Formal Legal Code List
A viewset for viewing and editing Formal Legal Codes.
GET /api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 509, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " “A ‘Declaration of Rights and the Laws of 1839’ provided the first criminal and civil code and the first regularization of taxation for the Hawaiian people. It has also been considered the first Hawaiian constitution. In many respects, the promulgation of the constitution of 1840, together with the legislation of 1841, completed the transformation of the Hawaiian system into a capitalist political economy with vestigial remains of the highly stratified system of ancient Hawaii.”§REF§(Beechert 1985: 25) Beechert, Edward D. 1985. Working in Hawaii: A Labour History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/338XH58H§REF§ “In the Civil Code, compilation of which was provided for by the legislature of 1856 and which was enacted in the legislative session of 1858-59, the earlier postal laws (of 1846, 1851, and 1854) were revised, expanded, and codified as sections 397-415 of the Code.”§REF§(Kuykendall 1938: 32) Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. http://archive.org/details/hawaiiankingdom0002kuyk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ4Z7AAB§REF§" }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The earliest surviving law codes from c. 600 CE for Kent state that the king, Æthelbert of Kent, had responsibility for law and order of all people within his kingdom.§REF§(Yorke 1990: 18) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ “The introduction of written law into Kent provides an example of the type of borrowing which may have taken place. Bede says that Æthelbert produced the first written lawcode for Kent iuxta exempla Romanorum, but in practice the king seems to have been more influenced by Frankish than Roman forms.125 The provision of a written lawcode was a sign, like the adoption of Christianity, that Kent had joined the more advanced Germanic kingdoms of Europe and the writing down of Æthelbert’s lawcode may have had a symbolic as well as a practical value. Although there are major differences between the Kentish and Frankish lawcodes, there are also some interesting parallels which are particularly striking when the Kentish laws are compared with those from Wessex.”§REF§(Yorke 1990: 41) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§" }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Despite the changes between being a monarchy and a republic several times during this period the Codes of Law and judicial system were not altered. §REF§Crook 2002: 57. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/29D9EQQE§REF§" }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The monumental codification of civil law in 1812 was based on the principles of equality of all before the law.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 271) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ “Among the most decisive changes implemented in 1867 was a new judicial system, which was the first piece of constitutional legislation that the parliament considered in October 1867. This bill provided for the strict separation of justice and administration on all levels of government and for the development of professional norms that would protect the independence of the judiciary. The law stipulated jury trials for all particularly serious crimes, and for all offenses against the press laws. All judicial officers were required to take an oath of allegiance to uphold the constitutional system. The law also guaranteed life tenure to judges and sought to protect them against political interference and harassment.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 99) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§" }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Although there were legal codes among the Mongolians, the Oirat did not establish a formal legal code until 1640 – ten years after this polity period ends: “The contrast of this newly emerging picture with the legal practices of the Oirat polity is quite sharp. The Oirat and Khalkha aristocrats agreed consensually upon a single, relatively comprehensive law code at an assembly in 1640, more or less exactly the kind of abstract body of law promulgated on a single occasion that Chinggis Khan’s jasaq was not. These were later supplemented by decrees of Galdan Khung-Taiji (later Boshogtu Khan) among the Zünghars and by Dondug-Dashi of the Kalmyks (Doronatib 1985: 1–16, 202–05, 230–36; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 46–52). A similar law-code has been discovered for the Upper Mongols in Tibet, although it has not yet been published (Cerengbal 2002). Significantly, the Mongol-Oirat code of 1640 begins with provisions designed to create a ‘collective security’ regime among the semiautonomous Khalkha and Oirat principalities (Doronatib 1985: §§1–4; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 93). The formal promulgation of a code thus appears to be an aspect of the consensual (at the elite level) and aristocratic nature of the Oirat polity, as opposed to the almost purely monarchic and despotic Chinggisid polity.”§REF§(Atwood 2010: 623) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER§REF§ “In the 1640 law code, the four tüshimed were treated as commoners and hence were not members of the ruling lineages of their ethnie. In the Mongol-Oirat Code, the ‘four ministers of the court’ or ‘four ministers who handle administration’ (yamutu dörben tüshimed or jasag barigsan dörben tüshimed ) appear in one set of provisions alongside the tabunang-ud (‘sons-in-law’), after the great, middle, and lesser nobles (noyad) but before the headmen of the otogs (camp districts).”§REF§(Atwood 2010: 615-616) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER§REF§ “Law codes from the Oirats show a pervasively class-based judicial system with fines based in various ways on the status of the offender and/or victim (Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 46–52). A similar system is not reported in the Chinggisid empire. The authority system in both polities was buttressed by a patriarchal and patrilocal family ideology that prescribed strict hierarchies of age and sex, subordinating daughters-inlaw to their mothers-in-law, sons to their fathers, and wives to their husbands (Doronatib 1985: §§25–31; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 101–102). Curiously the practice of including servants as part of the property transferred in noble marriages is not mentioned in the provisions of the Oirat law codes about inje or dowries (Doronatib 1985: §§33–37; Riasanovsky 1937/1965: 100). Still, such provisions existed under Chinggis Khan and were codified later under the Qing (Nayiraltu and Altan’orgil 1989: II, §§841– 842; Lifan Yuan 1826/1998: 247–48; Zhang et al. 1998: §§832–834). Most likely, the dowries of the great lords were simply unregulated. They were the ones who would be likely to have human dowry and their dowries are not mentioned in the Mongol-Oirat Code.”§REF§(Atwood 2010: 621-622) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER§REF§" }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Islamic law. “The history of Mawlây Ismâ'ïl is full of outstanding achievements. This ruler completed the task begun by his two brothers - that of unifying Morocco by putting it under a single throne as it had been in the days of its might and greatness. It was he also who strengthened the basis of the state founded by his two brothers and laid the foundations of the State of Morocco that has safeguarded Morocco's heritage up to the present. Lastly, it was he who saw to it that Muslim law was extended to all parts of Morocco, in order to give the country religious as well as political unity.”§REF§(Ogot 1992: 220) Ogot, B. A. 1992. ed., General History of Africa: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century., vol. V, VII vols. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24QPFDVP§REF§ “The controversy over the enslavement or conscription of all black Moroccans provoked a heated debate and overt hostility between some of the ‘ulama’ (religious scholars) and Mawlay Isma‘il. This was a sharp violation of the most salient Islamic legal code regarding the institution of slavery, which stated that it was illegal to enslave any adherent to Islam. The discourse and needs of the state as advanced by the sultan as a political authority and the discourse and interpretation of the tenets of Islam as advanced by the religious scholars, custodians of Islamic law, collided.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 264) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§" }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "long_name": "Soviet Union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991 }, "year_from": 1923, "year_to": 1991, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Soviet law, law developed in Russia after the communist seizure of power in 1917 and imposed throughout the Soviet Union in the 1920s. After World War II, the Soviet legal model also was imposed on Soviet-dominated regimes in eastern and central Europe. Later, ruling communist parties in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam adopted variations of Soviet law. Soviet law, which changed radically during its more than 70 years of development in the Soviet Union, revived certain features of earlier tsarist law, shared key elements with the law of other dictatorships, and introduced public ownership of the means of production and subordination of the legal system to the Soviet Communist Party. \r\n\r\n §REF§Soviet Law | History & Facts | Britannica.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8E4CWR5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8E4CWR5V</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Sobornoe Ulozhenie (Соборное уложение) was a comprehensive legal code enacted during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the first consolidated set of laws in Russia and remained in effect until the modernization reforms of the 19th century.§REF§Gregory Freeze, Russia: A History (Oxford University Press, 1998).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4PTARV3W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4PTARV3W</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "The Sudebnik of 1550 was a legal code enacted by Tsar Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) that played a significant role in the legal development of the Tsardom of Russia. This code was part of Ivan IV's efforts to reform and centralize the Russian government and judicial system.§REF§“The Code of Law (the Sudebnik) of 1550,” Presidential Library, https://www.prlib.ru/en/section/685466.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KSXXKUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KSXXKUNK</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Sobornoe Ulozhenie (Соборное уложение) was a comprehensive legal code enacted during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the first consolidated set of laws in Russia and remained in effect until the modernization reforms of the 19th century.§REF§Gregory Freeze, Russia: A History (Oxford University Press, 1998).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4PTARV3W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4PTARV3W</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 539, "name": "ye_qatabanian_commonwealth", "long_name": "Qatabanian Commonwealth", "start_year": -450, "end_year": -111 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "\"Almost all the inhabitants of pre-Islamic Arabia were members of a tribe, that is, a mutual aid group bound together by a notion of kinship. As one pre-Islamic poet astutely observed (‘Amr ibn Qami‘a 8), ‘a man’s tribe are his claws [with which he fends off enemies] and his props [which support him]’. Unlike a state, tribes have no specialised institutions of law and order, so a person’s life, honour and goods were protected by his relatives, who were obliged to assist him in trouble and to avenge or seek compensation for him if he was wronged. ‘When fighting comes, your kinsman alone is near; your true friend your kinsman is, who answers your call for aid with good will, when deeply drenched in bloodshed are sword and spear’ (H. am. 225).\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 113) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n\"So tribal law was customary law, deter- mined by ancient practice. It is therefore inherently conservative; ‘We found our fathers on a path and we follow in their footsteps’ was the reply of most Meccans to the Prophet Muhammad’s new message (Quran 43.22, 24). And it is echoed by pre-Islamic Arab poets: ‘We follow the ways of our forefathers, those who kindled wars and were faithful to the ties of kinship’ (‘Abid 20). It could only be updated either by such aforementioned paragons of tribal virtue, who won the approval of all, or by the consensus of all full members of the community meeting together.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 121-122) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n\"Among the wealthier sedentary polities of Arabia there existed a more elaborate legal system with more of an institutional framework. A number of the cities of south Arabia had a council (mswd), and at each of the capital cities there was a supreme council where the king sat along with delegates from a certain number of tribal groups, representing the whole nation and issuing edicts on its behalf. Such an edict might begin as follows: ‘Thus have ordered and directed and decreed Shahr Yagill Yuhargib, the son of Hawfa‘amm, the king of the Qatabanians, and the Qatabanians, the council, having its full complement. . . . ’ (RES 3566). In this particular text it would appear that Shahr Yagill had to fight to maintain his position, for he goes on to complain that ‘some people from the council and community of landowners determined and enforced their decisions by swearing oaths between themselves in that temple in their very self-willed and loutish manner without the sanction of [me] their lord’.\"§REF§(Hoyland 2001, 124) Hoyland, R. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hoylan/titleCreatorYear/items/AUHRSTGG/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "Only eight texts longer than fifteen signs have been found.§REF§Burjor Avari. India: The Ancient Past. A history of the Indian sub-continent from c.7000 BC to AD 1200. Oxon, 2007, p.51§REF§" }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1589, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Records of Law: The basic records of the law of this period were the Ancient Tsaadjin Bichik, the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640, the Great Code of the Seven Khoshuns, and the Khalkha-Djirom of 1709. Of these records, the Mongot-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were the most important, being, for a time, the effective code in both Northern and Western Mongolia (Khalkha and Djungaria) After the disintegration of the alliance of the \"Forty and Four,\" this code remained effective in Djungaria until the promulgation of the Chinese Code or Regulations of 1789 and among the Rusian Kalmucks until 1917 In Northern Mongolia the Mongol-Oirat Regulations of 1640 were replaced by the Great Code of the Seven Hoshuns and later by the Khalkha-Djirom, which also retained its effectiveness until 1789. The Khalkha-Djirom also continued to function among the herdsmen Shabinars of the Urga Gegen until superseded in 1925.\"§REF§(Riasananovsky 1948: 170) Riasanovsky, V. A. 1948. Mongol Law—A Concise Historical Survey. Wash. L. Rev. & St. B.J. 166: 160-178. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JCNB66X/library§REF§\r\n\r\nLate 16th century: “Tümen Jasaghtu Khan tried to unify the country administratively and so included in his government not only Abtai, Altan and Khutughtai Sechen, but also other influential nobles from all the tümens and from the Oirat regions. He compiled a new code that was supposed to be based on Chinggis Khan’s Great Ya ̄sa ̄ or Jasaq (see Volume IV, Part One). Subsequently, Altan Khan, Abtai Khan and, most likely, several others followed his example and adopted their own laws and codes in their respective tümens. But only some of these have been preserved, whether wholly or partially. They were written in the old Mongol script, which had been borrowed from the Uighur, and adopted under Chinggis Khan as the official script of the Mongols. » §REF§(Ishjamts 2003, 214)§REF§" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Sharia law." }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 548, "name": "it_italy_k", "long_name": "Italian Kingdom Late Antiquity", "start_year": 476, "end_year": 489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from continuity between preceding and succeeding polities (late Roman Empire and Ostrogothic Kingdom, respectively). \"Both in terms of ideology and organization, therefore, Theoderic sought and largely maintained the institutions and administrative procedures of the later western imperial administration as he found them. The same can be said of Rome’s laws. Several letters within the collection stress the need to preserve the rule of Roman law, demand respect for it, reflect upon its fundamental correctness, or even cite it.\"§REF§(Lafferty 2016: 148) Lafferty, S. The Law. In Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa (eds) A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy pp. 147-172. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VQ8MC72F/item-list§REF§" }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"While the necessary reliance on archaeological evidence has ensured that many aspects of Harappan civilization, such as economic activities, settlements, industry, and biological anthropology, have been investigated as well as or better than those of literate civilizations, the absence of intelligible documentary material is a major handicap to understanding Harappan social and political organization and has put some aspects of Harappan life, such as the law, quite beyond cognizance.\" §REF§(McIntosh 2008: 245) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 547, "name": "cn_wei_k", "long_name": "Wei Kingdom", "start_year": 220, "end_year": 265 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“Sima Zhao, father of Emperor Wu, by late summer 264, had a number of his supporters, supervised by Jia Chong (217–282), revise the whole of the Wei code, which had already been modified during the Sima Shi regency. The reason given was that the code, dating back to the Han, was too cumbersome. Certain laws had fallen into disuse, others, notably the collective punishments, were too harsh. ”§REF§(Chaussende 2019: 86) Chaussende, D. 2019. Western Jin. In Dien and Knapp (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 2: The Six Dynasties, 220–589 pp. 79-95. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JJWI9G9U/library§REF§" }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 409, "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate", "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate", "start_year": 1338, "end_year": 1538 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Islamic law.", "description": null }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "The Supreme Court of Calcutta followed English legal principles. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/83IG9AXH\">[Sreemani_Bhattacharya 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Shi Huangdi and his chancellor Li Si \"unified and simplified the writing system and codified the law.\"§REF§(Pletcher 2010, 58) Pletcher, Kenneth. 2010. The History of China. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§<br>According to Sidney Shapiro the Qin \"promulgated a uniform code of law.\" §REF§(Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 88-89)§REF§<br>This law code was applied universally when Qin became an Empire. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 36)§REF§<br>Code consisted of collective responsibility on groups of households for law, obligation to denounce wrongdoers, and fierce punishments. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 36)§REF§§REF§(Keay 2009, 76)§REF§" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 426, "name": "cn_southern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Song", "start_year": 1127, "end_year": 1279 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"The most important codification of Chinese law is the Fa jing (Canon of Law), compiled during the Warring States period by the prime minister of the Wei state Li Kui (455-395 B.C.), who may be called the real founder of the Legalist school ... The compilation of Fa jing was based on the then current laws of the various states and became the prototype of later Chinese imperial codes ... All the legal codes of imperial dynasties, from the Qin code to the Qing code, can be traced to Fa jing. ... There were always minor changes but the basic legal structure remained intact. Even the laws proclaimed during periods of alien rule, like the Mongolian Yuan dynasty and the Manchu Qing dynasty, were no exception.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 108]</a> \"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"Printing made possible the issuing of the Ordenações Manuelinas, a new, five-volume compendium of statute law compiled by a commission of legal experts. First published during 1512–14 with a revised edition appearing in 1521, it replaced the Ordenações Afonsinas of fifty years earlier.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"Habsburg government in Portugal, its various problems notwithstanding, was relatively efficient by contemporary standards, and it left one particularly positive legacy. By the late sixteenth century the volume of legislation since the Ordenações Manuelinas was such that a further codification had become overdue. Filipe ordered this formidable task be undertaken – and the result was the Ordenações Filipinas of 1603. Retained long after the Habsburgs had departed, this code served as the foundation of Portuguese statute law well into the nineteenth century.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "“The medieval legal compilation, the Russkaia pravda, which was initiated in 1016 and was completed in the 1170s, remained the ‘fundamental law’ of Russia through to 1549” §REF§Perrie 2006: 360§REF§" }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity, and proceeded to have baptized the entire population. His son, Yaroslav the Wise, adopted a written legal code called Russkaya Pravda.\"§REF§(Martin 2017, 158-159) Michael Martin. 2017. City of the Sun: Development and Popular Resistance in the Pre-Modern West. Algora Publishing. New York.§REF§<br>Under Yaroslav the Wise the law was codified \"based on old Slavic customs and Byzantine law.\"§REF§Miriam Greenblatt. 2001. Human Heritage: A World History. McGraw-Hill.§REF§<br>Commercial law \"emerged visibly when commercial custom was written down.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 440) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Reference to a Muslim law here: \"Having set out the sources of Muslim law, thefikh, Ibn Tümart advocated their direct use, and condemned the exclusive use of treatises offurü' (the applied branch of jurisprudence). This was an opportunity for him to attack the Almoravid doctors, who were guilty in his eyes of neglecting and abandoning the traditions and even sometimes of ending up with a positive scorn for the hadiths.\" §REF§(Saido 1984, 24)§REF§" }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"The common norms of law that prevailed in the kingdom may be studied in the first juridicial records of Aksum: in the four laws from the Safra (Drewes, p. 73).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> Suspected unknown<br> \"Later Ethiopian law followed the Fetha Nagast, 'The Law of the Kings' written in Arabic by a Copt in the mid-thirteenth century, and translated into Ge'ez perhaps in the middle of the fifteenth century (Tzadua 1968), but inscriptions like that of Safra show that there were earlier legal codes in use (Drewes 1962).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F97WR7LV\">[Munro-Hay 1991, p. 252]</a> \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes, priests of temple or church, middle-ranking members of the army, merchants, and perhaps some of the more skilled craftsmen. Amongst such a class there would probably be some foreigners, permitted to live in Ethiopia because of their special skills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"The common norms of law that prevailed in the kingdom may be studied in the first juridicial records of Aksum: in the four laws from the Safra (Drewes, p. 73).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RCLJCHB4\">[Kobishanov 1981, p. 386]</a> Suspected unknown<br> \"Later Ethiopian law followed the Fetha Nagast, 'The Law of the Kings' written in Arabic by a Copt in the mid-thirteenth century, and translated into Ge'ez perhaps in the middle of the fifteenth century (Tzadua 1968), but inscriptions like that of Safra show that there were earlier legal codes in use (Drewes 1962).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F97WR7LV\">[Munro-Hay 1991, p. 252]</a> \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes, priests of temple or church, middle-ranking members of the army, merchants, and perhaps some of the more skilled craftsmen. Amongst such a class there would probably be some foreigners, permitted to live in Ethiopia because of their special skills.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YB8JYYEZ\">[Connah 2015, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "The Wagaru Dhammathat \"a thirteenth-century civil code commissioned by the ruler of Martaban based upon that of Pagan\" said that men who gave gifts to charity (dana) or as offering (pujita) would get their wishes fulfilled.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 125-126) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Islamic law. This is a quote for the ancestral polity, the Almoravids: To administer the urban Almoravid Empire \"Yusuf had to rely on administrators outside of his Sanhaja entourage. He surrounded himself with religious scholars, Malikite fuqaha from Andalusia from whom he sought legal advice. ... They offered a ready-made system of law to the Almoravids who were already pre-disposed to a rudimentary, even arbitrary understanding of Islam.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 66)§REF§'" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 681, "year_to": 803, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "According to Suidas, Krum authored a law code against drunkenness which resulted in the destruction of Bulgarian vineyards.§REF§(Miller 1923, 233) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in 880 CE in the next period of this polity. The codes authored before this time presumably used the script used for inscriptions." }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 804, "year_to": 814, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "According to Suidas, Krum authored a law code against drunkenness which resulted in the destruction of Bulgarian vineyards.§REF§(Miller 1923, 233) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in 880 CE in the next period of this polity. The codes authored before this time presumably used the script used for inscriptions." }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 804, "year_to": 814, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "According to Suidas, Krum authored a law code against drunkenness which resulted in the destruction of Bulgarian vineyards.§REF§(Miller 1923, 233) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in 880 CE in the next period of this polity. The codes authored before this time presumably used the script used for inscriptions." }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": 815, "year_to": 863, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "According to Suidas, Krum authored a law code against drunkenness which resulted in the destruction of Bulgarian vineyards.§REF§(Miller 1923, 233) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in 880 CE in the next period of this polity. The codes authored before this time presumably used the script used for inscriptions." }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "According to Suidas, Krum authored a law code against drunkenness which resulted in the destruction of Bulgarian vineyards.§REF§(Miller 1923, 233) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br>Omurtag \"continued Krum's work in introducing a proper legal system into Bulgaria\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 11) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in 880 CE in the next period of this polity. The codes authored before this time presumably used the script used for inscriptions." }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 400, "name": "in_chandela_k", "long_name": "Chandela Kingdom", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1308 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "\"The king was expected to rule the kingdom according to the laws of the sacred texts, and the Candella inscriptions often mention this fact.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 118]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 401, "name": "in_chauhana_dyn", "long_name": "Chauhana Dynasty", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1192 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"As regards the Chauhan judiciary, again, the details from our sources are meagre in the extreme. In the first instance the cases probably went to the Village Councils, which are probably the popular courts mentioned by the Arab traveller, Sulaiman. The highest tribunal of justice, however, was the ruler who heard plaints of every type, original as well as appellate. [...] The ruler gave no arbitrary judgement. He generally referred the matter to the Panditas in the Dharmadhikarana, who then called for documentary evidence and witnessed and, in the absence of these two, perhaps resorted also to ordeals.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, pp. 240-241]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 399, "name": "in_chaulukya_dyn", "long_name": "Chaulukya Dynasty", "start_year": 941, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Hindu Law codes.", "description": null }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In the late Spring and Autumn Period, the legal system had reached a turning point - provisions of punishments changed into a systematic code, which came to be recorded on two occasions: the State of Zhen had the penal code prepared by Zi Chan inscribed onto bamboo tablets (536 BC); the State of Jin had the penal code prepared by Zhao Yang inscribed onto tripods (513 BC).\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 143) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§<br>\"in 535 BC, an official of the State of Chu, when accused of offending the Viscount of Chu, appealed to 'the laws of King Wen [of Zhou]' for justification.\"§REF§(Liu 1998, 128) Liu, Yongping. 1998. Origins of Chinese Law: Penal and Administrative Law in Its Early Development.§REF§" }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"The most important codification of Chinese law is the Fa jing (Canon of Law), compiled during the Warring States period by the prime minister of the Wei state Li Kui (455-395 B.C.), who may be called the real founder of the Legalist school ... The compilation of Fa jing was based on the then current laws of the various states and became the prototype of later Chinese imperial codes ... All the legal codes of imperial dynasties, from the Qin code to the Qing code, can be traced to Fa jing. ... There were always minor changes but the basic legal structure remained intact. Even the laws proclaimed during periods of alien rule, like the Mongolian Yuan dynasty and the Manchu Qing dynasty, were no exception.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 108]</a> \"The Legalists were the chief proponents of the use of a penal code to control the people. During the Warring States period, the sovereigns of the various states had little use for morals and rites. They were more concerned with building strong states, strengthening their armies, and enlarging their territories. This can only be realized by being able to keep a submissive people. The Legalists proved more useful for their political aspirations, as they exerted a major influence on Chinese traditional law and legal institutions, which were set up under their direction.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 107]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"the Crimean Khanate ... was transformed by the incorporation of forms of political and social organization borrowed from the Ottomans. Tatar customary law (yasa, tore), for instance, coexisted with sharia law and Ottoman state law (kanun), while the khanate's governmental structures and institutions often followed the Ottoman model.§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§" }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 307, "name": "fr_aquitaine_duc_1", "long_name": "Duchy of Aquitaine I", "start_year": 602, "end_year": 768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Liber Judiciorum", "description": null }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": "The following quote suggests that little is known about both Islamic and customary law after the advent of Islam in the 8th century CE, which itself suggests that little is also known about the law before that century. \"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"With the Islamisation of the East African coast, a process that started at least in the eighth century, shariʿa gradually came to be applied alongside customary law and practices. Through travellers’ records, such as Ibn Battuta’s of the early fourteenth century, we know that Islamic courts have existed for many centuries on the Swahili coast. Due to the dearth of sources, however, it is difficult to picture the workings of these legal institutions. Our understanding of the application of shariʿa, pertaining to questions such as who acted as kadhi [judge], who litigated, and where and how court sessions were held, remains very fragmentary prior to British colonial rule, and BuSa'idi rule in particular. As Michael Peletz cautions in his study on shariʿa courts in Malaysia, references attesting to the existence of these courts tell us little about the extent of the kadhi’s interaction with the local population and ruler or the extent to which shariʿa was applied. When we visualise the kadhis in the precolonial period, we should imagine them working outdoors as well as at their homes rather than in an actual court building, with their main role being that of a mediator; only if all mediation efforts failed, would they issue a judgement. We also have to bear in mind that Islamic courts were part of a legal system in which tribunals applied customary law on a parallel level. Not surprisingly, there is no precise information available on how these tribunals functioned and interacted with the kadhi’s courts.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3JV8PD\">[Stockreiter 2015]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Fez became a great centre for Islamic scholarship, which was dominated by Sunnis of the Maliki school.§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 369, "name": "ir_jayarid_khanate", "long_name": "Jayarid Khanate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1393 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "e.g. sharia law. Ulama, Islamic legal scholars are mentioned as being present in Baghdad. §REF§Peter Jackson, ‘JALAYERIDS’ <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jalayerids\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jalayerids</a>§REF§" } ] }