sinopoli, On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty, in S. Alcock (ed), Empires (2001), p. 163§REF§." }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Arthashastra, religious writings." }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371-2§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Cook, Michael. The Koran: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press, 2000.§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Manuscripts.§REF§(Grabar 2006, 142) Grabar, Oleg. Islamic Visual Culture, 1100-1800, Volume 2. 2006. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. glyptic§REF§Crawford 2004, 203§REF§ \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": "e.g. glyptic, stela§REF§Roux 1998, 114§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Huehnergard, J. and Woods, C. 2008. Akkadian and Eblaite in Woodard, R.D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.84§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Nonwritten records are seen here as a some kind of symbolic language which is also expressed by depictions on stamp seals, decoration pottery etc. Some researchers made an attempt to interpret some particular symbols and suggest the meaning of some motifs or decorative elements, but their conceptions are highly subjective. For example Morgan and Pottier has tried to associate some particular symbols which appear on ceramic vessels with Mesopotamian mythology or cuneiform signs. §REF§Hole 1983, 319§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cuneiform §REF§Roux 1998, 148§REF§ Shulgi could write in both Sumerian and Akkadian.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. pottery decoration, seals, sealings as the expression of symbolic language and ideology§REF§Sundsdal 2011, 167§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Sources include official and private documents in Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, Greek, Egyptian, Hebrew §REF§(Nylander 1971, 50-54)§REF§ and Akkadian. §REF§(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">[26]</a>)§REF§ Behistun Inscription of Darius I contains 3,000 words. Combined, the other royal inscriptions amount to 2,600 words. Other inscriptions include two texts from Cyrus the Great (8 words), 44 other texts from Darius I (1500 words), 13 texts from Xerxes (850 words), 7 texts from Artaxerxes I and II (180 words), 1 unassigned fragment (8 words). Persepolis fortification tablets from Darius I is an additional, a magnitude larger,source of text. §REF§(Hallock 1958, 256)§REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"cultural discourse was Persian.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Written records§REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.286§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Thus, these seals, once thought to show strong continuity with earlier traditions, have been redated to the Middle Elamite phase. The final date of c.1000 BC for AIX is far from certain and it is possible that the frit seals of this style continued in use through the Neo-Elamite I period (c. 1000-725/700 BC). §REF§(Carter and Stopler 1985, 166)§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " inferred continuity with earlier periods" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " e.g. the writings of Rašid al-Din one of the main sources for Mongolian history as well as the Il-Khans. §REF§REUVEN AMITAI, 'IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a>§REF§ This period is seen as one of flourishing production of illustrated manuscripts sponsored by the court and senior officials. At first Baghdad was the centre of production, before it moved to Tabriz after the court converted to Islam. A Chinese influence is clearly seen on manuscript illustration at this time.§REF§Stefano Carboni, 'IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Sealings and other objects 'which appear to have functioned as tokens' have been recovered surrounding a Middle Susiana-period structure at the site of Chogha Mish.§REF§(Peasnall 2002, 181) Peasnall, Brian L. 2002. “Iranian Chalcolithic.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Vol. 8: South and Southwest Asia, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin M. Ember, 160-95. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32Z6KKJA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32Z6KKJA</a>.§REF§ 'The evidence of prehistoric administrative technology at Chogha Mish consists primarily of clay and stone tokens, as well as a few stamp seals and seal impressions. Small baked and unbaked clay tokens occur in all prehistoric Susiana levels', while seals and sealing first appear in this period, the late Middle Susiana.§REF§(Alizadeh 2008, 77-78) Alizadeh, Abbas. 2008. Chogha Mish II: The Development of a Prehistoric Regional Center in Lowland Susiana, Southwestern Iran. Final Report on the Last Six Seasons of Excavations, 1972-1978. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D9Z3T2K7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D9Z3T2K7</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Middle Elamite phase seals and sealings from Susa show banquets, hunting scenes, mythical beasts, and geometric patterns. Similar examples have been found at Chogha Zanbil, but none has been published from Haft Tepe. These seals were commonly made of faience or glazed frit, and the major scene was often framed by a ladderlike band at either end of the cylinder.\" §REF§(Carter and Stolper 1984, 165-166)§REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Middle Elamite phase seals and sealings from Susa show banquets, hunting scenes, mythical beasts, and geometric patterns. Similar examples have been found at Chogha Zanbil, but none has been published from Haft Tepe. These seals were commonly made of faience or glazed frit, and the major scene was often framed by a ladderlike band at either end of the cylinder.\" §REF§(Carter and Stolper 1984, 165-166)§REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Middle Elamite phase seals and sealings from Susa show banquets, hunting scenes, mythical beasts, and geometric patterns. Similar examples have been found at Chogha Zanbil, but none has been published from Haft Tepe. These seals were commonly made of faience or glazed frit, and the major scene was often framed by a ladderlike band at either end of the cylinder.\" §REF§(Carter and Stolper 1984, 165-166)§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 503, "name": "ir_neo_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam I", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Thus, these seals, once thought to show strong continuity with earlier traditions, have been redated to the Middle Elamite phase. The final date of c.1000 BC for AIX is far from certain and it is possible that the frit seals of this style continued in use through the Neo-Elamite I period (c. 1000-725/700 BC). §REF§(Carter and Stopler 1985, 166)§REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " : Shutruk-Nahhunte (699-693 BCE) \"royal inscriptions reappeared in Susa and in the monumental complex of Malamir, a mountain pass midway between Susa and Esfahan.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 528) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 505, "name": "ir_neo_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam III", "start_year": -612, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"All the more curious is the fact that the Elamite cuneiform script seems to have had no influence at all on the so-called 'Old Persian' cuneiform writing.\" §REF§Diakonoff 1985, 24)§REF§ \"In the late seventh century B.C., when Susa once again became an administrative headquarters, an unidentified prince governed a population consisting of not only Elamites but also Persians, who were new Indo-European immigrants. The individual character of this mixed, literate society was expressed in a new and original art that combined Bablyonian and Assyrian elements with indigenous traditions.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 13) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds.1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The Parthians had administrative documents.§REF§(Raschke 1976, 825) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§ The 'various and heterogeneous' writing in Parthian times consisted mainly of epigraphic material, including over 2,000 documents written on pot sherds at Nisā. §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, p.681.§REF§ The Chinese Shiji notes \"To make records they cut leather and write horizontally.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ Pahlavi parchment from Avroman in Kurdistan.§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxxv) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The Parthians had administrative documents.§REF§(Raschke 1976, 825) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§ The 'various and heterogeneous' writing in Parthian times consisted mainly of epigraphic material, including over 2,000 documents written on pot sherds at Nisā. §REF§Lukonin, V.G., ‘Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. III, p.681.§REF§ The Chinese Shiji notes \"To make records they cut leather and write horizontally.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ Pahlavi parchment from Avroman in Kurdistan.§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxxv) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 485, "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic", "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period", "start_year": -7800, "end_year": -7200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"The great organisations of the first phase of urbanisation rose to prominence without writing. The latter developed relatively quickly as a response to these institutions' needs.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 73) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ Liverani says the so-called \"urban revolution\" of the Uruk phase occurred 3800-3000 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 69-70) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " administrative and tax documents. §REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " \"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant.\"§REF§(Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Many written documents, such as those listed under Kinds of Written Documents. \"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant.\"§REF§(Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Documents were written in Greek and Cuneiform. §REF§Joannes, F. 2004. The Age of Empires: Mesopotamia in the first millennium BC. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p252.§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " The administration produced written documents and correspondence, in Persian. §REF§Daniela Meneghini 'SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. glyptic§REF§Potts 1999, 146§REF§ \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " glyptic§REF§Hinz 1971, 261§REF§ \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 498, "name": "ir_elam_4", "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Excavations at Susa have discovered many stamp seals and sealings dating from the Susa I period.§REF§(Potts 2004, 50) Potts, D. T. 2004. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"From about 8000 BC, a system of recording involving small clay tokens was prevalent in the Near and Middle East. Tokens were small geometric objects, usually in the shape of cylinders, cones, and spheres.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 134) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§ \"From about 3000 BC, among the Sumerians, tokens for different goods began appearing as impressions on clay tablets, represented by different symbols and multiple quantities represented by repetition. Thus three units of grain were denoted by three \"grain marks,\" five jars of oil by five \"oil marks,\" and so on.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Odner refers to oral literature: 'While literacy became widespread in Iceland during the two centuries prior to the writing of the sagas, the evidence suggests that writing continued to be connected to chieftains and landowners. As literacy was taught by the Church, most chieftains had clerical training, and many of them were ordained priests (Sveinsson 1953). Although the international outlook of Christianity was inimical to the kin-based and locally-based Icelandic civilization, at that time it was probably not regarded as too radical. Actually, when Christianity was first introduced to Iceland, it was probably considered to be a resource which the chieftains could exploit [Page 127] to their own benefit, and literacy was part of it. At the turn of the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, when they began to write sagas, relations between the lay and Church authorities became strained. The literature of the twelfth century is half-secular, half-ecclesiastic (Sveinsson 1953:103). The tension between the Church and the chieftains created an independent secular literature in Iceland in the thirteenth century (Lönnroth 1991). Increasingly, people turned to the oral literature which existed in the secular social environment. The context of literacy continued to be closely associated to the dominant social class.' §REF§Odner, Knut 1992. “Þógunna’S Testament: A Myth For Moral Contemplation And Social Apathy”, 126§REF§ Later written records, such as sagas, at least in part reflected older oral traditions (see below). The legal code was initially transmitted orally (see above): 'As Hastrup points out (1985:189) the principal of allodial or adal land, family ownership of land, was not transplanted to Iceland, for one reason, because there was no history of prior occupation on which to base such claims. She agrees with those who argue that the reason for the writing of Landnámabók, the Book of Settlements, which lists many settlers, their land claims, genealogies, and events of the Settlement Period, in the twelfth century was to provide evidence for claims to hereditary rights in land (p. 192). This work was written some time after the first recording of law began in 1117. The collection of laws is known as Grágás. According to this code, [Page 246] written nearly two-hundred years after the establishment of the Alþing and the adoption of an oral code of laws, land ownership was individual (Hastrup 1985:189). Hastrup argues that there was a contradiction between the legal code of individual ownership and informal concepts of family ownership which developed during the period after the settlement.' §REF§Durrenberger, E. Paul 1988. “Stratification Without A State: The Collapse Of The Icelandic Commonwealth\", 245§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that \"most [Italian peoples before the Romans] were not even literate\" §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 37§REF§, although some writing has been found in association with elite graves §REF§G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (2006), pp. 53-58§REF§." }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that \"most [Italian peoples before the Romans] were not even literate\" §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 37§REF§, although some writing has been found in association with elite graves §REF§G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (2006), pp. 53-58§REF§." }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Art. E.g. Black-figure pottery painting." }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Codex Argenteus, Ulfilas's Gothic translation of the Bible. 188 of 336 pages preserved, most comprehensive Gothic language text known. §REF§(Wolfram 1990, 325)§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Nonwritten_record", "nonwritten_record": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }