Indigenous Coin List
A viewset for viewing and editing Indigenous Coins.
GET /api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=10
{ "count": 521, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=11", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/indigenous-coins/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "gold dinars §REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 350)§REF§" }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": "no data.", "description": null }, { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "Early coins \"showed the crescent and disc, representing the moon and sun of earlier beliefs; the later ones included the cross ... among the earliest coins of any country to do so, according to Buzton (1970: 40).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 143]</a> 90% coins are found in northern Ethiopia, mostly made of bronze. \"most of the gold coins have come from South Arabia and, less certainly, from India ... It would appear that the coinage of Aksum had a rather limited circulation, although foreign coins were imported into Aksum from South Arabian, Roman, and Indian sources.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 146]</a> Coin legends \"are written in Greek or Ethiopic, never in south Arabian. Greek appears on the very earliest coins; Ethiopic begins only with Wazeba.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5V2LQXW\">[Anfray 1981, p. 375]</a> Wazeba, the first king to use Ethiopic on coins, ruled in the early fourth century CE. \"the Aksumite kingdom issued its own gold, silver, and copper coins from the second half of the 3rd century to the middle of the 7th century.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": 600, "year_to": 625, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": 626, "year_to": 699, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": 700, "year_to": 800, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "\"it would seem likely that coins were introduced because of Aksum's participation in an international trade that was accustomed to such a means of exchange. The earliest Askumite coins belong to the third century AD, the latest to the seventh century (Munro-Hay 1991: 67-80), and it is surely significant that they ceased to be issued at a time when Aksum's external trading interests were in decline.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 146]</a> Coins: \"The latest, bearing the name Hataza, dates from the eighth century.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5V2LQXW\">[Anfray 1981, p. 375]</a> Expert disagreement here. Other internet search suggests a King Hataz around 575 CE. The chronology may have been amended since 1981. \"the Aksumite kingdom issued its own gold, silver, and copper coins from the second half of the 3rd century to the middle of the 7th century.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WF8KTJRD\">[Uhlig 2017, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": 1044, "year_to": 1150, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan \"issued extensive coinages\" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being 'weighed and given' at the conclusion of each transaction.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or 'bar silver,' suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, 'weighed and given,' commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"Klyap is a 'true Burmese word' and means 'something pressed between two flat surfaces'. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ It is not yet explained \"why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": 1150, "year_to": 1174, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan \"issued extensive coinages\" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being 'weighed and given' at the conclusion of each transaction.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or 'bar silver,' suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, 'weighed and given,' commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"Klyap is a 'true Burmese word' and means 'something pressed between two flat surfaces'. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ It is not yet explained \"why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 459, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": 1175, "year_to": 1287, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Pyu (central Burma) and Mon (lower Burma) who preceded the Burmese Pagan \"issued extensive coinages\" but these ended before the mid-9th century CE.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"By the end of the twelfth century, perhaps as a consequence of the discovery of a major source of local silver, the Pagan economy shows the first signs of monetization. From the middle of the thirteenth century, silver klyap, copper khwak, and paddy were used extensively to fulfill fiscal and other obligations. Although gold, silver, and copper frequently appear in the inscriptions of later Pagan, the metals were not minted into coin but remained in ingot form, being 'weighed and given' at the conclusion of each transaction.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 111) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"One term occasionally found in Pagan inscriptions is nuy pyan or 'bar silver,' suggesting that the form of the metal was most often in bars or ingots. That Pagan did not possess true coins is indicated as well by the phrase khin piy e, 'weighed and given,' commonly used in inscriptions relating to payments of silver and copper.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ \"Klyap is a 'true Burmese word' and means 'something pressed between two flat surfaces'. A difficulty with this definition (as has been pointed out on several occasions) is that no coins dated to the Pagan period have ever been found at Pagan.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 137) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ It is not yet explained \"why coinage fell into disuse by the end of the eighth century, as well as why it took until the second half of the twelfth century to re-introduce a valuational system into central Burma.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 139) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 460, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Banu Ghaniya had a \"commercial base that enabled them to maintain links with Aragon, Genoa and Pisa against the Almohads\" in the Balaeric Islands.§REF§(Saidi 1997, 20) O Saidi. The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads. UNESCO. 1997. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Paris.§REF§" }, { "id": 461, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"the kingdom used mainly Byzantine currency\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 21) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 462, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"the kingdom used mainly Byzantine currency\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 21) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 463, "polity": { "id": 321, "name": "es_castile_k", "long_name": "Castile Kingdom", "start_year": 1065, "end_year": 1230 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\" In 1163, (Fernando) acting as regent for his nephew Alfonso VIII and seeking allies in Castile, he reopened the mint in Palencia and armed its bishop’s right to half the mint revenue.\"§REF§James J. Todesca 2015 Ch.2 The Crown Renewed: thee Administration of Coinage in León-Castile c.1085–1200 in The Emergence of León-Castile c.1065-1500 : Essays Presented to J.F. O'Callaghan. Taylor and Francis. p.27§REF§" }, { "id": 464, "polity": { "id": 400, "name": "in_chandela_k", "long_name": "Chandela Kingdom", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1308 }, "year_from": 950, "year_to": 1060, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 465, "polity": { "id": 400, "name": "in_chandela_k", "long_name": "Chandela Kingdom", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1308 }, "year_from": 1060, "year_to": 1308, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"It is surprising that no coins of such powerful kings as Dhanga and Vidyadhara are known. The coinage of the dynasty starts with the reign of Kirtivarman (c.1060-c. 1100) and continues up to the reign of Viravarman (c.1250-1286).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 181]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 466, "polity": { "id": 401, "name": "in_chauhana_dyn", "long_name": "Chauhana Dynasty", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1192 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"The chief coins known from our area are drammas, vimsopakas, Lohadiyas, rupakas, raupa-tankas, jitals, dinaras and lo.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, p. 337]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 467, "polity": { "id": 399, "name": "in_chaulukya_dyn", "long_name": "Chaulukya Dynasty", "start_year": 941, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"[W]ith the exception to two gold and six silver coins recently discovered, and ascribed to Siddharaja, no other coins of the Chaulukyas have yet been found. [...] The following facts therefore must be considered [...]. In the Chaulukya records coins are frequently mentioned. [...] Not a single reference to barter is found in the literature of the period which contains many instances of payment in cash. [...] Two gold coins with the legend of Siddharaja have been discovered in the Uttara Pradesa and these two have been assigned to Jayasimha. Since then four silver coins of Jayasimha have been found. [...] Lastly coins are known to have been in use in Gujarat from very early times. [...] [W]e shall have to assume that money in the shape of coins was habitually and extensively used during the Chaulukya period in Gujarat as the normal medium of exchange, and that at least part of the coins in use were issued by the Chaulukya kings.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 268-270]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 468, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Not until Warring States Period at the earliest: \"The earliest minted form of currency was the bu, a coin cast of bronze in the form of a miniature double-pronged digging stick or hoe, complete with hollow socket. They are particularly densely concentrated in the vicinity of the Eastern Zhou capital of Luoyang and in the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 83) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 469, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "Unknown. \"The earliest minted form of currency was the bu, a coin cast of bronze in the form of a miniature double-pronged digging stick or hoe, complete with hollow socket. They are particularly densely concentrated in the vicinity of the Eastern Zhou capital of Luoyang and in the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei.\"§REF§(Higham 2009, 83) Higham, Charles. 2009. Encylopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.§REF§ Different states had different types/shapes of metal objects used as a store of wealth; unclear if used as medium of exchange. Han, Wei, Zhao used ‘coin’ shaped like spade; knife-shaped coin used in Qi, Yen, and Zhao; cowrie-shaped coin used Chu; circular coin with hole in Qin, Zhao, and Zhou§REF§(Gernet 1982, 73)§REF§ Unclear if coinage was always monopoly of state, or produced by large merchant groups/families Wei: spade-shaped token. true coins not introduced until state of Qin in late third c bce (right after this period)" }, { "id": 470, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"the khan remained sovereign over his own domains, minting his own coins, and collecting his own tribute from the Poles, Muscovites, and other nomadic peoples of the Kipchak steppe.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 7) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" }, { "id": 471, "polity": { "id": 307, "name": "fr_aquitaine_duc_1", "long_name": "Duchy of Aquitaine I", "start_year": 602, "end_year": 768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 472, "polity": { "id": 54, "name": "pa_cocle_1", "long_name": "Early Greater Coclé", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "The sources I have consulted do not mention any form of coinage (either indigenous or foreign) in Precolumbian Panama.", "description": null }, { "id": 473, "polity": { "id": 533, "name": "ug_early_nyoro", "long_name": "Early Nyoro", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1449 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "In the 19th century, \"[t]he medium of exchange was barter\", though cowrie shells were also used. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, pp. 447-450]</a> Given general pattern of increasing complexity through time in the region <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6ITEA4NM\">[Taylor_Robertshaw 2000, pp. 17-19]</a> , it seems reasonable to infer that that this statement applies to preceding centuries as well.", "description": null }, { "id": 474, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"The minting of coins on the Swahili coast began in the eighth century ce. Only some of the Swahili towns minted coins. Minting was dominated by Kilwa Kisiwani, but mints operated also in Shanga, Zanzibar and Pemba.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C62TFXBJ\">[Pallaver_Wynne-Jones_LaViolette 2017]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 475, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Idris II conquered the rich mining region of Fazaz and took over the silver mine of Diabal ‘Awwam. Control of Fazaz insured a secure and continuous supply of silver for dynastic mints.\" §REF§Said Ennahid. 2001. POLITICAL ECONOMY AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS OF MEDIEVAL NORTHERN MOROCCO: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL-HISTORICAL APPROACH. pg. 77§REF§ After Idris II the regions fragmented into principalities. \"At least a dozen of them were rich enough at various times to mint their own coins. What kept this fragmented system in balance was the lack of external pressure.\"§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 476, "polity": { "id": 369, "name": "ir_jayarid_khanate", "long_name": "Jayarid Khanate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1393 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Jalayrids minted their own coins. §REF§H.R. Roemer, ‘The Jalayirids, Muzaffarids and Sarbadars’, in Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart (eds), The Cambridge History of Iran: Vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.9.§REF§ \"Nevertheless, as Mazzaoui points out, the conversion of ruling princes to Shi'ism at this time did not necessarily assume a spectacular form or result in the conversion of their subjects. coins preserved in the Muza-yi Azarbaljan, Tabriz, only one bears the names of the Twelve Imams rather than those of the Orthodox caliphs, namely a coin of Hasan-i Buzurg minted at Amul in 742/1341-2. A recent find at 'Aqarquf, 20 km west of Baghdad, contained 227 Jalayirid silver coins, of which 50 belong to Shaikh Uvais and the remainder to Sultan Ahmad. Shl'I characteristics were totally lacking, and the coins of Uvais bore the names of the Orthodox caliphs. \" §REF§Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart (eds), The Cambridge History of Iran: Vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.9.§REF§ \"Expression of the Jalayirid imperial image during the reign of Shaykh Uvays was also found on coins struck in his name. The formulas found on these coins, similar to the organisation of Ahrī’s history, suggest that Shaykh Uvays was able to assert his political authority in his own right in a way that his father had not. Shaykh Ḥasan Jalayir had struck some of his coins in the name of his Chinggisid protégés, and others without the name of a sovereign at all. These coins included only the Muslim declaration of faith (shahāda) or other religious formula and the names of the rest four caliphs. (...) Although the names and formulas on most of Shaykh Uvays’s coins reflect an Islamic religious tradition expressed in Arabic script, some coins were also struck using Mongol (Uyghur) script. Such a measure surely rein- forced the Mongol heritage of the Jalayirid court.\"§REF§Wing, Patrick (2016) The Jalayirids: Dynastic State Formation in the Mongol Middle East. Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh. p.132.§REF§ \"In the period following the collapse of the Il-Khanid empire, namely in the second half of the 14th century, various monetary systems grew up in Iran. True tothe Il-Khanid tradition, however, all of these were based upon the silver dinar, subdivided into dirhams. Whereas a dinar, divided into six dirhams following the tradition of Ghazan's dlnar-i rayij, was still minted in Tabriz, we find in Baghdad, the capital ofthe Jalayirids, a dinar divided into 12dirhams, and another, called the dinar-imursal, divided into.10 dirham. \" §REF§Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart (eds), The Cambridge History of Iran: Vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.558.§REF§" }, { "id": 477, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "As of the 1970s the question of whether or not the Kakatiyas issued their own coinage was disputed, as there was little evidence for the existence of such coins; however, Sastry <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQZ9DN8T\">[Sastry 1975]</a> argued that some coins could be attributed to the last Kakatiya ruler at least.", "description": null }, { "id": 478, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "\"All business transactions were carried by barter. Though there are references to gold coins, not a single one of them belonging to the ancient period has been discovered.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 165]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 479, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Kangju traded goods with their C Asian neighbors, with China and Rome; thus they fully participated in SR trade; they even minted their own coins (Roudik 2007, 18).\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 480, "polity": { "id": 395, "name": "in_karkota_dyn", "long_name": "Karkota Dynasty", "start_year": 625, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"Many coins of the Indo-Greek and Scythian rulers have been recovered from Kashmir.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 232]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 481, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Kazan, the sizeable capital, which had a population of about 20,000, was the centre of the Volga trade, and was inhabited by Tatar merchants, craftsmen, clergymen and scholars.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 482, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "nzimbu shells were stored at the capital. \"royal officers closely monitored this precious currency, which could even buy gold and silver.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 30) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 483, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Coinage.§REF§(Kunker 2008, 302) Fritz Rudolf Kunker. 2008. Künker Auktion 137 - The De Wit Collection of Medieval Coins, 1000 Years of European Coinage, Part III: England, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Balkan, the Middle East, Crusader States, Jetons und Weights. 137. AUKTION. The De Wit Collection of Medieval Coins Part III. Numismatischer Verlag Künker.§REF§ Despite the high culture of this “Golden Age”, coinage was very primitive. Coins were made of copper, shaped irregularly, and had a marked value clearly above that of the metal (so-called Kreditmunzen, credit coins literally).§REF§(Kunker 2008, 302) Fritz Rudolf Kunker. 2008. Künker Auktion 137 - The De Wit Collection of Medieval Coins, 1000 Years of European Coinage, Part III: England, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Balkan, the Middle East, Crusader States, Jetons und Weights. 137. AUKTION. The De Wit Collection of Medieval Coins Part III. Numismatischer Verlag Künker.§REF§" }, { "id": 484, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Silver Denarius. Gold Augustalis - usually 66.7% pure. §REF§(Abulafia 1988, 15, 48)§REF§" }, { "id": 485, "polity": { "id": 53, "name": "pa_la_mula_sarigua", "long_name": "La Mula-Sarigua", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "The sources I have consulted do not mention any form of coinage (either indigenous or foreign) in Precolumbian Panama.", "description": null }, { "id": 486, "polity": { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "The sources I have consulted do not mention any form of coinage (either indigenous or foreign) in Precolumbian Panama.", "description": null }, { "id": 487, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"As north China plunged into chaos during the fourth century, perhaps an eighth of the entire northern Chinese population may have fled to the relative shelter and stability of the south. ... Those people who remained in the north, and who survived, meanwhile huddled behind thousands of improvised local fortifications. Trade and commerce ground to a virtual halt in the north during this period. No new coins were issued in north China for almost two hundred years.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 488, "polity": { "id": 256, "name": "cn_later_yan_dyn", "long_name": "Later Yan Kingdom", "start_year": 385, "end_year": 409 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"As north China plunged into chaos during the fourth century, perhaps an eighth of the entire northern Chinese population may have fled to the relative shelter and stability of the south. ... Those people who remained in the north, and who survived, meanwhile huddled behind thousands of improvised local fortifications. Trade and commerce ground to a virtual halt in the north during this period. No new coins were issued in north China for almost two hundred years.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 489, "polity": { "id": 815, "name": "es_castile_crown", "long_name": "Crown of Castile", "start_year": 1231, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“In León, Alfonso VI (1065–1109) initiated the kingdom’s rst large-scale denarial coinage probably a er his conquest of Toledo in 1085.” §REF§Todesca, James, “The Crown Renewed: The Administrative Coinage of Leon-Castille\", The Emergence of Leon Castille c 1065-1500, pg. 10§REF§" }, { "id": 490, "polity": { "id": 391, "name": "in_maitraka_dyn", "long_name": "Maitraka Dynasty", "start_year": 470, "end_year": 790 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "uncoded", "comment": "\"Unlike the Ksatrapa period, the Maitraka period is not rich in numismatic material. The coins issued by Sarva Bhattaraka were presumably ascribed to Valabhi, but their bearing on the Maitraka kingdom is unknown. Of the numerous dynasties of the Maitraka period, only the Traikutakas have left coins. The legends on these coins mention the name and titles of the king along with those of his father, but do not bear dates.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BIAVMG4C\">[Sastri 2000, p. 10]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 491, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "\"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 203]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 492, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "\"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 203]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 493, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "\"In Upper Nubia throughout the medieval period, as in most other periods of its history, there was no currency and, therefore, all trade was achieved by barter. Ibn Selim notes that neither the dinar nor the dirham are of any use and that all transactions are carried out by the exchange of slaves, cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 203]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 494, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": 1395, "year_to": 1444, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"It has been assumed the Malacca coinage was issued during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah (1445-1459 A.D.), who first introduced coinage in Malacca, which in some way served as a model or source of inspiration to the origins of the Brunei coinage.\"§REF§Bilcher Bala. 2005. Thalassocracy: a history of the medieval Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Universiti Malaysia Sabah.§REF§" }, { "id": 495, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": 1445, "year_to": 1511, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"It has been assumed the Malacca coinage was issued during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah (1445-1459 A.D.), who first introduced coinage in Malacca, which in some way served as a model or source of inspiration to the origins of the Brunei coinage.\"§REF§Bilcher Bala. 2005. Thalassocracy: a history of the medieval Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Universiti Malaysia Sabah.§REF§" }, { "id": 496, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Ibn Fadl Allah, writing circa 1342-1349, reported that considerable quantities of gold were reaching the Muslim sultanate of Ifat from Damot (a province to the south of the Blue Nile) and that an ounce varied in value between eighty and one hundred drams.\"§REF§(Pankhurst 1961, 224) Richard Pankhurst. 1961. An introduction to the economic history of Ethiopia, from early times to 1800. Lalibela House.§REF§ Are 'drams' a coin?" }, { "id": 497, "polity": { "id": 393, "name": "in_maukhari_dyn", "long_name": "Maukhari Dynasty", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": "\"Sarvavarman (c.560-575 CE) issued a large number of coins and had an extensive territory under his control. [...] Sarvavarman was succeeded by his son Avantivarman. [...] He too issued a large number of coins.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PP6JDR93\">[Ghosh_et_al 2016]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 498, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Tameanko, Marvin. \"Coins of ancient Mauretania portray a mixture of architectural styles\", The Celator, Vol. 5, No. 12, December, 1991. pp. 14-16.\"§REF§(Sayles 1998, 115) Wayne G Sayles. 1998. Ancient Coin Collecting IV. Roman Provincial Coins. Krause Publications. Iola.§REF§ Mauretania certainly had coinage during the reign of Bocchus II in the mid-first century BCE.§REF§(Sayles 1998, 115) Wayne G Sayles. 1998. Ancient Coin Collecting IV. Roman Provincial Coins. Krause Publications. Iola.§REF§ c1st century BCE: \"Lix (or Lixus) was a commercial city on the west coast of Mauretania Tingitana. The observe of the coin illustrated here depicts an Egyptian North African deity similar to the Greek god Hephaistos (Roman Vulcan). The reverse seems to be a distyle entrace, with large capitals, most likely part of a temple to the deity honored on this coin.\"§REF§(Sayles 1998, 115) Wayne G Sayles. 1998. Ancient Coin Collecting IV. Roman Provincial Coins. Krause Publications. Iola.§REF§" }, { "id": 499, "polity": { "id": 55, "name": "pa_cocle_2", "long_name": "Middle Greater Coclé", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "The sources I have consulted do not mention any form of coinage (either indigenous or foreign) in Precolumbian Panama.", "description": null }, { "id": 500, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Indigenous_coin", "indigenous_coin": "absent", "comment": "Sources do not suggest that monetary items have been found dating to this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null } ] }