Formal Legal Code List
A viewset for viewing and editing Formal Legal Codes.
GET /api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 509, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Two fragments of a larger clay tablet (designated Hazor 18) were discovered in 2010 at Tel Hazor, that would possibly have contained as many as 20 or 30 laws (which in turn could have been part of a larger collection of law tablets) in a format similar to the Code of Hammurabi. (The fragments themselves concern torts having to do with injury to a slave that has been rented from his master.) An earlier tablet, Hazor 5, contains part of the description of a lawsuit, judged by the king personally. \"…the Laws of Hazor, inscribed on Hazor clay, may be viewed as further evidence of the position of Hazor as a kind of Babylon/Hattuša of the cuneiform far west — in other words, a city of the first and most important rank ruled by a great king.\"§REF§Horowitz/Oshima/Vukosavovic (2012).§REF§ It is likely that at least some other Canaanite polities would have had formal law codes, but whether such codes were standard is impossible to know." }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " This turns on the degree to which the Mosaic code existed in a formal manner, and was followed, which is hotly debated by scholars. It is clear that informal codes existed, at the very least. There is no evidence for a royal law code for the Northern Kingdom that has survived." }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " This turns on the degree to which the Mosaic code existed in a formal manner, and was followed, which is hotly debated by scholars. It is clear that informal codes existed, at the very least. There is no evidence for a royal law code for the Northern Kingdom that has survived." }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " <i>Smirtis</i> and <i>dharmashastras</i> §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230§REF§. The <i>Smriti</i>, or <i>Manu-smriti</i>, is a collection of texts prescribing correct behaviour, including a section explicitly devoted to \"the law of kings\" §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti</a>§REF§, while the <i>dharmashastras</i> are a collection of more explicitly legal texts §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The \"judicial [...] administration of the Chalukyas resembled that of their ancestors\" §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 91§REF§: therefore, like the Chalukyas of Badami, they must have followed <i>smirtis</i> and <i>dharmashastras</i> §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230§REF§. The <i>Smriti</i>, or <i>Manu-smriti</i>, is a collection of texts prescribing correct behaviour, including a section explicitly devoted to \"the law of kings\" §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti</a>§REF§, while the <i>dharmashastras</i> are a collection of more explicitly legal texts §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Shariah (Islamic law) which was not applied to non-Muslim zimmis and customary law. §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 225.§REF§ \"The rulers also framed regulations related to criminal law.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 99) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " There was little legal formalization on village level: ‘Among the Garos most disputes arise over the issues of property, inheritance, and domestic quarrels within the family. Such problems are to a large extent settled by the MAHARI (lineage) of the offended and the offender. A new situation develops when someone's cattle cause damage to another's crops. Under such situation the NOKMA (village headman) acts as an intermediary only. If he fails to settle the dispute, the matter can go to the civil court of the district council.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ Prior to enforcement of colonial regulations, disputes were decided by ordeal: ‘Since the annexation of the Garo Hills by the British Government, a body of men called laskars has been formed, who act as a kind of rural police and also as honorary magistrates. They are empowered to deal with all minor matters and settle unimportant disputes. They do this by calling together meetings of villagers, in which they sit as presidents and give final decisions. Their powers do not exceed those of inflicting fines and awarding compensation to injured parties. This is but an adaptation of the ancient usages of the people, for in former times, the village met in conference to decide any matter in dispute between its members. When in these meetings evidence could not be adduced, recourse was, and is yet had to trial by ordeal. This is of two kinds, the s˘il-s[unknown]o °a, or ordeal of hot iron, and the ch[unknown]okéla-s[unknown]o °a, or ordeal of boiling water.’ §REF§Playfair, Alan 1909. “Garos”, 74§REF§ Only the colonial authorities introduced formal legal codes that applied to different administrative levels: ‘The application of the Rules for the Administration of Justice vested in the village headman and laskars with judicial authority created some formal stereotypes for the administration which affected the traditional set-up, based on unwritten customary laws. The Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure were not applied but only the spirit of the Penal Code was followed. A villager can no longer avenge a death by killing. The sanction of tribal law does not lie in custom alone but in the principles on which their society is based. ‘ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 163§REF§ ‘At present, there are atleast three major sets of statutory instruments relevant to the judicial administration which are applicable in the Garo Hills District. They are: (a) Rules for the Administration of Justice and Police in the Garo Hills, 1937, issued on the 29th March, 1937 to the extent to which some portions of these Rules still survive. (This is a matter of considerable obscurity), (b) Rules for the Administration of Justice in the Garo Hills Autonomous District, 1953, issued on the 18th December, 1953 and (c) The Assam High Court Order, 1954 dealing with the jurisdiction of the High Court in relation to various District Council Courts in the tribal area in question.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 57§REF§ It seems that the Zamindars did not push for legal formalization." }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Similarly in urban administration, organized professional bodies enjoyed considerable autonomy. The law-codes of the Gupta period, which provide detailed information about the functioning of the guilds, even entrusted these corporate bodies with an important share in the administration of justice.\" §REF§(Chakrabarti 1996: 199) Chakrabarti, K. 1996. The Gupta Kingdom. In History of civilizations of Central Asia, v. 3: The Crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 pp. 188-210. UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S8ZACV8X/library§REF§\r\n\r\nFrom the account of Fa Hian, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India around 400 CE: \"[...] The kings govern without corporal punishment; criminals are fined according to circumstance, lightly or heavily. Even in cases of repeated rebellion they only cut off the right hand[...]'.\"§REF§(Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Is there any reason to have a minister of justice is there is no formal legal code?<br><i>Dharmadhikari</i> was the minister of justice.§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 137§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Hoysala Kingdom had a <i>Dharmadhikari</i> minister of justice.§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 137§REF§ Is there any reason to have a minister of justice is there is no formal legal code?" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The presence of a formal legal system is not discussed in the literature, and is therefore presumed absent.§REF§Singh, U. (2008) A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley: Delhi.§REF§ §REF§Avari, B. (2007) India: The Ancient Past: A history of the India sub-continent from c. 7,000 BC to AD 1200. Routledge: London and New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Radhakumud Mookerj, <i>Chandragupta Maurya and His Times</i>, Motilal Banarsidass Publications (1966)§REF§ However the \"king was no law-maker. His function was to administer the law already established.\" This meant the people were able to \"check and curb the arbitrary powers of the king.\"§REF§V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, <i>The Mauryan Polity</i> (1932), p. 160§REF§ Conningham validated this code in saying thatparts of the dharma are written down in edicts§REF§Conningham, Rob, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In 1605 CE Jahangir issued 12 ordinances. It was not a comprehensive legal code but a well-meaning if also somewhat idiosyncratic set of rulings. These included the setting up of hospitals, a ban on the sale of alcohol, the release of prisoners, and a proclamation that Sunday was an auspicious day. Sharia law codes and the rulings of the ulemas were of fundamental importance to the Islamic dynasty but most of the native Indian customary law was respected. §REF§N. Jayapalan. 2001. History of India. From 1206 to 1773. Volume II. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. New Delhi. p. 158-159§REF§§REF§Ramesh Kumar Arora. Rajni Goyal. 1996. Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues. Wishwa Prakashan. New Delhi. p.22§REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Though no source explicitly says this, based on analogy with the Chalukyas §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 230§REF§, it seems likely that the Rashtrakutas used <i>Smirtis</i> and <i>dharmashastras</i> as legal codes. The <i>Smriti</i>, or <i>Manu-smriti</i>, is a collection of texts prescribing correct behaviour, including a section explicitly devoted to \"the law of kings\" §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363055/Manu-smriti</a>§REF§, while the <i>dharmashastras</i> are a collection of more explicitly legal texts §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/160730/Dharma-shastra</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The <i>Dharma Shastras</i> §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/satavahana-dynasty-rulers-administration-society-and-economic-conditions/736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.historydiscussion.net/empires/satavahana-dynasty-rulers-administration-society-and-economic-conditions/736</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The evidence of the contemporary Smritis like Narada and Brihaspati shows that the judicial procedure was very well developed in the Gupta period. We may well presume that the sound rules which have been laid down in these Smritis about restraint, res judicata, the relative importance of the oral and the documentary evience, etc., were evolved in the Gupta, Vakataka and Pallava law-courts.\"§REF§(Majumdar and Altekar 1986, 278) Anant Sadashiv Altekar. The Administrative Organisation. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar. Anant Sadashiv Altekar. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass. Delhi.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The only law of the land was based on traditional regulations and customs, strengthened by the constitutional usage of the country, and its observance was strictly enforced§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 376§REF§. Vijayanagar rulers ‘tried to adhere to ancient practices of Hinduism through cultural revivalism’. The law was thus mainly based on traditional Hindu legal codes as well as some local customs. §REF§Madhao P. Patil. 1999. Court Life Under The Vijayanagar Rulers. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 211.§REF§§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. An Advanced History of India. p. 376§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Van Berkel, Maaike, Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Hugh Kennedy, and Letizia Osti. Crisis and Continuity at the Abbasid Court pp. 87-90§REF§<br>In the Abbasid Caliphate formal the law was promulgated by a body known as the Fuqaha. The law code was heavily influenced by Sharia law. Sharia was based on the Sunna, which were teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, and the Quran, the holy book of Islam. Legal thought was also influenced by Ijma’, which were a body of rulings on legal issues based on the consensus of scholars who had met to discuss specific cases. Despite the Caliphate’s claims to religious authority based on their links to the Prophet Muhammed, it was rare for direct rulings on legal matters to originate from the caliphal authorities. Alongside a developing legal code was the development of the Qudis, who were full time judiciary officials.§REF§Zubaida, Sami, Law and power in the Islamic world. (Tauris & Company Limited, 2005) pp. 74-84§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic law, shari'a.<br>\"Medieval scholars accepted the view that although the caliphs were the legitimate bearers of temporal authority within the Sunni Muslim community, the ulama were the true \"heirs of the Prophet\" in terms of religious authority.\"§REF§(Hanne 2007, 22) Hanne, Eric J. 2007. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Long before the dynasty of Sargon, Mesopotamia had both concepts and practices of law, governing certain relations between and among individuals, families, the community and the government. Although no formal collection of legal decisions, promulgations, or pronouncements about law has come down to us from the Akkadian period, we can reconstruct aspects of its law from a rich inventory of documents recording instances of its practice, from both Sumer and Akkad, as well as the earliest known records of litigation.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 37) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Ur-Nammu of Ur III (r. c2112-2094 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. c. 2094-2047 BCE) \"some scholars believe was the author of the first recorded set of law codes.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015, 979) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Code of Hammurabi is one of the most famous artefacts of the period. While it is considered to be heavy with propaganda it provides evidence for the presence of a law code, even if it cannot be certain how it was actually implemented at the time. There are certainly many contracts and court testimonies surviving to be sure that a law code was in existence and implemented. In particular, the <i> misharum </i> was \"a short-term measure, apparently proclaimed orally rather than inscribed on monuments, designed to alleviate social and economic distress\" §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from long Mesopotamian/Babylonian legal tradition." }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from long Mesopotamian/Babylonian legal tradition." }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from long Mesopotamian/Babylonian legal tradition." }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from long Mesopotamian/Babylonian legal tradition." }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"A number of kings in this period have left law codes, following the earlier example of Shulgi, and consciously upholding and imitating ancient values.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 84) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "No single body of law. “There was no legislative body and no division between executive and judiciary: administrative officials of all levels also held judicial authority. That the profession of a judge did not exist-in contrast to contemporary Babylonia-is also shown by the fact that the word dayānu, “judge, ” was not used for human beings in Neo-Assyrian.” No court building. §REF§(Westbrook et al. 2003, 883, 886, 890)§REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Ur-Nammu or Shulgi's code. Regulated criminal, administrative and social cases, and included some protection for the poor against usurers and loan sharks §REF§Van De Mieroop 2013, 282-283§REF§.<br>earliest known law codes.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Law codes \"not just laws meant to alleviate structural disfunctions in the system. They were an organic and solid re-organisation of the way justice was administered, and it is evident that the intention behind them was to create a uniform system.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Persian word for 'law' was data.\" \"By royal decrees, local jurists codified the laws of their own nations, and imperial authorities enforced those laws. Thus, the Jews worked according to Biblical laws with the royal sanctions, the Egyptians according to older Egyptian laws, the Iranians according to Avestan injunctions and their local traditions.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Civil law based on Persian law. Cyrus II and Darius I known to have made reforms. \"Unfortunately no Achaemenid law code, comparable to the Babylonian one or to the Hittite laws, has survived, if any ever existed.\"§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[20]</a>)§REF§<br>\"Universal justice system\" and judges. §REF§(Farazmand 2002)§REF§<br>\"Punishment was as cruel as in the ancient Near East generally. Execution, crucifixion, impalement, mutilation, banishment were common.\"§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[21]</a>)§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Qazi Isa \"pleaded the desirability of replacing Mongol law (yasa) with Islamic law (šarīʿa) when he abolished the tamḡā (excise on merchandise)\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In neighbouring Mesopotamia: Ur-Nammu of Ur III (r. c2112-2094 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. c. 2094-2047 BCE) \"some scholars believe was the author of the first recorded set of law codes.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015, 979) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§<br>A \"legal system\" may have been present - not sure what this refers to. \"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In neighbouring Mesopotamia: Ur-Nammu of Ur III (r. c2112-2094 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. c. 2094-2047 BCE) \"some scholars believe was the author of the first recorded set of law codes.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015, 979) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§<br>A \"legal system\" may have been present - not sure what this refers to. \"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A sacred legal code (sharī'a) was present. §REF§Donohue, J. J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012: Shaping Institutions for the Future. Leiden: Brill. p.288§REF§" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The advent of the Parthians did not mark a break in the cultural history of the Greek cities, which retained their constitutions and magistrates, their schools, language, and law, long after the decline of Seleucid power.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 10) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic law was acknowledged by the Khans, and Islamic judges were regulated under Ghazan's administrative reforms. §REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.147.§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included the development and use of a binary weight system, which had a major influence on the fraction systems of the whole Mesopotamia; a massive number of administrative and business documents; major architectural works; the development and management of a gigantic system of underground canals (Qanat) for irrigation, an Iranian invention that turned the arid land into an agricultural land; the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers; and the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law. In addition, Elamites were the first to introduce the role of witnesses in the elaborate judicial proceedings with and 'ordeal trial'.\" §REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ \"Administrative tablets and a monumental stele from Haft Tepe name as king Tepti-ahar. Inscribed seal impressions provide his full title, \"king of Susa and Anzan\". Tepti-ahar was known from three previously published texts: a brick inscription that, like the published Haft Tepe stele, regulates the conduct and support of a local cult; and two legal texts, formerly presumed to date to the late sukkalmah period.\"§REF§(Carter and Stopler 1984, 33-34)§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law. In addition, Elamites were the first to introduce the role of witnesses in the elaborate judicial proceedings with and 'ordeal trial'.\" §REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included the development and use of a binary weight system, which had a major influence on the fraction systems of the whole Mesopotamia; a massive number of administrative and business documents; major architectural works; the development and management of a gigantic system of underground canals (Qanat) for irrigation, an Iranian invention that turned the arid land into an agricultural land; the construction and maintenance of numerous public works and enterprises, such as roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic and commercial centers; and the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law. In addition, Elamites were the first to introduce the role of witnesses in the elaborate judicial proceedings with and 'ordeal trial'.\" §REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ \"The third phase (Middle Elamite III, c. 1200-1100 BC) saw the overthrow of the Kassites by one of the most important figures in Elamite history, Shutruk-Nahhunte. It was he, following his conquest of southern Mesopotamia, who brought to Susa such significant monuments as the law code of Hammurabi, the victory stele of the Old Akkadian king Naram- Sin, and many other pieces of Mesopotamian statuary, booty taken during his victorious campaign in 1158 BC.\" §REF§(Potts 2004, 188)§REF§<br>\"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" } ] }