Formal Legal Code List
A viewset for viewing and editing Formal Legal Codes.
GET /api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=10
{ "count": 509, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=11", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/formal-legal-codes/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Hindu law books.", "description": null }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"When and how the judiciary was organised in Assam is not known. Epigraphs of the ancient period indicate that justice was administered according to Hindu law books and describe the rulers as abode of justice.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 141]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Kangju further developed a partly urban civilization with clay houses, palaces, and fortified walls. The semisedentary tribal aristocracy lived in the centers of the towns and settlements.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 395, "name": "in_karkota_dyn", "long_name": "Karkota Dynasty", "start_year": 625, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Hindu legal scriptures. \"All Hindu theory lays the greatest stress on the administration of justice as an essential part of the protection to which the people are entitled from the government. According to Manu, the king should normally preside over the law-courts and be assisted by Brahmans and experienced councillors. The king is to hold court in a separate building in his own palace. The delegation of this regal duty to a chief justice is equally well known to Indian tradition. [...] Below the chief-justice there were other subordinate judges who were designated as Tantrapati and Rajasthanamantrinah. Judicial powers seem to have been exercised by other civil officers too: for instance the accounts-office called Seda is described as a Rajasthana in one of the passages of the Chronicle.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, pp. 207-208]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Probably Islamic law.<br>\"Kazan, and, Isker [the capital of the Siberian Khanate] with all their administrative buildings were captured by the 'White Tsar' do not leave the opportunity to expect that any written documents were saved (unless, of course, they were not set in stone).\"§REF§(Ivanov 2015, 142) Vladimir Alexandrovich Ivanov. October 2015. Bashkiria and the Khanate of Kazan. The Problem of Administrative and Political Relationship. European Journal of Science and Theology. Vol. 11. No. 5. 141-149.§REF§ \"Kazan, the sizeable capital, which had a population of about 20,000, was the centre of the Volga trade, and was inhabited by Tatar merchants, craftsmen, clergymen and scholars. The literature, historiography and architecture of the Kazan Tatars formed an outpost of Islamic civilization on the eastern fringe of Europe.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 459, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Judicial texts.§REF§(Thornton 1998, 82) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 460, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Georgian king had a civil service.§REF§(Suny 1994, 34) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§ Christian priests clergy with literary culture.§REF§(Suny 1994, 38-39) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br>If a formal legal code existed it may have been introduced or amended at the time of King David's reforms: \"In 1103 he convened the Ruisi-Urbnisi church council, at which he purged the clerical hierarchy of his opponents. He then combined the highest secular office in his kingdom, the chancellorship or mtsignobartukhutsesi, with the highest religious office, the bishopric of Chqondideli. To the new post of mtsignobartukhutses-chqondideli David appointed his teacher and closest advisor ... The new chancellor-procurator also was given judicial powers and influence in both domestic and foreign affairs; he soon came to be called vaziri (vizier) in imitation of that powerful office in Islamic countries.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§" }, { "id": 461, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Frederick II presented edicts of his constitution at royal court of Melfi, 1231 CE. Main purpose law and order in kingdom. §REF§(Abulafia 2004, 72)§REF§ Demanded an impartial justice system, so much so \"Frederick himself frequently lost cases in the common courts of the realm.\" §REF§(Allshorn 1912, 108)§REF§ Liber Augustalis." }, { "id": 462, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Yao Xing (394-416 CE) focused on \"the rule of law\" and \"brought a sense of order.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 14) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth.§REF§" }, { "id": 463, "polity": { "id": 815, "name": "es_castile_crown", "long_name": "Crown of Castile", "start_year": 1231, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "<br>§REF§Reily 1998 p.305§REF§" }, { "id": 464, "polity": { "id": 391, "name": "in_maitraka_dyn", "long_name": "Maitraka Dynasty", "start_year": 470, "end_year": 790 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Hindu legal texts.", "description": null }, { "id": 465, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 466, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Probably something based on Christian law since the clergy may have been involved in legal issues.<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 467, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Probably something based on Christian law since the clergy may have been involved in legal issues.<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 103]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 468, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": 1396, "year_to": 1444, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "In 1445 CE \"the throne was seized by a converted Muslim half-brother of the previous ruler\".§REF§(Mauzy 1985) Diane K Mauzy. Language and Language Policy in Malaysia. William R Beer. James E Jacob. eds. 1985. Language Policy and National Unity. Rowman & Allanheld Publishers. Totowa.§REF§ \"in 1303, a community in the region of Terengganu on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula produced an inscription in Jawi, the Malay language written with the Arabic alphabet, devoted to a set of Islamic laws.\"§REF§(Riddell 2017, 5-6) Peter G Riddell. 2017. Malay Court Religion, Culture and Language: Interpreting the Qurʾan in 17th Century Aceh. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 469, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": 1445, "year_to": 1511, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "In 1445 CE \"the throne was seized by a converted Muslim half-brother of the previous ruler\".§REF§(Mauzy 1985) Diane K Mauzy. Language and Language Policy in Malaysia. William R Beer. James E Jacob. eds. 1985. Language Policy and National Unity. Rowman & Allanheld Publishers. Totowa.§REF§ \"in 1303, a community in the region of Terengganu on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula produced an inscription in Jawi, the Malay language written with the Arabic alphabet, devoted to a set of Islamic laws.\"§REF§(Riddell 2017, 5-6) Peter G Riddell. 2017. Malay Court Religion, Culture and Language: Interpreting the Qurʾan in 17th Century Aceh. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 470, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Mogadishu is a city that is not in this polity but is in some ways comparable as a Muslim trading city: \"Ibn Battuta's description of Mogadishu indicates that the city was highly advanced as a center of trade and Islamic learning. He was puzzled by Somali Sultan Abubakar bin Mohamed and his judicial Islamic system, which he considered to be highly advanced hierarchical system of governance.\"§REF§(Abdullahi 2017, 53) Abdurahman Abdullahi. 2017 Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. London.§REF§ As a Muslim sultanate, Sharia courts would have likely been used to regulate society.§REF§“Since law can only be the pre-ordained system of God’s commands of Sharī’a, jurisprudence is the science of fiqh, or ‘understanding’ and ascertaining that; and the classical legal theory consists of the formulation and analysis of the principles by which such comprehension is to be achieved. Four such basic principles, which represent distinct but correlated manifestations of God’s will and which are known as the ‘roots of jurisprudence’ (usūl al-fiqh), are recognized by the classical theory: the word of God himself in the Qur’ān, the divinely inspired conduct or sunna of the Prophet, reasoning by analogy or qiyās and consensus of opinion or ijmā.” (Coulson 1964, 75-76) Coulson, Noel. 1964. A History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 471, "polity": { "id": 393, "name": "in_maukhari_dyn", "long_name": "Maukhari Dynasty", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Inferred from fact that contemporary polities made use of Hindu legal scriptures, as well as (also inferred) existence of a judiciary. \"As regards the system of justice we know next to nothing[...]. The judiciary must have been well-graded, as the Deo-Baranark inscription speaks of a chief magistrate.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVTVIVQ\">[Pires 1934, p. 171]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 472, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "\"In general, the period of the independent Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms saw the evolution and entrenchment of a culture of mixed Libyan and Phoenician character, the latter element being culturally dominant though naturally representing only a minority of the population as a whole.\"§REF§(Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 462-463) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 473, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": "Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a formal legal system during this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 474, "polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": "Sources do not suggest there is evidence for a formal legal system during this period. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SHF4S8D7\">[Flannery_Marcus 1996]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 475, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Russkaia Pravda, at least its oldest layer, the Pravda of Iaroslav, can of course be regarded as the oldest Novgorod law known to us.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 469) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"Novgorod's domestic legal system was based primarily on the Expanded Pravda, supplemented by customary law and incidental enactments ... It was undoubtedly also affected by the numerous treaties concluded with foreign powers.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 469) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 476, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "An official dedicated to the administration of justice suggests the presence of a formal system of law.<br>\"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 477, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, informal tribal law remained relevant to the rural population: 'A strict and complex code of honor based on tribal values governs behavior among groups and proper decorum between the sexes, including veiling of women in urban or northern areas.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'The cultural concept of honor also regulates the handling of disputes, which depends on confirming significant kinship ties.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'It is a continuing challenge of governmental strategies to achieve a stable balance between relatively autonomous tribes and the state. Alliance with dominant tribal confederation therefore may still be influential in the distribution of development projects by central authorities.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ But Islamic legal scholarship has a long history in Yemen as a guarantor of status and in the settling of disputes: 'Yemeni society is hierarchically organized on the basis of birth status and occupation. Until relative political stability was achieved in the late 1970s, birth and occupational statuses were legitimized as ascribed social categories. The elimination of practical barriers that restrict power and privilege?especially through marriage and education?to certain members of the society has only just begun. Under the system of ranked social categories, members of respectable groupings recognized their own noble descent and considered themselves the protectors of servants, former slaves, artisans, and certain farmers, all of whom were thought of as ?deficient,? either because they provided a service or craft?such as bloodletting, butchery, or barbering?that involved contact with polluting substances, or because their origins were discredited as ignoble. The tribal code of protection was also extended to elites at the top of the social scale, especially to sayyids, the reputed descendants of the Prophet, who originally came to Yemen to serve as mediators between tribes and who are respected for their religious expertise. Another social category, that of legal scholars, also inherits high status in the ranking order. Scholars, along with shuyukh (sing. shaykh ), who are tribal leaders, typically serve as village administrators. The majority of Yemenis use various equivalent or substitute terms to identify themselves within the social hierarchy, including qaba\\??\\il in the northern highlands to connote tribal membership, ra\\??\\iyah in the south to mean ?cultivators,? and \\??\\arab along the coast to signify respectable ancestry. Former slaves continue to act as agents and domestics in the households of former masters, but the most menial jobs (e.g., removing human waste from the street) are reserved for Yemenis who are alleged descendants of Ethiopians of the pre-Islamic era. In addition, Yemen relies on a range of foreigners from the East and West for professional, technical, and custodial services.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ The Ottoman administrators introduced legal reforms, many of which were undone by the Imamate in the North: 'The twentieth century opened in Yemen with a judgeship recently modified in accord with Ottoman reforms. Behind the simple character of the 1916 Ottoman personnel list lies a template for a new way of thinking about the nature of the shariʽa court. Although the more sweeping changes represented by the new Nizamiyya courts established in the central provinces of the empire were not instituted in the highlands, there were some significant innovations. A modicum of “order” (nizam), on a scale reduced and adapted for the special circumstances of Ottoman rule in Yemen, was introduced into local judicial affairs, as it had been in the closely associated sphere ofinstruction. Like Ottoman schools, much of this new system would apparently be undone by Imam Yahya, only to reappear in the institutional reforms of the republic. Undramatic though they may now appear, the innovations signaled in the personnel list were elements of a comprehensive reformulation of the judicial process, and beyond, as in the case of instruction, of the state itself. The list embodies selected bits and pieces of a much larger Ottoman bureacratic scheme for a justice system, one roughly analogous (p.188) In scope and detail to the legislation for judicial organization enacted in Yemen in 1979. The 1916 Ibb court staff were implementing a style of bureaucratic behavior radically different from that of the patrimonial imamic state, one that would only begin to be fully elaborated conceptually and enacted in practice with the wave of legislation and accompanying generation of complex new state organs in the 1970s.' §REF§Messick, Brinkley 2012. \"The Calligraphic State\", 187p§REF§ The British authorities in the South promoted the institutionalization of formal Islamic law: 'In the Yemeni sultanates known collectively as the Aden Protectorate, the British were instrumental in the institutionalization of formal shariʽa courts and in the consequent decline of customary law. “shariʽa law appears in South Arabia largely as the tool of the centralized government, whether indigenous or foreign,” Anderson writes (1970 [1955]: 11). For the “Protecting Power,” he continues, “there is … a natural tendency to champion the shariʽa, for it is ‘tidier’ than the vagaries of local custom from the administrative point of view and provides better political propaganda.” Promotion of the shariʽa enabled (p.66) the British to “pose as in some degree the champion of Islam, in partial imitation of the Governments of the Yemen and of Saudi Arabia” (1970: 12n).' §REF§Messick, Brinkley 2012. \"The Calligraphic State\", 65p§REF§" }, { "id": 478, "polity": { "id": 402, "name": "in_paramara_dyn", "long_name": "Paramara Dynasty", "start_year": 974, "end_year": 1235 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "\"The legislative powers of the king were limited. He was expected to govern his people strictly in accordance with the civil and criminal law contained in the Smrtis. In those days when dharma had a firm hold on the minds of the people, few kings dared to defy the injunctions of the age-old Dharmasastras.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 203]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 479, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity, and proceeded to have baptized the entire population. His son, Yaroslav the Wise, adopted a written legal code called Russkaya Pravda.\"§REF§(Martin 2017, 158-159) Michael Martin. 2017. City of the Sun: Development and Popular Resistance in the Pre-Modern West. Algora Publishing. New York.§REF§<br>Under Yaroslav the Wise the law was codified \"based on old Slavic customs and Byzantine law.\"§REF§Miriam Greenblatt. 2001. Human Heritage: A World History. McGraw-Hill.§REF§<br>Commercial law \"emerged visibly when commercial custom was written down.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 440) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 480, "polity": { "id": 412, "name": "in_sharqi_dyn", "long_name": "Sharqi", "start_year": 1394, "end_year": 1479 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Islamic law.", "description": null }, { "id": 481, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "absent", "comment": null, "description": "Askia Muhammed Toure (r.1493-1529 CE) \"appointed the first qadi of Jenne and extended Islamic judicial administration to other towns by establishing courts and appointing judges.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§" }, { "id": 482, "polity": { "id": 259, "name": "cn_southern_qi_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Qi State", "start_year": 479, "end_year": 502 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "According to Shen Yue's petition to impeach an official: \"Since the current dynasty has governed the realm, it has greatly changed the canons and laws. Although we have removed the old and promulgated the new, this custom has not been eliminated.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2014, 170) David R. Knechtges. Marriage and Social Status. Shen Yue's 'Impeaching Wang Yuan.' Wendy Swartz. Robert Ford Campany. Yang Lu. Jessey J C Choo. 2013. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 483, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "\"Still another idea was put forward by AB. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, who suggested that the discovery of a law text in a Sukhothai inscription shows the existence of a law code as early as the 14th century and is evidence against Quaritch Wales' contention that all such preambles are false. A critic of Griswold and Prasert pointed out, however, that the date of the inscription has been obliterated and that the language is later than the period they wished to assign to it, and other Thai historians date that Sukhothai inscription in 1433. My own view is that, whatever its date, it predates the Ayutthayan law which it resembles, and which was adopted in Ayutthaya under Sukhothai influence, no earlier than the reign of Trailok, and perhaps only after 1569.\"§REF§(Huxley 1996, 138) Andrew Huxley. 1996. Thai law, Buddhist law: essays on the legal history of Thailand, Laos, and Burma. White Orchid.§REF§<br>Successor polity: The Kot Monthianban ('palace law') of 1450 CE \"codified and clarified existing administrative custom and law\" and \"the sakdina system by which the status of different classes of people and the amount of land each was entitled to hold was reformed and firmly regulated by Trailok.\"§REF§(Bee, Brown, Herbert and Chitakasem 1989, 23) P J Bee. I Brown. Patricia Herbert. Manas Chitakasem. Thailand. Patricia Herbert. Anthony Milner. eds. 1989. South-East Asia. Languages and Literatures: a select guide. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu.§REF§ '<br>\"Legal traditions came from the Mons. ... The legacy of Sukhothai was in the realm of language, script, and religion that became an essential part of Thai culture.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§<br>\"In general, during the Sukhothai period Buddhism developed and played a role in the determination of moral conduct while coexisting with animistic beliefs as a single distinctive belief system.\"§REF§(Boonsue 1989, 22) Kornvipa Boonsue. 1989. Buddhism and gender bias: an analysis of a Jataka tale. York University.§REF§" }, { "id": 484, "polity": { "id": 217, "name": "dz_tahert", "long_name": "Tahert", "start_year": 761, "end_year": 909 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The imam was elected by the notables and lived an ascetic life interpreting laws, rendering justice, and leading his warriors in battle. Life at Tahert was conducted in a perpetual state of religious fervor. The theocratic community enforced a high standard of social behavior by physical punishment and imprisonment.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 302) Ira M Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"(Abu al-cAbbas Ahmad b.Mohammad b.Bakr o:) son of Aba cAbd Allah Mohammad b.Bakr (above), he was especially noted for his many works on IbadI law..\" §REF§Savage, E., 1990, Early medieval Ifriqiya, a reassessment of the Ibadiyya, pg.345§REF§" }, { "id": 485, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "Early sixth century Anacharsis the Scythian apparently wrote a work comparing Scythian and Greek laws which is now lost which suggests that the Scythians had their own laws code.", "description": null }, { "id": 486, "polity": { "id": 230, "name": "dz_tlemcen", "long_name": "Tlemcen", "start_year": 1235, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Well-developed bureaucracy.§REF§(Bourn and Park 2016, 20) Aomar Bourn. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. Lantham.§REF§ Presumably the legal code was Islamic law." }, { "id": 487, "polity": { "id": 276, "name": "cn_tuyuhun", "long_name": "Tuyuhun", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 663 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "An indication of social complexity in other non-Chinese states surrounding Tuyuhun: in the mid-7th century, in Tibet, Mgar Sto rtsan \"drew up a system of written laws\".§REF§(Twitchett 2000, 120) Denis Twitchett. Tibet in Tang's grand strategy. Hans van de Ven. ed. 2000. Warfare in Chinese History. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 488, "polity": { "id": 240, "name": "ma_wattasid_dyn", "long_name": "Wattasid", "start_year": 1465, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Islamic law.", "description": null }, { "id": 489, "polity": { "id": 291, "name": "cn_xixia", "long_name": "Xixia", "start_year": 1032, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"Xixia, with a history of 190 years, had ten lords, a vast and stable territory and well-formulated institutions and laws.\"§REF§(? 2006, 178) ? 2006. China Tibetology. Issues 6-11. Office for the Journal China Tibetology.§REF§<br>\"Besides, from the 'New Laws' text of the early 13th century we get to know about the existence of Tangut communities in ethnically mixed Tangut-Chinese communities, that were, nevertheless, close to the latter in terms of religious belief.\"§REF§(? 1996, 120) ?. 1996. The Journal of Oriental Studies. Volumes 6-10. Institute of Oriental Philosophy.§REF§" }, { "id": 490, "polity": { "id": 279, "name": "kz_yueban", "long_name": "Yueban", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": "The Yueban were part of northern Xiongnu, who inhabited in the upper Hi River during the fourth and fifth centuries.\"§REF§(Li and Hansen 2003, 63) Jian Li. Valerie Hansen. 2003. The glory of the silk road: art from ancient China. The Dayton Art Institute.§REF§ \"From limited references in the Beishi (Northern histories) and the Weishu (History of the Wei), we know that the Yueban had a well-developed kingdom, with a population of two hundred thousand that spanned thousands of kilometers, in the area north of Kucha.\"§REF§(Li and Hansen 2003, 63) Jian Li. Valerie Hansen. 2003. The glory of the silk road: art from ancient China. The Dayton Art Institute.§REF§" }, { "id": 491, "polity": { "id": 227, "name": "et_zagwe", "long_name": "Zagwe", "start_year": 1137, "end_year": 1269 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Zagwe rulers gave continuity to Aksumite state structure, Christianity, and the use of the Geez language.\"§REF§(Getahun and Kassu 2014, 9) Solomon Addis Getahun. Wudu Tafete Kassu. 2014. Culture and Customs of Ethiopia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§" }, { "id": 492, "polity": { "id": 222, "name": "tn_zirid_dyn", "long_name": "Zirids", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1148 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"The Sunni-Maliki opposition in Tunisia was represented most prominently by the major Sunni-Maliki scholar of the time, Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayramni (d. 996), the author of the risala, which, together with the mukhtasar of Khalil b. Ishaq, came to be the most widely known text on Sunni-Maliki law in North Africa, in the Sahara, and in the bilad al-sudan.\"§REF§(Loimeier 2013, 44) Roman Loimeier. 2013. Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§" }, { "id": 493, "polity": { "id": 586, "name": "gb_england_norman", "long_name": "Norman England", "start_year": 1066, "end_year": 1153 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Norman England had a formal legal system that was partially codified and uniform across the realm, combining elements of existing Anglo-Saxon law with Norman innovations. While there was no comprehensive written legal code akin to the Roman legal system, laws were documented in specific contexts and enforced consistently under royal authority. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MXKV3EU2\">[webpage_Home | Domesday Book]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JISXN2HM\">[Carpenter 2003]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 494, "polity": { "id": 798, "name": "de_east_francia", "long_name": "East Francia", "start_year": 842, "end_year": 919 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "East Francia inherited the Salic Law (Lex Salica) and other regional laws codified under the Carolingian Empire. These laws were originally written down in Latin and served as the basis for legal proceedings across the realm. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SHDPVIS\">[Reuter 1991]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 495, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "present", "comment": "Sharia (Islamic Law): Derived from the Quran, Hadith, and legal interpretations by the ulema. Sharia governed personal status, family law, and religious matters.<br>\r\n\r\nPost-Tanzimat Period (1839 onward):\r\n\r\nThe Tanzimat reforms introduced modernized legal codes influenced by European civil law traditions. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T6ZQKT6N\">[Rubin 2011]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M26QR6CH\">[Finkel 2007]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 496, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "Coded inferred present for Xiongnu Imperial Confederation.", "description": null }, { "id": 497, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "This polity succeeded from Ur III: Ur-Nammu of Ur III (r. c2112-2094 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. c. 2094-2047 BCE) \"some scholars believe was the author of the first recorded set of law codes.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R59KKIJP\">[Middleton 2015, p. 979]</a> These laws were novel in that they mostly imposed financial punishments as opposed to harsh physical retribution. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R59KKIJP\">[Middleton 2015, p. 979]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 498, "polity": { "id": 505, "name": "ir_neo_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam III", "start_year": -612, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "\"Other major administrative achievements of the Elamites included ... the development and use of an advanced legal system - Elamite Penal Law, Civil Law, and Administrative Law.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCEG24P3\">[Farazmand 2009, p. 22]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 499, "polity": { "id": 421, "name": "cn_erlitou", "long_name": "Erlitou", "start_year": -1850, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "Unknown.", "description": null }, { "id": 500, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "unknown", "description": null }, { "id": 501, "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "id_kalingga_k", "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "unknown. No known legal documents.", "description": null }, { "id": 502, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "\"the former nomadic invaders came into possession of vast territories inhabited by settled agricultural peoples with a culture and traditions dating back many centuries, just as had been the case with the Tokharians ... who created the Kushan Empire. It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2SDP5ZM\">[Zeimal_Litvinsky_Iskender-Mochiri 1996, pp. 123-137]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 503, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Formal_legal_code", "formal_legal_code": "uncoded", "comment": "From the Aegean region, which includes Greek cities of Lydia on the coast of Western Asia Minor: \"By the 6th century BC, writing was widespread there and, thanks to the later reverence for Greek culture, huge amounts survive in transmission beyond that on archaeologically durable media.\" This material included \"law\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A3EKVDYZ\">[Broodbank 2013, p. 536]</a>", "description": null } ] }