Calendar List
A viewset for viewing and editing Calendars.
GET /api/sc/calendars/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 531, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/calendars/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/calendars/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " “To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.” §REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 399, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ e.g. used by government" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 399, "year_to": 449, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ e.g. used by government" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 399, "year_to": 449, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ e.g. used by government" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 450, "year_to": 537, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": "\"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§ e.g. used by government" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The Chinese calender was known and studied in Japan from the 6th century 'Written records were now used to carry out government functions; Buddhism was enthusiastically embraced; and Chinese technology stimulated such diverse fields as calendar making...Missions from Japan to China no longer sought only luxury goods, or even Chinese recognition of a Japanese ruler's authority, but sophisticated forms of learning as well.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.316§REF§ but does not appear to have been officially adopted until <i>the Chinese Hsuan-ming calendar that was brought by an embassy in 859 and remained the official calendar of Japan, with growing inaccuracy, from 862 to 1684.'§REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.91.§REF§</i>" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " ‘In the medieval and early modern periods, the Japanese utilized the traditional lunar calendar. Dates on this calendar represented the day, month, and year, the last of which could be determined by several methods. Two such methods included the 60-year time cycle and the use of the era name, or nengo. Nengo was a unit of time comparable to an era, commonly employed to date events or chronological periods. The use of this measure of time began in the seventh century. The change of emperor included a change in era name. However, in the early modern period, the nengo did not simply represent the duration of a governmental regime. New era names might be declared when auspicious events occurred or at certain points in the traditional 60- year (sexagenary) calendar cycle... Despite the official use of the lunar calendar, the solar calendar was also employed and was very important for farmers.’§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.355.§REF§ ‘As the field of Western astronomy developed in Japan, the government appointed official astronomers (temmonkata) to serve and advise the shogunate. The first, Shibukawa Shunkai (or Harumi; 1639-1715), was a student of the theories of Copernicus. He utilized this knowledge to design a new calendar, the Jokyo calendar, based on a late 13thcentury Chinese calendar that was adopted as the official Japanese calendar in 1684.’§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.238.§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"To all appearances, writing as such, in the form of Chinese Classics, was introduced into Japan early in the fifth century as part of the great cultural influx from Paekche.\"§REF§(Frellesvig 2010, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"what do the highly sophisticated calendar systems that were in use in Khwarazm, Bactria, Parthia, Tokharistan, and Sogdiana tell us about the state of Central Asian science in the pre-Islamic centuries? It is surely worth noting that Biruni’s research on calendar systems, which he undertook in the early years of the eleventh century, took as its point of departure the Khwarazian calendar.\" §REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Khwarazm region: \"The Khwarazmian solar calendar, related to the Zoroastrian system, is known to us thanks to Biruni, who argued that it was in advance of most other ancient systems for measuring time.\" §REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.3)§REF§ 'In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed.§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets' positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given 'backwards,' with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.261)§REF§ Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 15)§REF§. The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire's inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier's day, and revised every three years.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 145)§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.3)§REF§ 'In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed.§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets' positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given 'backwards,' with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.261)§REF§ Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 15)§REF§. The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire's inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier's day, and revised every three years.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 145)§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " A calendar based on astronomical measurements exists. 'Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets' positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given 'backwards,' with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.261)§REF§ Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 15)§REF§. The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire's inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier's day, and revised every three years.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 145)§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " 'At Angkor Wat [...] the measurements of both parts and whole contain calendrically and cosmologically significant totals. As an illustration of the part/whole relationship, the circumference of the fourth (outer) enclosure at Angkor Wat measures 1 lunar year expressed as 354.36 units. (There are 354.36 days in 12 lunar months). The circumference also includes a 28-unit ritual path through the triad of eastern, northern, and southern entrances. One lunar month is often expressed as 28 days of length and is a subdivision the lunar year. IN other words, the 28-unit path is contained within the 354.36-unit circumference, and the 28-day month is contained within the 354-day year. The part-whole relationship in architecture parallels the part/whole relationship in the calendar.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.3)§REF§ 'In Khmer astronomy, the positions of the planets and stars can be determined without using trigonometry. Nevertheless, at some point between the second and fifth centuries A.D., Indian astronomy adopted the trigonometric calculations of the Greeks and Romans. These methods may have been introduced into Cambodia by the fifth or sixth centuries. When solar and lunar alignments were found at Angkor Wat in 1976, it was clear that the angles between the towers, the moon or sun, and the observation points were carefully calculated, further suggesting that a knowledge of trigonometry was current when the temple was constructed.§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.4)§REF§ 'Calendrical values were part of a living cultural context and invariably emerge in Khmer inscriptions. In this simple one-sentence inscription, two or three words were enough to say that a Siva gingham was set up (read:in a temple constructed for that purpose), but it took several lines to explain when that happened. The planets' positions in the 12 zodiac signs or in the 27/28 naksatra, the light or dark half of the lunar month, the solar month, the day of the week, and the year come first by custom-before the main statement. According to tradition, the era date is given 'backwards,' with the smallest year first and the century last, and spelled out through numerical symbols.'§REF§(Mannikka 1996, p.261)§REF§ Attested as present during Angkorean times by David Chandler§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 15)§REF§. The central administration in Angkor must have had fairly detailed information for the purposes of taxation and core labour of all the empire's inhabitants, for according to Zhou a census was taken during the ninth Cambodian month, where everyone (or, more likely, all heads of families) was called to the capital, and passed in review before the Royal Palace. Such census registers were kept in Aymonier's day, and revised every three years.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 145)§REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Vickery discusses the use of Sanskritic calendrical terms used for the '5th', the '7th', a 'full moon,' and 'Wednesday'.§REF§(Vickery 1998, 248)§REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Indian calendrical system. \"With the Sanskritization of personal names came the Indian calendrical system...\" §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Indian calendrical system. \"With the Sanskritization of personal names came the Indian calendrical system...\" §REF§(Higham 1989, p. 248)§REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 17)§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Notably, the famous 10th Century BCE Gezer calendar is argued by some to have been Phoenician." }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Koran. Classic Arabic of Koran.\"In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne's king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan.\" §REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§ \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic calender." }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Scholars use oral tradition to help reconstruct life in the Segou kingdom.§REF§(Monroe and Ogundiran 2012) J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa. J Cameron Monroe. Akinwumi Ogundiran. eds. 2012. Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The polity may not have used written documents but there were written documents in the semi-autonomous, Islamic 'marka' towns, populated by Soninke and other Mande-speakers." }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic calender." }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " c582 CE: \"The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"The relations between the Khitan and the southern states of Wu-Yiieh and Southern T'ang were at their height in the late 930s and 940s; for a while Wu-Yiieh even used the Khitan calendar.\" §REF§(Twitchett, D.C. and K. Tietze. 1994. The Liao. In Franke, H. and D.C. Twitchett (eds) The Cambridge History of China Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368 pp. 43-153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P. 72)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": "Chinese astronomers \"used Middle Eastern astronomical tables to revise Chinese calendars and produce a new calendar for the Mongol rulership.\"§REF§Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 155.§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Present in Yuan and imperial Mongol times. Chinese astronomers \"used Middle Eastern astronomical tables to revise Chinese calendars and produce a new calendar for the Mongol rulership.\"§REF§Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Rule of the Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World’, in David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 3. The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 155.§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 499, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 555, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " \"According to the Chinese chroniclers, there were 28 hereditary ranks or titles in the Turk political system, suggesting a formal bureaucracy but not an entirely centralized administration.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 225)§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " \"According to the Sanguo zhi [Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms], because Kebineng’s lands were near the Chinese border, many Chinese people (Zhongguo ren 中國人) fled the warlord depredations of late Han and Three Kingdoms China to join Kebineng, teaching the Xianbei how to make Chinese-style arms and armor, and even introducing some literacy.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2013, 7-8)§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Islamic calender." }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "absent", "comment": null, "description": " Koran. Classic Arabic of Koran.\"In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne's king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan.\" §REF§(Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh \"Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city\" <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>)§REF§ \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York.§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179§REF§ More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159§REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York.§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179§REF§ More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York.§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179§REF§ More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " Several glyphs carved on stones at Monte Albán have been interpreted as calendrical glyphs, based on analogy with later periods§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York.§REF§§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p179§REF§ More specifically, the glyphs on Stele 12 and 13 at Monte Alban seem to refer to days on the 365 day calendar, or yza secular year as it was known in the historical periods. In addition to evidence for the ritual 260 day calendar (or piye calendar) at San Jose Mogote, this suggests that both the two calendars were being used from this time.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p159§REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Calendar", "calendar": "present", "comment": null, "description": " The ritual and secular calendars from the earlier periods continued to be in use until the Spanish conquest in the 1520s. §REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" } ] }