Indigenous Coin List
A viewset for viewing and editing Indigenous Coins.
GET /api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 521, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Closed currency system. Follow-up reference: Sitta von Reden, Money in Ptolemaic Egypt: From the Macedonian Conquest to the End of the Third Century BC.§REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Closed currency system. Follow-up reference: Sitta von Reden, Money in Ptolemaic Egypt: From the Macedonian Conquest to the End of the Third Century BC.§REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " No reference to coins, and taxes were paid in silver and grain." }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " dinar §REF§(Raymond 2000, 29)§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Copper coins for petty trade. §REF§(Casey 2002, 58) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§ Silver and gold <i>real</i> coins." }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": -149, "year_to": 249, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"The first Aksumite king to put his own coinage into circulation was Endybis (in the second half of the third century). The Aksumites' monetary system was similar to the Byzantine system; in weight, standard and form, Aksumite coins bore a basic resemblance to Byzantine coins of the same period.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early coins \"showed the crescent and disc, representing the moon and sun of earlier beliefs\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 143) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"it would seem likely that coins were introduced because of Aksum's participation in an international trade that was accustomed to such a means of exchange. The earliest Askumite coins belong to the third century AD\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 146) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ 90% coins are found in northern Ethiopia, mostly made of bronze. \"most of the gold coins have come from South Arabia and, less certainly, from India ... It would appear that the coinage of Aksum had a rather limited circulation\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 146) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Most Aksumite coins are bronze.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 374) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early kings e.g. Endybis, Aphilas etc. had coins.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 374) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Coin legends \"are written in Greek or Ethiopic, never in south Arabian. Greek appears on the very earliest coins; Ethiopic begins only with Wazeba.\"§REF§(Anfray 1981, 375) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"The coins bear no dates, and this gives rise to many conjectures when it comes to classification. The oldest type - probably the one minted in the reign of Endybis - goes back no farther than the third century.\"§REF§(Anfray 1981, 375) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ <i>Wazeba, the first king to use Ethiopic on coins, ruled in the early fourth century CE.</i> \"the Aksumite kingdom issued its own gold, silver, and copper coins from the second half of the 3rd century to the middle of the 7th century.\"§REF§(Curtis 2017, 107) Matthew C Curtis. Aksum, town and monuments. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§" }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 349, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The first Aksumite king to put his own coinage into circulation was Endybis (in the second half of the third century). The Aksumites' monetary system was similar to the Byzantine system; in weight, standard and form, Aksumite coins bore a basic resemblance to Byzantine coins of the same period.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early coins \"showed the crescent and disc, representing the moon and sun of earlier beliefs\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 143) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"it would seem likely that coins were introduced because of Aksum's participation in an international trade that was accustomed to such a means of exchange. The earliest Askumite coins belong to the third century AD\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 146) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ 90% coins are found in northern Ethiopia, mostly made of bronze. \"most of the gold coins have come from South Arabia and, less certainly, from India ... It would appear that the coinage of Aksum had a rather limited circulation\".§REF§(Connah 2016, 146) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Most Aksumite coins are bronze.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 374) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early kings e.g. Endybis, Aphilas etc. had coins.§REF§(Anfray 1981, 374) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Coin legends \"are written in Greek or Ethiopic, never in south Arabian. Greek appears on the very earliest coins; Ethiopic begins only with Wazeba.\"§REF§(Anfray 1981, 375) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"The coins bear no dates, and this gives rise to many conjectures when it comes to classification. The oldest type - probably the one minted in the reign of Endybis - goes back no farther than the third century.\"§REF§(Anfray 1981, 375) F Anfray. The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ <i>Wazeba, the first king to use Ethiopic on coins, ruled in the early fourth century CE.</i> \"the Aksumite kingdom issued its own gold, silver, and copper coins from the second half of the 3rd century to the middle of the 7th century.\"§REF§(Curtis 2017, 107) Matthew C Curtis. Aksum, town and monuments. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing.§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit', '4' Foreign coinage or paper currency was present, not ‘1’ 'No media of exchange or money', 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'." }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far." }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "." }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Livre tournois. Silver livre tournois which was worth 20 sous or 240 deniers. Early in the eighteenth century two attempts were made to introduce a paper currency which both failed. §REF§Ladurie, E L. 1991. The Ancien Regime. A History of France, 1610-1774. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. p. 336, 554, 290.§REF§§REF§Briggs, R. 1998. Early Modern France 1560-1715. Second edition. Oxford. Oxford University Press. p 151.§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Livres tournois. 1726 CE silver contentof the livre tournois fixed at 5.25 grams. Thereafter stable for two centuries with exception of the 1790s CE.§REF§(Ladurie 1991, 336)§REF§ Worth 20 sous or 240 deniers.§REF§(Ladurie 1991, 554)§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"During the late 8th century under Charlemagne, the livre esterlin was fixed at 5,760 grains (367.1 grams) and consisted of 20 sous, 12 onces, 240 deniers, 480 oboles. This livre was the first national standard; it was retained until the middle of the 14th century, when the government of King John II the Good authorized the employment of a new, heavier, livre called the livre poids de marc.\" §REF§(Zupko in Kibler et al 2005, 1842)§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Philip II to Louis IX gradually standardized coinage into two main types, the denier of Paris, called the parisis, and that of Tours, the tournois, with a specific relationship between the two. Barons in France continued to mint coins, but the kings increasingly interferred, and in 1263 Louis IX established the principle that royal money be acceptable as legal tender throughout the kingdom.\"§REF§(Hunt and Murry, 1999 46)§REF§ Local mint in Provins operated since the 10th century: By 1170s CE provided the dominant currency in Eastern France and widely used as far as central Italy. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 146)§REF§; Minted silver deniers, called provinois§REF§(Spufford 2006, 149)§REF§; These were the coins of the Champagne Fairs§REF§(Spufford 2006, 149)§REF§; Later the Provins mint struck royal money, the denier tournois §REF§(Spufford 2006, 148)§REF§; Philip IV moved the royal mint from Provins to Troyes.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 148)§REF§; Silver until Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) reintroduced gold coinage." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 309, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The majority of the coins were made of silver. There were also some gold coins. \"240 silver pence equalled one pound of silver.\"§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The majority of the coins were made of silver. There were also some gold coins. \"240 silver pence equalled one pound of silver.\"§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)§REF§" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " c570 CE gold coins. Solidus. coins bear name of mint, moneyer and sometimes a king, saint or church (i.e. not all royal issue). debased with silver until 660s CE when new silver denarius created. §REF§(Wood 1994, 217-219)§REF§" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " c570 CE gold coins. Solidus. coins bear name of mint, moneyer and sometimes a king, saint or church (i.e. not all royal issue). debased with silver until 660s CE when new silver denarius created. §REF§(Wood 1994, 217-219)§REF§ Proportion of gold in coins fell rapidly from 630s CE. Officially replaced by silver in late seventh century. Possible \"inflationary period after 700 until Charlemagne devalued the solidus,\" also a lack of gold. §REF§(Wood ed. 1998, 409)§REF§ Quentovic: Coin mint centre; 7th century gold trientes until c670 CE; 8th century silver sceattas or pennies. trading coinage. no fiscal role. high value and consistent in quality. §REF§(Wood 1994, 293-297)§REF§ Dorestad §REF§(Wood 1994, 293-297)§REF§: Coin mint centre; gold trientes until c650 CE; 8th century silver sceattas or pennies. trading coinage. no fiscal role. high value and consistent in quality. In Frisia and Quentovic (Frankish port) silver sceattas. Mercantile coin. §REF§(Wood 1994, 217-219)§REF§" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " c570 CE gold coins. Solidus. coins bear name of mint, moneyer and sometimes a king, saint or church (i.e. not all royal issue). debased with silver until 660s CE when new silver denarius created. §REF§(Wood 1994, 217-219)§REF§ Proportion of gold in coins fell rapidly from 630s CE. Officially replaced by silver in late seventh century. §REF§(Wood ed. 1998, 409)§REF§ Quentovic: Coin mint centre; 7th century gold trientes until c670 CE; 8th century silver sceattas or pennies. trading coinage. no fiscal role. high value and consistent in quality. §REF§(Wood 1994, 293-297)§REF§<br>Dorestad §REF§(Wood 1994, 293-297)§REF§: Coin mint centre; gold trientes until c650 CE; 8th century silver sceattas or pennies. trading coinage. no fiscal role. high value and consistent in quality.In Frisia and Quentovic (Frankish port) silver sceattas. Mercantile coin. §REF§(Wood 1994, 217-219)§REF§" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " monnaie gauloise §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§ <i>This site does not offer clear evidence of indigenous coin production</i> Some possible indication of 4th century coin production§REF§(Boardman 1993, 308) Boardman, J. 1993. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press§REF§, though many suggest indigenous coins in area not appear until mid-3rd c BCE §REF§(Wells 1999) Wells, P S. 1999. The Barbarians Speak: How The Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " monnaie gauloise §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§ <i>This site does not offer clear evidence of indigenous coin production</i> Some possible indication of 4th century coin production§REF§(Boardman 1993, 308) Boardman, J. 1993. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton University Press§REF§, though many suggest indigenous coins in area not appear until mid-3rd c BCE §REF§(Wells 1999) Wells, P S. 1999. The Barbarians Speak: How The Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " monnaie gauloise §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§ Coinage universal from 3rd century BCE: \"the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C., and the designs were based on Greek prototypes.\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 54)§REF§ Idea of coinage introduced by mercenaries returning from Greece.§REF§(Wells 1999, 54)§REF§ Original usage may have been to pay mercenaries. Cheiftains were paid in gold staters or silver pieces; Design of coin decided in each locale. Magistrates had power to issue coins. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 100)§REF§; Gold coin found - origin Mediomatrices of NW Gaul? §REF§(Kruta 2004, 186)§REF§; Gold stater from Gaulish city of Parisii §REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§; Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria, 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, evidence of monetary economy. Minted gold, silver and bronze coins. §REF§(Wells 1999, 30)§REF§" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Coinage universal from 3rd century BCE: \"the first indigenous coins in temperate Europe were minted during the third century B.C., and the designs were based on Greek prototypes.\"§REF§(Wells 1999, 54)§REF§; Idea of coinage introduced by mercenaries returning from Greece.§REF§(Wells 1999, 54)§REF§; Original usage may have been to pay mercenaries. Cheiftains were paid in gold staters or silver pieces; Design of coin decided in each locale. Magistrates had power to issue coins. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 100)§REF§; Gold coin found - origin Mediomatrices of NW Gaul? §REF§(Kruta 2004, 186)§REF§; Gold stater from Gaulish city of Parisii §REF§(Kruta 2004, 185)§REF§; Oppida excavated Manching, Bavaria, 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, evidence of monetary economy. Minted gold, silver and bronze coins. §REF§(Wells 1999, 30)§REF§; Each oppidum minted distinctive types of coins. §REF§(Wells 1999, 49-54)§REF§ Present. §REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Livre tournois, of 20 sols and 240 deniers, was a unit of account. Widely used gold coin, ecu d'or soleil fixed at 36s3d in 1498 CE, 2 livres (i.e. 40s) in 1516 CE, 45s in 1533 CE, 50s in 1551 CE, 60s in 1574 CE. Widely used silver coin, teston, fixed at 10s in 1498 CE, 10s6d in 1541 CE, 12s in 1561 CE. The livre parisis was a lesser used larger unit of account: 1 sol tournois = 15 deniers parisis. §REF§(Potter 1995, xvi)§REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Coinage of the British Empire from the Earliest Period to the Present Time\" Henry Noel Humphreys (1861). \"Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint's role was largely domestic. Britain's North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to 'purchase' permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions. For the Mint itself the eighteenth century was a period of relative stagnation: British silver and copper coinage was in a poor condition and was in short supply. ... The end of the Napoleonic wars, however, was followed by currency reform and in 1816-17 recoinage in Britain. In 1818 private coins were made illegal. ... The installation of Boulton's steam-powered machinery, coupled with a French invention, the 'reducing machine', which reproduced original coin designs by machine rather than by hand engraving, enabled for the first time the mass production of high-quality and homogenous copper coins and transformed the Mint itself into an 'industrial concern'. These changes coincided with the growth of a 'second' British Empire and the Mint began producing more coins for overseas dependenies.\"§REF§(Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Rule-breakers were fined in gold or kind rather than indigenous coinage: 'By virtue of his position, all penalties for breach of the [Page 30] tribal or public oath are collected for and paid to the Ohene, in addition to certain court fees, such as Asida, or Atingé. In former times the Ohene of every large town was entitled to fine strangers entering his town bearing arms without his permission so to do. Fines are paid for accidental homicide; such as carelessly wounding a person taking part in the chase. A person found guilty of criminal intercourse with a married woman is liable to pay to the injured husband a fine of two ounces of gold (benda), that is, £7 4 s. In cases of theft the guilty offender is made to restore to the owner the stolen article or its value, and to his ruler he pays a fine. Where a thief is unable to restore a priceless article, he is killed, and his nearest blood relatives are fined, and, if unable to pay, are sold for the amount. The amount of a fine for theft does not depend so much on the value of the article as upon the nature thereof; e.g. it is not considered theft for a starving man to steal any foodstuff to appease his hunger. Among a people who have been accustomed to have all things in common, the sensibility of many persons to the criminality of theft is not so great as in Europe. In the old settlements, however, the standard of morality in this respect is steadily rising.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 29p§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " According to SCCS variable 17 'Money (Media of Exchange) and Credit' 'Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange' were used, not 'No media of exchange or money' or 'Domestically used articles as media of exchange' or 'Foreign coinage or paper coinage', or 'Indigenous coinage or paper currency'." }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Cretans started minting around 470 BCE perhaps as a response to the reduced supple of new Aiginetan coinage. §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 247-68.§REF§" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Cretan cities started minting around 470 BCE as a response to the reduced supply of new Aiginetan coinage. §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 257-59. For the cretan coins see the seminal work of Le Ride, G. 1966. <i>Monnaies Crétoises du Ve au Ier Sicècle av. J.-C.</i> (<i>Études Crétoises XV</i>), Paris.§REF§ Most cities, except Kydonia, Gortyn, Phaistos, Knossos and Lyttos, started their coinage by overstriking Aiginetan staters. The 5th century BCE is a period of serious political developments in the Aegean with the raise of Athenian hegemony, a power in open rivality with Aigina. The decline of the Aiginetan coinage, the only currency in circulation in Archaic Crete, and the accustom of Cretans to use coinage for their transaction led the major cities to open their mints and overstrike the foreign coins from their treasuries. §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 258.§REF§" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Miller, G. C. 1970. <i>The Coinage of the Arab Amirs of Crete</i>, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Cretans started minting around 470 BCE perhaps as a response to the reduced supple of new Aiginetan coinage. §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotos, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 247-68.§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": " During the Hellenistic period, most Cretan cities started their coinage. §REF§Le Ride, G. 1966. <i>Monnaies Crétoises du Ve au Ier Sicècle av. J.-C.</i> (Études Crétoises XV), Paris§REF§ §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 259-64.§REF§ The outburst of coining has been explained as the result of returning mercenaries, commerce, or difficult political situation in the Aegean. §REF§Kraay, C. M. 1984. \"Greek coinage and war,\" in Heckel, W. and Sullivan, R. (eds), <i>Ancient Coins of the Graeco-Roman World</i> (The Nickel Numismatic Paper), Waterloo (Ontario), 3-18§REF§ §REF§Petropoulou, A. 1985. <i>Beiträge zur Wirtschafts- ind Gesellschaftsgeschichte Kretas in hellenistischer Zeit</i>, Frankfurt, 61-68.§REF§ According the Stefanakis the outburst of coining indicates the change in the economic mentality of Cretans. Mercenaries and merchants who had become accustomed to money transactions while abroad might have contributed to the adoption of coinage in their home cities. Moreover, the high influx of foreign silver coins in the state treasuries led to the active participation in the monetary economy. \"However, because transactions on foreign currency of different weight standards would have been difficult since an established weight standard had existed on Crete for over a century and a half, the cities found it necessary tp reming the silver in their possessions and therefore to developed their own mints and choose their own coin types.\" §REF§Stefanakis, M. I. 1999. \"The introduction of coinage in Crete and the beginning of local minting,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 260.§REF§ Cretan city-states adopted a reduced Aiginetan standard which fluctuated between 6% and 12% below the Aiginetan standard of 12.20 gr. §REF§Garaffo, S. 1974. \"Riconiazzioni e politica monetary a Creta: Le emission argentee del V al I secolo AC,\" in <i>Antichita Cretesi. Studi in honore di Doro Levi</i>, II, Catania, 59-74.§REF§ The Cretan mints, therefore, were adjusting to a weight standard that dominated the southeastern Aegean. It is also likely that the adoption of a standard lower than that of the Aeginetan was due to the the scarcity of silver on the island. The standard weights of the Cretan coins are ±11.10 for stater, ±5.50 for drachm, ±2.75 for hemidrachm, and ±0.90 for obol." }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Needless to say, there was no money (in Diamond's words, no \"abstract, intrinsically valueless medium for appropriating surplus, storing value, and deferring payment or delaying exchange\") in precontact Hawai'i'.§REF§(Trask 1983, 99) Haunani-Kay Trask. 1983. 'Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778'. <i>Pacific Studies</i> 7 (1): 91-117.§REF§" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " 'Needless to say, there was no money (in Diamond's words, no \"abstract, intrinsically valueless medium for appropriating surplus, storing value, and deferring payment or delaying exchange\") in precontact Hawai'i'.§REF§(Trask 1983, 99) Haunani-Kay Trask. 1983. 'Cultures in Collision: Hawai'i and England, 1778'. <i>Pacific Studies</i> 7 (1): 91-117.§REF§" } ] }