Drinking Water Supply System List
A viewset for viewing and editing Drinking Water Supply Systems.
GET /api/sc/drinking-water-supplies/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 398, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/drinking-water-supplies/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/drinking-water-supplies/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A wall was built to dam a reservoir in the northern section of Monte Alban.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p85§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The following suggests that perhaps \"community-focus structures\" developed later. A Middle Archaic example of open-air site is Gheo-Shih [Oaxaca Valley], which is a field marked by boulders and kept clean. This is considered to be one of Mesoamerica's earliest example of a community-focus structure, such as the plaza, temple-pyramid, and palace, all of which developed in the Formative and later periods.§REF§(Evans 2004: 92) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 12, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_7", "long_name": "Classic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 13, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_8", "long_name": "Epiclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " None have been found, and given the abundance of streams, springs, and freshwater lakes in the region during the Formative, and it seems unlikely that household water supplies would have been necessary.§REF§Serra Puche, Mari Carmen (1986). \"Unidades Habitacionales del Formativo en la Cuenca de Mexico.\" In Unidades Habitacionales Mesoamericanas y Sus Areas de Actividad, ed. L. Manzanilla. Mexico City: UNAM, 161-192.§REF§§REF§Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121.§REF§§REF§Flannery, Kent V. (1976). \"The Early Mesoamerican House.\" <i>In The Early Mesoamerican Village,</i> ed. K. V. Flannery. New York: Academic Press, 16-24.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1979) \"Early Sedentary Economy in the Basin of Mexico\" <i>Science</i> 203(4376):131-142.§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The reservoir at Cuicuilco suggests that these may have been present elsewhere §REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-84, 125-134.§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " None have been found, and given the abundance of streams, springs, and freshwater lakes in the region during the Formative, and it seems unlikely that household water supplies would have been necessary.§REF§Serra Puche, Mari Carmen (1986). \"Unidades Habitacionales del Formativo en la Cuenca de Mexico.\" In Unidades Habitacionales Mesoamericanas y Sus Areas de Actividad, ed. L. Manzanilla. Mexico City: UNAM, 161-192.§REF§§REF§Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121.§REF§§REF§Flannery, Kent V. (1976). \"The Early Mesoamerican House.\" <i>In The Early Mesoamerican Village,</i> ed. K. V. Flannery. New York: Academic Press, 16-24.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1979) \"Early Sedentary Economy in the Basin of Mexico\" <i>Science</i> 203(4376):131-142.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The reservoir at Cuicuilco suggests that these amy have been present elsewhere §REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-84, 125-134.§REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " No information found in relevant literature." }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "mx_toltec", "long_name": "Toltecs", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " It is assumed here that relevant structures continued to be privately managed. 'However, note the water supply at Þingvellir (see 930-1262 coding).' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " In Cuzco gutters ran down the middle of paved streets §REF§(Bauer 2004, 110)§REF§ (which took the water away). Fountains and springs §REF§(Bauer 2004, 132)§REF§ - did these provide drinking water or were they for ceremonial use? In Ollantaytambo: \"Canals running through the streets provided fresh water and may have carried away effluent.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 221)§REF§ Alan Covey: There’s no reference to a formal system of drinking water being brought to Cuzco (the way that Roman aqueducts fed basins and fountains). More likely that local springs provided water. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§ According to Wright, Tipon was a hydro-engineering feat due to its canals, plazas, aqueducts, and fountains--infrastructure that transformed a remote mountainside into a true engineering marvel. §REF§Wright, K. 2006. Tipon: Water Engineering Masterpiece of the Inca Empire. American Society of Civil Engineers§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In Cuzco gutters ran down the middle of paved streets §REF§(Bauer 2004, 110)§REF§ (which took the water away). Fountains and springs §REF§(Bauer 2004, 132)§REF§ - did these provide drinking water or were they for ceremonial use? In Ollantaytambo: \"Canals running through the streets provided fresh water and may have carried away effluent.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 221)§REF§ Alan Covey: There’s no reference to a formal system of drinking water being brought to Cuzco (the way that Roman aqueducts fed basins and fountains). More likely that local springs provided water. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§ According to Wright, Tipon was a hydro-engineering feat due to its canals, plazas, aqueducts, and fountains--infrastructure that transformed a remote mountainside into a true engineering marvel. §REF§Wright, K. 2006. Tipon: Water Engineering Masterpiece of the Inca Empire. American Society of Civil Engineers§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Sub-subterranean canals under Pikillacta may be drainage or water supply. §REF§(McEwan ed. 2005, 83)§REF§ Canals, aqueducts, reservoirs and field systems constructed to support work at Pikillacta. §REF§(McEwan ed. 2005, 83 Cite: Alfredo Valencia)§REF§ In the capital Wari, a \"system of canals and drains provided water to residents and allowed waste water to leave the city.\" Aqueducts were used to transport water for urban consumption. §REF§(McEwan and Williams in Bergh 2012, 65, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The absence of irrigation systems suggests that drinking water was collected from streams nearby rather than supply systems: 'Very full data on the size of these gardens have been provided by Crocombe and Hogbin (1963) and Rimoldi (1966). A household tends to establish something like one and a half to two acres of garden per year. A garden is never used for more than one taro season, but as planting and consumption of the taro each tend to be stretched over most of a year, almost two years elapse between the clearing and final abandonment. This gives time for the bananas and sugar-cane to reach maturity too. Once a garden is abandoned, it is not used again for at least eight years or so. The usual swidden agriculture techniques are used, burning, clearing, careful removal of ‘rubbish’ remaining after the burning process, planting with a digging stick, periodic attention to weeding and heaping up of earth around growing taro, removal of corm-bearing bases of petioles of mature taro for removal and planting in a new garden. The Orokaiva practise no irrigation, no form of terracing or drainage, no manuring, no measures against parasites. Sometimes a fence is made out of tree trunks to keep pigs from breaking in. This is usually done only after a pig has made its first expedition, and only on the side where the pig entered.' §REF§Schwimmer, Eric G. 1973. “Exchange In The Social Structure Of The Orokaiva: Traditional And Emergent Ideologies In The Northern District Of Papua”, 20§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " The absence of irrigation systems suggests that drinking water was collected from streams nearby rather than supply systems: 'Very full data on the size of these gardens have been provided by Crocombe and Hogbin (1963) and Rimoldi (1966). A household tends to establish something like one and a half to two acres of garden per year. A garden is never used for more than one taro season, but as planting and consumption of the taro each tend to be stretched over most of a year, almost two years elapse between the clearing and final abandonment. This gives time for the bananas and sugar-cane to reach maturity too. Once a garden is abandoned, it is not used again for at least eight years or so. The usual swidden agriculture techniques are used, burning, clearing, careful removal of ‘rubbish’ remaining after the burning process, planting with a digging stick, periodic attention to weeding and heaping up of earth around growing taro, removal of corm-bearing bases of petioles of mature taro for removal and planting in a new garden. The Orokaiva practise no irrigation, no form of terracing or drainage, no manuring, no measures against parasites. Sometimes a fence is made out of tree trunks to keep pigs from breaking in. This is usually done only after a pig has made its first expedition, and only on the side where the pig entered.' §REF§Schwimmer, Eric G. 1973. “Exchange In The Social Structure Of The Orokaiva: Traditional And Emergent Ideologies In The Northern District Of Papua”, 20§REF§ [Even in colonial settlements, services were of a makeshift character.]" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Public fountains. §REF§Bernard, Paul. \"The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.\" History of civilizations of Central Asia 2 (1994): pp. 99-129.. pp. 110-113§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Drinking water supply systems are present, but were not state owned. “At Pirak, however, it is in post-900 BC levels, Iron Age, that a brick-lined well was found, the bricks being trapezoid in shape”.§REF§Ratnagar, S. (2007) Markers and Shapers, Early Indian technology in the household, village and urban workshop. Tulika Books: New Delhi. p89§REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Based on plant remains, including rice suggests a certain degree of control over water to produce food. Also reported discovery of large channel running along western side of Pirak during Pirak IA§REF§Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017)§REF§." }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Water played a vital part in the life of the Harappan people, and they were skilled hydraulic engineers. Michael Jansen has calculated that there were seven hundred or more wells at Mohenjo-daro, present in one in three houses. Those without a well of their own, however, were served by the public water supply, and the great wear around the rims of wells in houses suggests that they too were used by more than the immediate household. Grooves in the well curb show that water was drawn using containers, such as pots or wood buckets, attached to ropes. The huge number of wells at Mohenjo-daro indicates that the city was too far from the river for convenience; Jansen (1987) suggests that pits dug to extract clay for construction filled with rainwater and may been used as an additional water source for the city.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 235) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"Water played a vital part in the life of the Harappan people, and they were skilled hydraulic engineers. Michael Jansen has calculated that there were seven hundred or more wells at Mohenjo-daro, present in one in three houses. Those without a well of their own, however, were served by the public water supply, and the great wear around the rims of wells in houses suggests that they too were used by more than the immediate household. Grooves in the well curb show that water was drawn using containers, such as pots or wood buckets, attached to ropes. The huge number of wells at Mohenjo-daro indicates that the city was too far from the river for convenience; Jansen (1987) suggests that pits dug to extract clay for construction filled with rainwater and may been used as an additional water source for the city.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2008, 235) Jane McIntosh. 2008. <i>The Ancient Indus Valley</i>. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO.§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " In the pre-Russian period, the Sakha were transhumant pastoralists rather than farmers. Even in the early Russian period, settlements were built in close proximity to freshwater streams and lakes: 'It is watered [Page 327] from an ice-hole at the nearest river or lake. In spring it is often necessary to cut deep pathways in the ice, towards the old, exhausted ice-holes in order to secure the cattle access to the water. The cattle frequently kneel as they drink, while calves and horses drink out of buckets filled with water. The water in such old ice holes is nauseatingk putrid, and smells of hydrogen sulfide and of swamp. In order to diminish the freezing of the ice-holes during the night, the Yakut frequently cover them with straw covers and with snow. In this connection I may note that the ice on the lakes with ice-holes freezes apparently in a thicker layer than on the lakes on which no ice-holes are cut. In spring, [Page 328] when the nearest watering places are exhausted or have been frozen up, it becomes necessary on occasions to drive the cattle to a watering place about two viersts away, which is very inconvenient. That is why the selection of a place of settlement is strongly influenced by the nearness of the winter watering place. In hard frost, the watered cattle, shaking from cold, is driven into [Page 329] the warm cattle sheds where some feed is prepared for them in the mangers. In spring they have a little hay of a worse sort right in the enclosures. The calves, which all through the winter are kept in human dwellings, are fed and watered there, with the water on many occasions warmed up before the calves receive it. The cows that have just given birth to calves are also fed in the cattle sheds. Such cows are not taken 158 to water for 3-4 days and are instead given warm water to drink.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 326pp§REF§ Tokarev's material suggests that irrigation systems and water pumps did not become common prior to the Soviet period: 'Many farms use water wheels and pumps to water their gardens. In 1952, more than 300,000 hectares of land, chiefly green meadows and pastureland, were irrigated by means of both permanent and temporary installations. The first specialized meadow-reclamation station had been set up in the Gorniy Rayon.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 291§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Settlements were built in close proximity to freshwater streams and lakes: 'It is watered [Page 327] from an ice-hole at the nearest river or lake. In spring it is often necessary to cut deep pathways in the ice, towards the old, exhausted ice-holes in order to secure the cattle access to the water. The cattle frequently kneel as they drink, while calves and horses drink out of buckets filled with water. The water in such old ice holes is nauseatingk putrid, and smells of hydrogen sulfide and of swamp. In order to diminish the freezing of the ice-holes during the night, the Yakut frequently cover them with straw covers and with snow. In this connection I may note that the ice on the lakes with ice-holes freezes apparently in a thicker layer than on the lakes on which no ice-holes are cut. In spring, [Page 328] when the nearest watering places are exhausted or have been frozen up, it becomes necessary on occasions to drive the cattle to a watering place about two viersts away, which is very inconvenient. That is why the selection of a place of settlement is strongly influenced by the nearness of the winter watering place. In hard frost, the watered cattle, shaking from cold, is driven into [Page 329] the warm cattle sheds where some feed is prepared for them in the mangers. In spring they have a little hay of a worse sort right in the enclosures. The calves, which all through the winter are kept in human dwellings, are fed and watered there, with the water on many occasions warmed up before the calves receive it. The cows that have just given birth to calves are also fed in the cattle sheds. Such cows are not taken 158 to water for 3-4 days and are instead given warm water to drink.' §REF§Sieroszewski, Wacław 1993. “Yakut: An Experiment In Ethnographic Research”, 326pp§REF§ Tokarev's material suggests that irrigation systems and water pumps did not become common prior to the Soviet period: 'Many farms use water wheels and pumps to water their gardens. In 1952, more than 300,000 hectares of land, chiefly green meadows and pastureland, were irrigated by means of both permanent and temporary installations. The first specialized meadow-reclamation station had been set up in the Gorniy Rayon.' §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts”, 291§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Canals, aqueducts and qanats were used alongside mechanical water driven machinery (norias) to raise water to higher levels as well as the animal powered saqiyas. Water was crucial in Mosques because of the cleansing rituals. Drinking fountains were called Sabil.§REF§(Bloom and Blair, eds. 2009, 77-78)§REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": 1596, "year_to": 1633, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": " Falvey §REF§(Falvey 2000, p. 129)§REF§ writes of \"the construction of the first storage irrigation system in 1633 in Ayutthaya, an echo of the Khmer storage <i>barai</i>\". \"Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": 1633, "year_to": 1767, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Falvey §REF§(Falvey 2000, p. 129)§REF§ writes of \"the construction of the first storage irrigation system in 1633 in Ayutthaya, an echo of the Khmer storage <i>barai</i>\". \"Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Inferred from the fact that such a thing seems to have first been established in the polity in the seventeenth century. Falvey §REF§(Falvey 2000, p. 129)§REF§ writes of \"the construction of the first storage irrigation system in 1633 in Ayutthaya, an echo of the Khmer storage <i>barai</i>\". \"Each water-based feature fulfilled several functions. Barays provided agricultural and domestic water, and fish and plant foods. Canals channeled water for public sanitation, and transport arteries. Embankments and dikes were usually oriented east-west following the contours and acted both as levees ti control floods and elevated causeways for roads. Moats surrounding temples, monuments, and inhabited areas also fulfilled several functions: they served as sacred boundaries, they were a source of domestic water and food, and they provided fill for foundations to raise the level of the terrain for drainage and protection. Access to domestic water was provided by tanks and basins dug into the water table.’§REF§(Engelhardt 1995, p.25)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Water wheel. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§ \"992 water carriers were ordered to cover their containers to avoid splashing passersby\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 55)§REF§ Better residential houses had amenities such as water distribution and waste-water removal. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 68)§REF§ General reference medieval Islamic cities: \"Only the wealthy could afford indoor plumbing or ovens as part of their residences.\"§REF§(Lindsay 2005, 123) Lindsay, James E. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis.§REF§ Mansuriyya in Tunisia \"had water brought from the distant spring of 'Ayn Ayyub through an aqueduct modeled on the Roman system at Carthage.\"§REF§(Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles.§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. Hattusa§REF§Wittenberg H. and A. Schachner (2012) The Ponds of Hattuša - Early Groundwater Management in the Hittite Kingdom [In:] <i>IWA Specialized Conference on Water&Wastewater Technologies in Ancient Civilizations 22-24 March 2012 Instabul</i>, pp. 313-319.§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ Cisterns of St Mocius, Philoxenus and Illus (Yerebatansaray), Acqueduct of Valens in Constantinople.§REF§(Haussig 1971, 166) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"Over 150 covered cisterns and reservoirs survive of the complex water programme, the most impressive of which is the Basilica Cistern (Yerebatansaray) (Crow and Bayliss 2005).\"§REF§(Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ Cisterns of St Mocius, Philoxenus and Illus (Yerebatansaray), Acqueduct of Valens in Constantinople.§REF§(Haussig 1971, 166) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"Over 150 covered cisterns and reservoirs survive of the complex water programme, the most impressive of which is the Basilica Cistern (Yerebatansaray) (Crow and Bayliss 2005).\"§REF§(Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Preiser-Kapeller says present.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences)§REF§ Cisterns of St Mocius, Philoxenus and Illus (Yerebatansaray), Acqueduct of Valens in Constantinople.§REF§(Haussig 1971, 166) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"Over 150 covered cisterns and reservoirs survive of the complex water programme, the most impressive of which is the Basilica Cistern (Yerebatansaray) (Crow and Bayliss 2005).\"§REF§(Hennessey 2008, 213) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. Hattusa§REF§Wittenberg H. and A. Schachner (2012) The Ponds of Hattuša - Early Groundwater Management in the Hittite Kingdom [In:] <i>IWA Specialized Conference on Water&Wastewater Technologies in Ancient Civilizations 22-24 March 2012 Instabul</i>, pp. 313-319.§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " e. g. Hattusa§REF§Wittenberg H. and A. Schachner (2012) The Ponds of Hattuša - Early Groundwater Management in the Hittite Kingdom [In:] <i>IWA Specialized Conference on Water&Wastewater Technologies in Ancient Civilizations 22-24 March 2012 Instabul</i>, pp. 313-319.§REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " There were public fountains in the Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia §REF§Bernard, Paul. \"The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.\" History of civilizations of Central Asia 2 (1994): pp. 99-129.. pp. 110-113§REF§ Something referred to as a \"fountain building\" in earlier Macedonia.§REF§(Girtzi-Bafas 2009, 136-144)§REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " inferred continuity with earlier periods in the region" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The elaborate water supply system of Constantinople was restorated and enlarged by the Ottomans, cf. <a href=\"http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3217/original/DPC0748.pdf?1384773927\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3217/original/DPC0748.pdf?1384773927 </a>; also Adrianople had such a system <a href=\"http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3221/original/DPC0760.pdf?1384773938\">EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3221/original/DPC0760.pdf?1384773938 </a> §REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Aqueducts in Istanbul.§REF§(Imber 2002, 172) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ 111 drinking fountains built in Cairo during three centuries of Ottoman rule, 46 between 1626 and 1775 CE. Western area of Cairo two fountains built between 1517 and 1725 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 220, 223)§REF§ Water was brought to fountains or to the door of residents manually, via camel and water carriers (up to 10,000 daily), and the fountains were built by waqf foundations and individuals rather than a municipal authority.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 245-250)§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Aqueducts in Istanbul.§REF§(Imber 2002, 172) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ 111 drinking fountains built in Cairo during three centuries of Ottoman rule, 46 between 1626 and 1775 CE. Western area of Cairo two fountains built between 1517 and 1725 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 220, 223)§REF§ Water was brought to fountains or to the door of residents manually, via camel and water carriers (up to 10,000 daily), and the fountains were built by waqf foundations and individuals rather than a municipal authority.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 245-250)§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Drinking_water_supply_system", "drinking_water_supply_system": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Arsinoe, a metropolis in Egypt (the capital town of a nome) \"had running water supplied by two reservoirs into which water was pumped from an arm of the Nile.\" §REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§" } ] }