Indigenous Coin List
A viewset for viewing and editing Indigenous Coins.
GET /api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 521, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Papal and Papal-Imperial coins 735-980 CE §REF§(Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259)§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"By 1425, Venetian gold ducats were being minted at a million a year.\"§REF§(Ching and Jarzombek 2017, 457) Francis D K Ching. Mark M Jarzombek. 2017. A Global History of Architecture. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons.§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Venetian gold ducats" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Money had not been minted in Japan since the twelve imperial coins (kocho junisen) of Nara times, and from late Heian, Sung [Chinese dynasty 960-1280CE] coins circulated unchecked by legislative action.'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.408§REF§' a situation that remained largely unchanged until 1588CE when Hideyoshi commissioned the Goto family to mint oban gold coins.'§REF§Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.p.61§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The first minting occurred in 708 CE with silver and copper coins. §REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 435.§REF§. \"By the late seventh century, a few silver coins were issued, but they did not have a large circulation.\" The minting of 708 CE was modeled on the Tang currency.§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ \"Copper cash was known as Wado-kaichin, and four were the equivalent of a silver coin.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ Gold coins minted in 760 CE, one gold coin worth 100 copper mon.§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": 1568, "year_to": 1587, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": 1588, "year_to": 1603, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " '...the twelve imperial coins (kocho junisen) of Nara times, and from late Heian'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.408§REF§ 'In the quest for recognition as a civilized society by the seemingly advanced countries of the adjacent continent, Japanese leaders followed the example of Korea and China in minting the government's own coinage, despite the apparent absence of a vigorous domestic commerce in need of money currency. The leaders also probably hoped thereby not only to encourage and facilitate such commerce as existed, but perhaps as well to reap the profits that currency manipulation made possible. The first minting was the well-known Wado kaiho coin of 708, which was produced just seven years after the adoption of theTaiho code of 701. Eleven new coins followed in the next two and a half centuries (until 958), eight of them during the Heian years. Minting at various places but mainly in copperproducing regions like Suo and Nagato, they were mostly made of brass, but some were silver, and there was one gold coin, the Kaiki shoho coin of 760.' §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.164§REF§ 'The government seems to have tried to regain control of the currency by its frequent minting of new coins, and also by reducing the disparity between the legal value of the coinage and its actual metallic worth. But despite all efforts, the coins fell rapidly out of use after the last minting in 958, replaced in the late Heian period by imports of Chinese coins, especially the copper coins of Northern Sung.'§REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.164§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 138, "name": "jp_jomon_1", "long_name": "Japan - Incipient Jomon", "start_year": -13600, "end_year": -9200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 139, "name": "jp_jomon_2", "long_name": "Japan - Initial Jomon", "start_year": -9200, "end_year": -5300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "jp_jomon_3", "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 141, "name": "jp_jomon_4", "long_name": "Japan - Middle Jomon", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 142, "name": "jp_jomon_5", "long_name": "Japan - Late Jomon", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “Japan retained a barter system until the AD 600s [...]. Inspired by circulation of Chinese cash coppers, the island nation first produced extensive coinage after AD 708, when the Empress Genmyo turned new strikes of copper ore into coins.” §REF§(Snodgrass 2003, 253)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Money had not been minted in Japan since the twelve imperial coins (kocho junisen) of Nara times, and from late Heian, Sung [Chinese dynasty 960-1280CE] coins circulated unchecked by legislative action. However, with the development of various forces of production and the expansion of commerce, the demand for a circulating currency increased. The court was thus forced to recognize the great importance of the Sung coins, whose circulation had been prohibited until early Kamakura. '§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.408§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The earliest coins from Japan date to the Yayoi period (300 B.C.E.-300 C.E.), but these were Chinese imports and were probably regarded as ornaments of no monetary value.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The first minting occurred in 708 CE with silver and copper coins. §REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 435.§REF§. \"By the late seventh century, a few silver coins were issued, but they did not have a large circulation.\" The minting of 708 CE was modeled on the Tang currency.§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ \"Copper cash was known as Wado-kaichin, and four were the equivalent of a silver coin.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ Gold coins minted in 760 CE, one gold coin worth 100 copper mon.§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ \"In 765, further minting of copper coins only was instituted at Nara.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ \"...the twelve imperial coins (kocho junisen) of Nara times, and from late Heian'§REF§Yamamura, Kozo (ed). 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 3. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press [sixth edition].p.408§REF§ 'In the quest for recognition as a civilized society by the seemingly advanced countries of the adjacent continent, Japanese leaders followed the example of Korea and China in minting the government's own coinage, despite the apparent absence of a vigorous domestic commerce in need of money currency. The leaders also probably hoped thereby not only to encourage and facilitate such commerce as existed, but perhaps as well to reap the profits that currency manipulation made possible. The first minting was the well-known Wado kaiho coin of 708, which was produced just seven years after the adoption of theTaiho code of 701. Eleven new coins followed in the next two and a half centuries (until 958), eight of them during the Heian years. Minting at various places but mainly in copper producing regions like Suo and Nagato, they were mostly made of brass, but some were silver, and there was one gold coin, the Kaiki shoho coin of 760.\" §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.164§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"As the assessment of the land was expressed in cash terms it was first as hard cash that taxes were collected, until technical difficulties obliged the Hōjō to change the system. Being unable to mint sufficient coins within the domain, and being equally unable to control the entry of debased coinage into the domain, conversion standards were introduced to express the tax in terms of rice, lacquer or cotton.\" §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘in the Tokugawa period (1600-1867), a nationally independent monetary system was created, as the shogunal government (Bakufu) issued its own bronze, silver, and gold coinages. Up to the 1770s, the Tokugawa coinage system functioned as a triple monetary standard. Each of the metallic coinages had its own system of denominations, despite Bakufu efforts to fix rates between them, the gold, silver, and copper coinages in effect floated against each other in the exchange markets.’ §REF§Metzler, Mark. 2006. Lever of Empire: The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan. Volume 17 of Twentieth Century Japan: The Emergence of a World Power. University of California Press.p.15§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The earliest coins from Japan date to the Yayoi period (300 B.C.E.-300 C.E.), but these were Chinese imports and were probably regarded as ornaments of no monetary value.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 84) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The dirhams struck with the name and title of Ibrahim Tamghach Khan were known as mu’ayyadi. They were made of low-grade silver, but the addition of copper was not a fraud carried out in secret. The population knew the official standard of purity of the mu’ayyadi dirhams; their value, which tallied with that standard, fluctuated slightly and was fixed in terms of pure gold. Greater purchasing power was attached to the Bukhar Khudat dirhams, which were struck on the model of the Sasanian coinage\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 136) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Some Sogdian coins produced under the Hephthalities." }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'In China's Song dynasty (AD 960-1279), contemporaneous with the period most closely associated with that height of the Khmer empire, records of Khmer tributary missions are scare compared to missions reported for neighbouring polities including Champa (central Vietnam) and southern Sumatra (Wong 1979). During this era, polities in Java and Sumatra developed multiple shipping ports, hosted foreign merchants, and established coinage (Christie 1999). The Khmer empire never developed a standardized currency, instead using exchange equivalents in gold, silver, rice, cloth, cattle, butter and slaves (Sedov 1978:125), and remained a marginal player in the China-Southeast Asia trade network.'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 161)§REF§ 'The economy of Angkor, now receiving detailed scholarly attention is somewhat peculiar because, unlike most neighbouring states, the empire never used money of any kind.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p.9)§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'In China's Song dynasty (AD 960-1279), contemporaneous with the period most closely associated with that height of the Khmer empire, records of Khmer tributary missions are scare compared to missions reported for neighbouring polities including Champa (central Vietnam) and southern Sumatra (Wong 1979). During this era, polities in Java and Sumatra developed multiple shipping ports, hosted foreign merchants, and established coinage (Christie 1999). The Khmer empire never developed a standardized currency, instead using exchange equivalents in gold, silver, rice, cloth, cattle, butter and slaves (Sedov 1978:125), and remained a marginal player in the China-Southeast Asia trade network.'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 161)§REF§ 'The economy of Angkor, now receiving detailed scholarly attention is somewhat peculiar because, unlike most neighbouring states, the empire never used money of any kind.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p.9)§REF§ 'Some major differences between the pre-Angkor and Angkor peri- ods include the transfer of the center of power and population from southeast to northwest Cambodia (see map 4); the title pon disap- peared; inscriptions adopted a different format; new names were used for deities; and new words for economic subjects appeared. The system of coinage used in early Cambodia was discontinued; the Angkor period economy was moneyless.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 82)§REF§ 'Coinages were arguably introduced into Southeast Asia to expand the economies of early Indianised polities, including Funan, and to enhance the status of rulers. The absence of coins in later polities, such as Pagan and Angkor, is attributed to the redistribution of surplus wealth through the temples and monasteries, rather than the royal courts (Gutman 1978: 8-10)'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “It is unclear from Zhou’s account how products were paid for although it seems un-likely that government-sponsored currency was in circulation.” §REF§(Chandler 2008, 87)§REF§ 'In China's Song dynasty (AD 960-1279), contemporaneous with the period most closely associated with that height of the Khmer empire, records of Khmer tributary missions are scare compared to missions reported for neighbouring polities including Champa (central Vietnam) and southern Sumatra (Wong 1979). During this era, polities in Java and Sumatra developed multiple shipping ports, hosted foreign merchants, and established coinage (Christie 1999). The Khmer empire never developed a standardized currency, instead using exchange equivalents in gold, silver, rice, cloth, cattle, butter and slaves (Sedov 1978:125), and remained a marginal player in the China-Southeast Asia trade network.'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 161)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "'In China's Song dynasty (AD 960-1279), contemporaneous with the period most closely associated with that height of the Khmer empire, records of Khmer tributary missions are scare compared to missions reported for neighbouring polities including Champa (central Vietnam) and southern Sumatra (Wong 1979). During this era, polities in Java and Sumatra developed multiple shipping ports, hosted foreign merchants, and established coinage (Christie 1999). The Khmer empire never developed a standardized currency, instead using exchange equivalents in gold, silver, rice, cloth, cattle, butter and slaves (Sedov 1978:125), and remained a marginal player in the China-Southeast Asia trade network.'§REF§(Stark, Miriam 2010, p. 161)§REF§<br>'The economy of Angkor, now receiving detailed scholarly attention is somewhat peculiar because, unlike most neighbouring states, the empire never used money of any kind.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p.9)§REF§<br>'Coinages were arguably introduced into Southeast Asia to expand the economies of early Indianised polities, including Funan, and to enhance the status of rulers. The absence of coins in later polities, such as Pagan and Angkor, is attributed to the redistribution of surplus wealth through the temples and monasteries, rather than the royal courts (Gutman 1978: 8-10)'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Strong evidence against the importance of trade or markets is the absence of money in post-6th-century Cambodia in contrast to Funan which had coinage'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 314)§REF§ 'Neither is there reference to coinage, although precious metals are mentioned as objects of exchanges among donors and temples. The lack of coinage seems confirmed by the inability of archaeologists or architects excavating and restoring temples to discover any coins which may be dated between the end of the Funan and the post-Angkor period.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, 275)§REF§ 'There was no system of coinage, but goods were valued by measures of silver by weight, quantities of rice, or length and quality of cloth.'§REF§(Higham 2004, 76)§REF§ 'But certain Indian traits, such as the minting and use of coinage, never <i>took</i>: the Khmer realm essentially remained a barter economy until the arrival of the French in the nineteenth century.'§REF§(Coe 2003, 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'The 1st to 5th century site of Oc Eo on Vietnam’s coast, then on the east-west maritime trade route, has produced, among other artefacts, a Vishnuite silver coin and a Roman gold medallion (Malleret 1959-62; Coe 2003; 66-67), but there is no evidence that Funan minted its own coinage (Sahai 1971: 94; Wicks 1992: 186). Indeed, the Chinese reported that taxes in Funan were paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes (Pelliot 1903: 252).'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 82)§REF§ Higham, however, points out that \" A local coinage developed with motifs including the sun and shellfish. It did not survive the life of Funan, however. §REF§(Higham 2004b, p. 27)§REF§ Wicks sustains that there was no local coinage, but acknowledges the presence of Burmese or Thai coinage. §REF§(Wicks 1992, p. 186)§REF§<br>'Strong evidence against the importance of trade or markets is the absence of money in post-6th-century Cambodia in contrast to Funan which had coinage'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 314)§REF§ 'Neither is there reference to coinage, although precious metals are mentioned as objects of exchanges among donors and temples. The lack of coinage seems confirmed by the inability of archaeologists or architects excavating and restoring temples to discover any coins which may be dated between the end of the Funan and the post-Angkor period.'<re>(Vickery 1998, p. 275); 'Barter was the normal market exchange mechanism. After the Angkor period, gold coins marked with symbols made their appearance, but until then gold or silver ingots with measured weights functioned as currency (the earliest evidence of the use of bullion in exchange dates from the period of the \"Fu-nan\").' §REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.176)§REF§ 'Coinages were arguably introduced into Southeast Asia to expand the economies of early Indianised polities, including Funan, and to enhance the status of rulers. The absence of coins in later polities, such as Pagan and Angkor, is attributed to the redistribution of surplus wealth through the temples and monasteries, rather than the royal courts (Gutman 1978: 8-10)'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'The 1st to 5th century site of Oc Eo on Vietnam’s coast, then on the east-west maritime trade route, has produced, among other artefacts, a Vishnuite silver coin and a Roman gold medallion (Malleret 1959-62; Coe 2003; 66-67), but there is no evidence that Funan minted its own coinage (Sahai 1971: 94; Wicks 1992: 186). Indeed, the Chinese reported that taxes in Funan were paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes (Pelliot 1903: 252).'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 82)§REF§<br>'Strong evidence against the importance of trade or markets is the absence of money in post-6th-century Cambodia in contrast to Funan which had coinage'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 314)§REF§ 'Neither is there reference to coinage, although precious metals are mentioned as objects of exchanges among donors and temples. The lack of coinage seems confirmed by the inability of archaeologists or architects excavating and restoring temples to discover any coins which may be dated between the end of the Funan and the post-Angkor period.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 275)§REF§ 'Barter was the normal market exchange mechanism. After the Angkor period, gold coins marked with symbols made their appearance, but until then gold or silver ingots with measured weights functioned as currency (the earliest evidence of the use of bullion in exchange dates from the period of the \"Fu-nan\").' §REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.176)§REF§ 'Coinages were arguably introduced into Southeast Asia to expand the economies of early Indianised polities, including Funan, and to enhance the status of rulers. The absence of coins in later polities, such as Pagan and Angkor, is attributed to the redistribution of surplus wealth through the temples and monasteries, rather than the royal courts (Gutman 1978: 8-10)'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 95)§REF§ 'But certain Indian traits, such as the minting and use of coinage, never <i>took</i>: the Khmer realm essentially remained a barter economy until the arrival of the French in the nineteenth century.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'The 1st to 5th century site of Oc Eo on Vietnam’s coast, then on the east-west maritime trade route, has produced, among other artefacts, a Vishnuite silver coin and a Roman gold medallion (Malleret 1959-62; Coe 2003; 66-67), but there is no evidence that Funan minted its own coinage (Sahai 1971: 94; Wicks 1992: 186). Indeed, the Chinese reported that taxes in Funan were paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes (Pelliot 1903: 252).'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 82)§REF§<br>'Strong evidence against the importance of trade or markets is the absence of money in post-6th-century Cambodia in contrast to Funan which had coinage'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 314)§REF§ 'Neither is there reference to coinage, although precious metals are mentioned as objects of exchanges among donors and temples. The lack of coinage seems confirmed by the inability of archaeologists or architects excavating and restoring temples to discover any coins which may be dated between the end of the Funan and the post-Angkor period.'§REF§(Vickery 1998, p. 275)§REF§ 'Barter was the normal market exchange mechanism. After the Angkor period, gold coins marked with symbols made their appearance, but until then gold or silver ingots with measured weights functioned as currency (the earliest evidence of the use of bullion in exchange dates from the period of the \"Fu-nan\").' §REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.176)§REF§ 'Coinages were arguably introduced into Southeast Asia to expand the economies of early Indianised polities, including Funan, and to enhance the status of rulers. The absence of coins in later polities, such as Pagan and Angkor, is attributed to the redistribution of surplus wealth through the temples and monasteries, rather than the royal courts (Gutman 1978: 8-10)'§REF§(Lustig 2009, p. 95)§REF§ 'But certain Indian traits, such as the minting and use of coinage, never <i>took</i>: the Khmer realm essentially remained a barter economy until the arrival of the French in the nineteenth century.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -461, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"Phoenicians developed minting of coinage relatively late, at least later than the Lydians and the Greeks. Sometime in the middle of the fifth century BCE, four cities abandoned the use of weights as monetary units and started minting coinage: Byblos (ca. 460 BCE), Tyre (ca. 450 BCE), Sidon (ca. 440 BCE), and Arwad (ca. 430 BCE).\"§REF§Jigoulov (2016:73), cf. Altmann (2016:137).§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": -460, "year_to": -332, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Phoenicians developed minting of coinage relatively late, at least later than the Lydians and the Greeks. Sometime in the middle of the fifth century BCE, four cities abandoned the use of weights as monetary units and started minting coinage: Byblos (ca. 460 BCE), Tyre (ca. 450 BCE), Sidon (ca. 440 BCE), and Arwad (ca. 430 BCE).\"§REF§Jigoulov (2016:73), cf. Altmann (2016:137).§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " After the conquest of Sudan, Elmansour decided to pay his administrators in metal (inferred gold) and dinars. Golden coins were minted everyday in front of his palace.§REF§(Muhammad Sagir al-Ifrani, translated by Houdas 1889, 167)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"no trace of a die or mint has been found south of the desert.\"§REF§(Devisse 1988, 387) Devisse, J \"Trade and Trade Routes in West Africa\" in El Fasi, M and Hrbek, I. eds. 1988. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. Heinemann. California.<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf</a>§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency included blocks of salt of different sizes.§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to Leo Africanus cowries used as currency for trading came from the Indian Ocean, via Persia.§REF§(Diop 1987, 134) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to al Bakri (11th century) 'The dinars they used were of pure gold and were called sola [bald] because they bore no imprints.' ... Thus these documents allow us to be sure of the use in Black Africa of imprinted gold coins, without, however, being able to know whether such imprints were effiges of local emperors or kings, or to know whether there was any generalized imperial currency minited apart from the mitkal standard.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 135) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"no trace of a die or mint has been found south of the desert.\"§REF§(Devisse 1988, 387) Devisse, J \"Trade and Trade Routes in West Africa\" in El Fasi, M and Hrbek, I. eds. 1988. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. Heinemann. California.<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf</a>§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency included blocks of salt of different sizes.§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to Leo Africanus cowries used as currency for trading came from the Indian Ocean, via Persia.§REF§(Diop 1987, 134) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to al Bakri (11th century) 'The dinars they used were of pure gold and were called sola [bald] because they bore no imprints.' ... Thus these documents allow us to be sure of the use in Black Africa of imprinted gold coins, without, however, being able to know whether such imprints were effiges of local emperors or kings, or to know whether there was any generalized imperial currency minited apart from the mitkal standard.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 135) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"no trace of a die or mint has been found south of the desert.\"§REF§(Devisse 1988, 387) Devisse, J \"Trade and Trade Routes in West Africa\" in El Fasi, M and Hrbek, I. eds. 1988. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. Heinemann. California.<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf</a>§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency included blocks of salt of different sizes.§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to Leo Africanus cowries used as currency for trading came from the Indian Ocean, via Persia.§REF§(Diop 1987, 134) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to al Bakri (11th century) 'The dinars they used were of pure gold and were called sola [bald] because they bore no imprints.' ... Thus these documents allow us to be sure of the use in Black Africa of imprinted gold coins, without, however, being able to know whether such imprints were effiges of local emperors or kings, or to know whether there was any generalized imperial currency minited apart from the mitkal standard.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 135) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Surprisingly the state probably did not mint coins: 'no trace of a die or mint has been found south of the desert.'§REF§(Devisse 1988, 387) Devisse, J \"Trade and Trade Routes in West Africa\" in El Fasi, M and Hrbek, I. eds. 1988. General History of Africa III: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. Heinemann. California.<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001842/184282eo.pdf</a>§REF§ There were coins of gold, but they were not minted. §REF§(Niane 1975, 176)§REF§ There were also rings of iron that were used to purchase cheap items. §REF§(Niane 1975, 177)§REF§ Currency \"consisted of salt, cowries, or gold in either dust or pieces (of foreign or local mintage).\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 133) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to Leo Africanus cowries used as currency for trading came from the Indian Ocean, via Persia.§REF§(Diop 1987, 134) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ According to al Bakri (11th century) 'The dinars they used were of pure gold and were called sola [bald] because they bore no imprints.' ... Thus these documents allow us to be sure of the use in Black Africa of imprinted gold coins, without, however, being able to know whether such imprints were effiges of local emperors or kings, or to know whether there was any generalized imperial currency minited apart from the mitkal standard.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 135) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§ \"The Khitan had made copper cash even before the time of A-pao-chi, and sometime in T'ai-tsung's reign (927—47) an official was appointed to control the minting of cash and iron production. Shih Ching-t'ang, founder of the puppet Chin regime (936-46) and a loyal vassal of the Khitan, had supplied large amounts of copper cash to help the Liao economy. But during Shih-tsung's reign, the Sung captive Hu Chiao reported that silk, rather than cash, was the main form of currency even at the capital.\" §REF§(Twitchett, D.C. and K. Tietze. 1994. The Liao. In Franke, H. and D.C. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368 pp. 43-153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 96)§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Taxation within the empire moved from payment in kind to payment to cash, this encouraged expansion of the coinage. §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005),p.83.§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to personal communication with N. Kradin. §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 439, "name": "mn_shiwei", "long_name": "Shiwei", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§(Kradin 2015, personal communication)§REF§" } ] }