Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 401, "polity": { "id": 687, "name": "Early Niynginya", "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels.1. King :2. Court ::\" Yet it would be a mistake to imagine that the first kings ruled as autocrats, although the tales have a tendency to portray the kings as doing precisely that. Certainly the king was the leading actor on the court scene, but he was not the only one. The queen mother enjoyed an independent authority. At the court the foremost ritualists and the diviners-cum-counselors certainly had their say, as did those who had been the king’s earliest allies and military commanders such as Muvunyi and Mpande. All these people were stakeholders in this new enterprise that was the kingdom and just as interested in its success as the king was himself. Ndori and his successors were certainly obliged to negotiate with them. Moreover, one suspects that there were already two factions among the courtiers, those who were his first companions from abroad and those who already held high office in the land before his arrival. People in both camps probably competed with each other and the kings undoubtedly exploited such rivalres even while they continued to rely on both factions. In such a political arena, the emergence of favorite counselors (abatoni) becomes nearly inevitable if only in an informal way.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 66) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ :3. Abatware ::\"During Ndori’s reign a large part of the realm was divided into small chiefdoms headed by allies who were not ritualists but who had still welcomed him into the country. All these chiefs were probably linked to the king by an ubuhake contract since such a contract would have reified their submission to and alliance with him. In accordance with the ubuhake contract, they would then have sent tribute in food, objects, or cattle to the court according to its needs. The local chiefs (abatware) could not be deposed, kept their own intore, and governed their lands without any interference by the court. They waged private wars and vendetta without any restriction at all.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 64) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ :3. Ritualist leaders ::\"The main ritualists also still held territories that were totally free. [...] All these ritualist lands were exempt from royal authority in return for the ritual obligations owed by their chiefs.\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 64-65) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ :3. Other types of chiefs ::\"The Rwandan system observed in the nineteenth century was quite particular. Three local authorities, dependents of the mwami, shared tasks: army chiefs, pasture or cow chiefs, and land chiefs (batware b'ingabo or b'umuheto, batware b'imikenke or b'inka, and batware b'ubutaka). The borders of their respective jurisdictions did not coincide, and in the majority of cases a single chief performed all three functions. The \"system of intermingled fingers\" (to cite the definition of Kandt, the German resident) was complete only in the center of the country. Thus, in Kinyaga, there were no pasture chiefs. Some persons combined responsibilities in several regions. Below them, starting with Rwabugiri's reign, were \"hill chiefs,\" who tightly controlled the population.\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 688, "name": "ug_nkore_k_1", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Inferred from the following. \"The Mugabe (king) of later years was at this stage merely the leading member of the central clan of a cluster of pastoral clans — the giver of gifts of cattle as his title literally implies rather than the monarch or ruler (Mukama) of a sovereign state.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 136) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§ 1. Mugabe :2. Lesser clan leaders ::3. Tribute collectors (inferred)" }, { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 689, "name": "rw_ndorwa_k", "long_name": "Ndorwa", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisers, related to the king ::3. Advisers forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Provincial chiefs ::::5. \"Delegates\" to provincial chiefs" }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 690, "name": "bu_burundi_k", "long_name": "Burundi", "start_year": 1680, "end_year": 1903 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Though Ntare Rugamba is said to have doubled the area of the country, the administrative legacy of Ntare's rule was at least as important history to Burundi political history as were his military exploits. With such rapid expansion, Ntare relied on his sons as administrators: he was strong enough to set up his sons, but not strong enough to incorporate these regions fully within central control. [...] During the late nineteenth century, under the reign of Mwezi Gisabo, a four- tiered system of administration emerged: a central area around Muramvya under the control of the king; an area under the administration of his sons or brothers most closely allied to the king; a broad swath further east and south administered by Batare chiefs, the descendants of Ntare; and another zone, covering the western and northwestern areas of the country, under the administration of others, not Baganwa (in fact, they were mostly Hutu authorities). (See Figure 8.) From this pattern, three types of political relations emerged. Administrative authorities in the east and south- east, often Batare (descendants of Ntare Rugamba), simply retained their administrative autonomy while acknowledging nominal central court ritual hegemony. Those in the northeast more characteristically undertook open revolt, often by those who sought to overthrow Mwezi. [...] In the northwest, by contrast, pretenders to royal power had more tenuous claims to Ganwa identity; they drew on local traditions of resistance and benefited from the resources of the Lake Tanganyika trade network (as well as support from other states such as the Shi kingdoms west of Lake Kivu).\" §REF§(Newbury 2001: 283-284) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J5A6DM3P/collection.§REF§ \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisors, related to the king ::3. Notables forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Chiefs ::::5. Chiefs' delegates" }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 691, "name": "rw_mubari_k", "long_name": "Mubari", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisers, related to the king ::3. Advisers forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Provincial chiefs ::::5. \"Delegates\" to provincial chiefs" }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 692, "name": "rw_gisaka_k", "long_name": "Gisaka", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisers, related to the king ::3. Advisers forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Provincial chiefs ::::5. \"Delegates\" to provincial chiefs" }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 693, "name": "tz_milansi_k", "long_name": "Fipa", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"The Milansi dynasty retained ritual power and the right to install the Twa chief, but the Twa exercised a territorial, administrative authority through appointed officials who transmitted orders to elected village headmen. While originating from the mingling of peoples, the Fipa state - for here the word is legitimate - was more stratified, had more precise borders, and was governed in a more strictly administrative manner than the other polities of the plateau.\"§REF§(Iliffe 1979: 24) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB2AJMVC/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Court officials (inferred) ::3. Intermediary officials between court and villages :::4. Village headmen" }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 694, "name": "rw_bugesera_k", "long_name": "Bugesera", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisers, related to the king ::3. Advisers forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Provincial chiefs ::::5. \"Delegates\" to provincial chiefs" }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 695, "name": "ug_nkore_k_2", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1901 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.1. Mugabe :\"Now, instead of primus inter pares, the Mugabe was an autocratic ruler, 'whose rule was absolute and his decision on any matter final' (Roscoe 1923: 12). [...] The royal court served as a judicial and political center, but not as a bureaucratic focal point. [...] The appointment and dismissal of military and administrative functionaries from among those aristocratic Hima and Hinda princes who regularly attended court was the Mugabe's sole administrative function.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 143-144) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§ :2. Local chiefs :: \"Below the King and court was an irregular system of territorial authorities, chiefs in the common and colonial parlance, who administered the state in the name of the Mugabe (Richards 1960; Oberg 1940: 136-50). The most important pastoralist in a given area of the country was generally recognized by the herders as the local chief and confirmed in that post by the king. Often princes of the blood (baginya) were so recognized and hence made responsible for collection of tribute and taxation, especially in cattle which served as both a system of redistribution of pastoral wealth and a politically important addition to the system of cattle clientage practiced throughout pastoral society. One thing seems evident — little direct control over the farming community was exercised by this administrative hierarchy.\"§REF§(Steinhart 1978: 144) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/D3FV7SKV/collection.§REF§ ::3. Lesser local chiefs (perhaps?) :::4. Tribute collectors (inferred)" }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 696, "name": "tz_buhayo_k", "long_name": "Buhaya", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"Except for the sovereign's close relations (such as uncles at the start of a reign or eldest sons at the end), the most listened-to advisers were people of humbler origins. They belonged to appointed families that regularly furnished their young for service at the court. These youths literally made their careers by distinguishing themselves before the king for their bravery, wisdom, and loyalty; when they grew to maturity, they became notables, whom the sovereign consulted regularly and who constituted the monarchy's real government. The king gathered their advice before making major decisions, or he sent them to the provinces for special assignments. [...] Territorial division and methods of determining officials introduced a variety of situations. Two general levels can be distinguished: the small province (what was called a chiefdom under colonialism) and the locality (a hill or a group of banana gardens). For example, in Burundi, one distinguished chiefs (batware) and their \"delegates\" (vyariho).\" §REF§(Chrétien 2006: 173-175) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/FXCVWDRI/collection.§REF§ 1. King :2. Close advisers, related to the king ::3. Advisers forming the king's \"real government\" :::4. Provincial chiefs ::::5. \"Delegates\" to provincial chiefs" }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 698, "name": "in_cholas_1", "long_name": "Early Cholas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Seven levels specifically mentioned in the consulted literature. More levels might be present :1. King (Vendar) : “The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings were the vendar (crowned kings). These great kings had their special insignia of royalty such as the staff, drum, and umbrella. They also had specific emblems of power-the tiger, bow and fish were the emblems of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas respectively.” §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ ::2. Minisiters :: “During the Sangam period, hereditary monarchy was the form of government. The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorized into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ :::3. Priests ::::4. Envoys :::::5. Military Commanders ::::::6. Spies :::::::7. Chieftains (Velir) :: “Apart from the vendar, there were a number of chieftains known as velir. Internecine conflict was a feature of the politics of the time. Kings and chieftains also often fought against each other by forming alliances. The lesser rulers no doubt had to pay tribute to their more powerful counterparts.” §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "levels. “The early Maratha rulers were notable for their heroism in war and their firm administration at home. They did not introduce a new type of government but continued the prevailing administration of the Nayaks supplementing it with some institutions of their own.” §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 18-19) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection §REF§ The levels below the Raja are the administration levels instituted during the Nayak of Thanjavur period that probably stayed the same during Maratha rule, judging from the quote. Likely that more levels were present perhaps central court or governors. :1. Raja : “He was replaced in 1674 with a descendant of the nayaka of Thanjavur with the help of the Marathas under their leader Ekoji Bhonsle (around 1630-84), who, after initial conquests in South India, began to display an interest in developments there. A year later, Ekoji himself became the ruler of Thanjavur and established the Maratha dynasty of the Raja of Thanjavur. §REF§ (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection §REF§ ::2. Karnam :: “The Nayaks rule in Thanjavur witnessed the introduction of Ayagar system in each village. The officials in this system, the Karnam, Vettiyan, Talayari along with the head of the village called Maniakkaran were entrusted with the prime business of lang collection along with village administration.” §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 456) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection §REF§ :::3. Vettiyan ::::4. Talayari :::::5. Maniakkaran (village chief)" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Four levels specifically mentioned in the consulted literature. More level might have been present such as governors.:1. King (Vendar) : “The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings were the vendar (crowned kings). These great kings had their special insignia of royalty such as the staff, drum, and umbrella. They also had specific emblems of power-the tiger, bow and fish were the emblems of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas respectively.” §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ ::2. Enperaym (officials who were responsible to the king only) :: “There was another institution called Enperayam which consisted of (1) Karanattiyalavar (accountants); (2) Karumakarar (executive officials); (3) Kanakasurram (treasury officials); (4) Kadaikappalar (palace guards); (5) Nagarmandar (important elderly persons in the city); (6) Padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry); (7) Yanai Virar (Chief of the elephantry); and (8) Irulai Maravar (chiefs of the cavalry) these were categories of officials who had no collective status but only individual responsibility to the king.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 352) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§ :::3. Minisiters :::3. Priests :::3. Envoys :::3. Military Commanders :::3. Spies ::: “During the Sangam period, hereditary monarchy was the form of government. The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorized into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ ::::4. Chieftains (Velir) :::: “Apart from the vendar, there were a number of chieftains known as velir. Internecine conflict was a feature of the politics of the time. Kings and chieftains also often fought against each other by forming alliances. The lesser rulers no doubt had to pay tribute to their more powerful counterparts.” §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Five administrative levels mentioned in the consulted sources. Likely that more levels were present such as central court. :1. Nawab (king) : “It seems that some measure of stability was achieved with the establishment of Mughal rule. After a few years the rulers of Gingee took the title of nawabs of the Carnatic, and in the first years of the 18th century they left Gingee to take up residence in Arcot. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ ::2. Poligar (governor or territorial administrator) :: “The nawab of Arcot had presided over an area with different administrative systems. In the southern areas—in Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Pudukkottai, etc.—the poligars had been required to collect tribute to the nawab. The poligar was obliged to provide food and goods for his soldiers in king rather than pay their wages in cash. Similarly the extraction of revenue was organized as a tribute in kind rather than a payment in cash. It was the job of the tax—collector (the village headman) to convert the tribute into cash, which had paved the way for a class of militant merchant-administrators. Thus violence, or the control of the means of violence, became the legitimate emblem of authority in the dry poligar areas.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ :::3.Village Chief ::::4. Merchant Administrator :::::5. Kavalkars (police) ::::: “In addition to military forces, the palaykkars kept up police establishments called the ‘kaval’. The ‘Kavalkars’ protected private property and places of public resort like roads and markets.” §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 79) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "levels. The following quote discusses six administrative levels. More levels might be present. “Ministers assisted kings, while each province had a governor assisted by various district officials. Local governments included district administrators, assemblies, and village headmen.” §REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection §REF§ :1. King ::2. Ministers :::3. Governors ::::4. District Officials :::::5. Assemblies ::::::6. Village chief" }, { "id": 416, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Five levels mentioned in the consulted sources. The levels below the Nayak refer to local administration levels. Likely that more levels directly under the Nayak were present. :1. Nayak :“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty.” §REF§ (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/32CRNR7U/collection §REF§ ::2. Karnam :: “The Nayaks rule in Thanjavur witnessed the introduction of Ayagar system in each village. The officials in this system, the Karnam, Vettiyan, Talayari along with the head of the village called Maniakkaran were entrusted with the prime business of lang collection along with village administration.” §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 456) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection §REF§ :::3. Vettiyan ::::4. Talayari :::::5. Maniakkaran (village chief)" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources. It is likely that the Nayak rulers had courts serving under them therefore, court is inferred. Possible that more levels were present.:1. Nayaka : “The Padu Mandapa or ‘New Hall’ (Tamil Putu Mantapam) is one of the best-known monuments from the Nayaka period of Tamilnadu in the later sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was built around 1630 under the patronage of Tirumala Nayak, the ruler of Maduari (1623-59), hence an alternative name, ‘Tirumala Nayak’s Choultry’”. §REF§ (Branfoot 2001, 191) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection §REF§ ::2. Court (inferred) :::3. Polegars (military governor or administrator) ::: “The status and power of the various polegars could not have been the same; it is extremely unlikely that all of the had equally good record of past service and equal possessions. In course of time at least, there would have been changes in their attitude and position. Consequently, their obligations would have been different. Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ ::::4. Chiefs :::: “Visvanatha’s arrangement in this respect was a practical solution of the difficulties he was confronted with. He pacified his clamours adherents and old, discontented chiefs by conferring on them a dignified status and definite proprietary rights over portions of land. By making the cession hereditary their self-love was flattered and their sense of responsibility increased. They were given complete powers of police and judicial administration. For good or for evil, they were master in their small sphere. In return for this, they were to pay tribute to the Nayak of one-third of their income from land, and maintain, with another third part, the troops which their master would require in case of war.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1750, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"[W]e know very little about the history of Mossi institutions, which can be outlined only from the end of the eighteenth century for Yatenga and the beginning of the nineteenth for the kingdom of Wagadugu. In fact, the wealth of information available concerning the organization of the Mossi kingdoms, which began to be collected in 1907, makes it possible to describe how the public institutions functioned, but only at the very end of the pre-colonial period.\"§REF§(Izard 1984: 230) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9SV6G65P/collection.§REF§1. King :\"Although the king was the hub, of the political system, the Mossi state was a decentralized one, and the country was, for the most part, administered without any direct intervention on his part.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 157) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :2. Ministers ::\"The ‘minister’ was the mainspring of the Mossi state system: his function was to integrate individual lineages into the global society. He had to be not only ‘good, honest, and just’, but to possess a profound working knowledge of inter-lineage relationships. Ministers were not chosen from nakombse lineages. The king appointed whomsoever he wished, and the office was not hereditary. In Yatenga the four ministers were the Widi-Naba, the Baloum-Naba, the Togo-Naba, and the Rassam-Naba. They had well-defined roles at court and also acted as intermediaries between the king and his subjects. They were said to ‘command’ certain lineages.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 163) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ ::3. Kombere-naba \"The kombere-naba was, then, a chief of an aggregation of lineages grouped into a ‘canton’ or principality. [...] In the political hierarchy of a Mossi kingdom the ‘canton’ chief ranked below the minister; in reality he was more important, since he was a veritable king (rima) in his own ‘canton’ and was often the descendant of a former ruler of the state. The minister, on the other hand, exercised little positive authority and acted rather as a liaison officer between the king and his subjects.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 162-165) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :::4. Canton officials ::::5. Village chiefs :::::\"The village chief (tenganaba) and his retinue faithfully reflected the image of the king and his court. He had his ‘ministers’ and his pages, although in the Yatenga kingdom there was no Rassam-Naba (treasurer). He had his own tribunal and settled civil disputes within the village.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 162) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :::::6. Village officials ::::::7. Ward chiefs :::::::8. Ward officials ::::::::\"In administrative practice, authority spread from the kingdom to the province, the canton, the village, and the ward, each level virtually reproducing the same power structure.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 14) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "long_name": "Mossi", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"[W]e know very little about the history of Mossi institutions, which can be outlined only from the end of the eighteenth century for Yatenga and the beginning of the nineteenth for the kingdom of Wagadugu. In fact, the wealth of information available concerning the organization of the Mossi kingdoms, which began to be collected in 1907, makes it possible to describe how the public institutions functioned, but only at the very end of the pre-colonial period.\"§REF§(Izard 1984: 230) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9SV6G65P/collection.§REF§1. King :\"Although the king was the hub, of the political system, the Mossi state was a decentralized one, and the country was, for the most part, administered without any direct intervention on his part.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 157) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :2. Ministers ::\"The ‘minister’ was the mainspring of the Mossi state system: his function was to integrate individual lineages into the global society. He had to be not only ‘good, honest, and just’, but to possess a profound working knowledge of inter-lineage relationships. Ministers were not chosen from nakombse lineages. The king appointed whomsoever he wished, and the office was not hereditary. In Yatenga the four ministers were the Widi-Naba, the Baloum-Naba, the Togo-Naba, and the Rassam-Naba. They had well-defined roles at court and also acted as intermediaries between the king and his subjects. They were said to ‘command’ certain lineages.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 163) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ ::3. Kombere-naba \"The kombere-naba was, then, a chief of an aggregation of lineages grouped into a ‘canton’ or principality. [...] In the political hierarchy of a Mossi kingdom the ‘canton’ chief ranked below the minister; in reality he was more important, since he was a veritable king (rima) in his own ‘canton’ and was often the descendant of a former ruler of the state. The minister, on the other hand, exercised little positive authority and acted rather as a liaison officer between the king and his subjects.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 162-165) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :::4. Canton officials ::::5. Village chiefs :::::\"The village chief (tenganaba) and his retinue faithfully reflected the image of the king and his court. He had his ‘ministers’ and his pages, although in the Yatenga kingdom there was no Rassam-Naba (treasurer). He had his own tribunal and settled civil disputes within the village.\" §REF§(Zahan 1960: 162) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/TVIRPGXD/collection.§REF§ :::::6. Village officials ::::::7. Ward chiefs :::::::8. Ward officials ::::::::\"In administrative practice, authority spread from the kingdom to the province, the canton, the village, and the ward, each level virtually reproducing the same power structure.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 14) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1390, "year_to": 1797, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels. 1.Monarch :“Until 1897 the Kafa had their own kingdom with a monarch and councilors of state. During the expansion period of Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) Kafa lost its sovereignty.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :2. Chief Advisor to the King (Katema rasha) ::“To consolidate her position so that she could have a more positive choice in her successor, [Queen Abet Hinoch] removed the position of the katema rasha (chief advisor to the king) from the Hio clan to the Shabenao clan.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::3. Senior Councilor (Guje rasho) :::“[t]he guje rasho, who was the senior councilor and controlled the activities of the king’s slaves.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::4. Lesser councilors (inferred) ::::5. Clan “king” (Tato) :::::“Each of these clans was allowed to maintain its autonomy with its own ruler (referred to as tato or king in the legends) who was responsible to the King of Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::6. District Chief (Worabi rasho) ::::::“Bieber is extremely unclear in his use of two titles worabi showo and worabi rasho, meaning ‘village chief’ and ‘district chief’ respectively. One must infer from Bieber’s statements that a clan elder was also a village chief since prescriptive rights to land ownership, which were synonymous with chieftainship, are implied in the translation of worabi showo, chief of the land, whereas the latter term means ruler of chiefs (worabi, chief; rasho, head, from the Amharic word ras). Some clans had prescriptive rights for providing the worabi rasho, who were responsible for law and order and tax collection on their lands.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::::::7. Village Chief (Worabi showo) :::::::“Bieber is extremely unclear in his use of two titles worabi showo and worabi rasho, meaning ‘village chief’ and ‘district chief’ respectively. One must infer from Bieber’s statements that a clan elder was also a village chief since prescriptive rights to land ownership, which were synonymous with chieftainship, are implied in the translation of worabi showo, chief of the land, whereas the latter term means ruler of chiefs (worabi, chief; rasho, head, from the Amharic word ras). Some clans had prescriptive rights for providing the worabi rasho, who were responsible for law and order and tax collection on their lands.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::::8. Tatkisho ::::::::“The tatkisho worked under the jurisdiction of the worabi showo. If a clan had prescriptive rights to lands there were generally spread over a wide region and the tatkisho was, in effect, the local tax collector who delivered the demands of the monarch to clan elder (i.e., the land owner, sometimes called tugo), who in turn passed the major part of the collection to the worabi rasho. Tatkisho means ‘the hand of the king’.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::::::::9. Rashe showo- :::::::::“Each of the eighteen \"lands\" were divided into smaller administrative districts or villages, ruled by the rashe showo who, Bieber reports, were paid from the king's treasury.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::::::10. Gudo ::::::::::“The holder of this position [i.e. that of rashe showo] had an assistant, in charge of organizing sacrifices and feasts throughout the year, whose title was gudo with the prefix of the name of the land on which he lived e.g., Agaray gudo; Ibede gudo; and Dekia gudo.”§REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 650, "name": "et_kaffa_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Kaffa", "start_year": 1390, "end_year": 1897 }, "year_from": 1798, "year_to": 1897, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 10, "administrative_level_to": 10, "comment": null, "description": "levels. 1.Monarch :“Until 1897 the Kafa had their own kingdom with a monarch and councilors of state. During the expansion period of Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) Kafa lost its sovereignty.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :2. Chief Advisor to the King (Katema rasha) ::“To consolidate her position so that she could have a more positive choice in her successor, [Queen Abet Hinoch] removed the position of the katema rasha (chief advisor to the king) from the Hio clan to the Shabenao clan.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::3. Senior Councilor (Guje rasho) :::“[t]he guje rasho, who was the senior councilor and controlled the activities of the king’s slaves.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::4. Lesser councilors (inferred) ::::5. Clan “king” (Tato) :::::“Each of these clans was allowed to maintain its autonomy with its own ruler (referred to as tato or king in the legends) who was responsible to the King of Kafa.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 269) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::6. District Chief (Worabi rasho) ::::::“Bieber is extremely unclear in his use of two titles worabi showo and worabi rasho, meaning ‘village chief’ and ‘district chief’ respectively. One must infer from Bieber’s statements that a clan elder was also a village chief since prescriptive rights to land ownership, which were synonymous with chieftainship, are implied in the translation of worabi showo, chief of the land, whereas the latter term means ruler of chiefs (worabi, chief; rasho, head, from the Amharic word ras). Some clans had prescriptive rights for providing the worabi rasho, who were responsible for law and order and tax collection on their lands.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::::::7. Village Chief (Worabi showo) :::::::“Bieber is extremely unclear in his use of two titles worabi showo and worabi rasho, meaning ‘village chief’ and ‘district chief’ respectively. One must infer from Bieber’s statements that a clan elder was also a village chief since prescriptive rights to land ownership, which were synonymous with chieftainship, are implied in the translation of worabi showo, chief of the land, whereas the latter term means ruler of chiefs (worabi, chief; rasho, head, from the Amharic word ras). Some clans had prescriptive rights for providing the worabi rasho, who were responsible for law and order and tax collection on their lands.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::::8. Tatkisho ::::::::“The tatkisho worked under the jurisdiction of the worabi showo. If a clan had prescriptive rights to lands there were generally spread over a wide region and the tatkisho was, in effect, the local tax collector who delivered the demands of the monarch to clan elder (i.e., the land owner, sometimes called tugo), who in turn passed the major part of the collection to the worabi rasho. Tatkisho means ‘the hand of the king’.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ ::::::::9. Rashe showo- :::::::::“Each of the eighteen \"lands\" were divided into smaller administrative districts or villages, ruled by the rashe showo who, Bieber reports, were paid from the king's treasury.” §REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§ :::::::::10. Gudo ::::::::::“The holder of this position [i.e. that of rashe showo] had an assistant, in charge of organizing sacrifices and feasts throughout the year, whose title was gudo with the prefix of the name of the land on which he lived e.g., Agaray gudo; Ibede gudo; and Dekia gudo.”§REF§ (Orent 1970, 283) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§" }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 662, "name": "ni_whydah_k", "long_name": "Whydah", "start_year": 1671, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": 1671, "year_to": 1710, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "1) King (Ahosu); 2) Council of elders (possibly including the most important hereditary chiefs); 3) Palace officials; 4) King’s wives; 5) King’s servants, guards, and messengers (possibly only from 1710s); 6) the great men/grand captains (may be considered part of the caboceers level); 7) Caboceers (chiefs/captains/headmen); 8) Governors of villages/areas. “Whydah was a monarchy, whose ruler had the indigenous title of ahosu, generally (and reasonably) translated by Europeans as \"king.\" The kingship was hereditary, in the sense that succession to it was restricted to a single patrilineally defined family. Some contemporary European sources assert that succession to the kingship was by primogeniture, the reigning king's eldest son being the heir apparent, but this is an oversimplification. Rather, it appears that the reigning king could appoint one of his sons, normally but not necessarily the eldest, as his heir apparent; but this designated heir did not succeed automatically, since the leading men of the kingdom could set aside his claim in favor of another of his brothers. In practice, in any case, effective occupation of the royal palace was as important as seniority, designation, or election: as one European observer explicitly observed, a claimant to the succession sought primarily \"to take possession of the late King's court and wives,\" since ‘the commonalty will not easily consent that after that he shall be driven from the throne.’” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 205. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “Under the king, the affairs of the palace were administered by a number of male officials, who had responsibility for the management of the king's wives and the supply of provisions: whether these officials were free men or (as analogy with other kingdoms would suggest) royal slaves is not made clear. The bulk of the palace staff consisted of women, legally regarded as the king's \"wives\" although clearly including servants engaged in menial tasks as well as \"wives\" properly speaking, who are said to have numbered several hundreds. Besides ministering to the king's needs within the palace, these women played an important role in enforcing his authority outside it. Their status as royal wives made them sacrosanct, merely touching them being a capital offence, so that they could not be effectively obstructed or resisted. The king in consequence was able to use them to execute his judicial decisions, sending them to destroy the houses of condemned offenders. They might also be employed to impose peace in disputes which threatened to lead to civil war, by literally interposing their bodies between the two factions to prevent them fighting. In addition to his wives, the king is also said to have had a group of 200-300 male servants, distinguished by having half of their heads shaved bare, who served as his guards and carried messages outside the palace: these are not, however, attested earlier than the 1710s, and may possibly have been then a recent innovation. In addition to the king and the officials of his palace, there were numerous other office-holders in the Whydah kingdom. In contemporary European sources, these are generally called \"captains\" or \"caboceers\" (from the Portuguese cabeceiro, \"head man\"), both of which terms appear to have been employed to translate the vernacular generic suffix -gan; the more familiar modern term \"chiefs\" is employed in this article as an equivalent. Some accounts distinguish, within the generality of chiefs, a smaller group of higher rank, termed the \"grand [or great] captains,\" or simply \"the great men,\" who are said to have shared political authority with the king. Most of these offices were evidently hereditary, passing like the monarchy normally from father to eldest son, it being explicitly noted that the king \"cannot grant them to anyone else.\" The senior chiefs can thus be regarded as forming a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy. The most important of the Whydah chiefs had the titles of Gogan and Aplogan, which were also those of the highest-ranking officials in the later kingdom of Porto-Novo. In Porto-Novo the Gogan was the head of the royal lineage (and as such, conducted the ceremony of the king's own installation) and the Aplogan had general charge of the community's religious cults, and these may well also have been the functions of their namesakes in Whydah. In addition to their specific individual functions, the more important chiefs also served as hereditary governors of the component villages of the Whydah kingdom: the Gogan and the Aplogan, for example, served as governors respectively of the important settlements of Paon and Gome, both in the north of the kingdom.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 206-208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “It appears that the king was expected to act in conjunction with a council of \"elders,\" who normally included the principal hereditary chiefs, but whether the membership of this council was fixed or variable according to the king's choice is not clearly indicated.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “What is clear is that those chiefs who served as governors of subordinate villages of the kingdom enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy in their local administration: as was noted in the 1690s, \"these in the King's absence and in their Vice-royalties, command as arbitrarily and keep up as great state as the King himself.' The governors exercised an independent local judicial authority in minor cases, acted as spokesmen before the king on behalf of those under their government, and transmitted their tribute to him. They also raised contingents of soldiers for the national army, and commanded them in battle. The king's power in practice was clearly limited by that of these provincial governors, and its effectiveness dependent upon their cooperation.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 208-209. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 662, "name": "ni_whydah_k", "long_name": "Whydah", "start_year": 1671, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": 1711, "year_to": 1727, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "1) King (Ahosu); 2) Council of elders (possibly including the most important hereditary chiefs); 3) Palace officials; 4) King’s wives; 5) King’s servants, guards, and messengers (possibly only from 1710s); 6) the great men/grand captains (may be considered part of the caboceers level); 7) Caboceers (chiefs/captains/headmen); 8) Governors of villages/areas. “Whydah was a monarchy, whose ruler had the indigenous title of ahosu, generally (and reasonably) translated by Europeans as \"king.\" The kingship was hereditary, in the sense that succession to it was restricted to a single patrilineally defined family. Some contemporary European sources assert that succession to the kingship was by primogeniture, the reigning king's eldest son being the heir apparent, but this is an oversimplification. Rather, it appears that the reigning king could appoint one of his sons, normally but not necessarily the eldest, as his heir apparent; but this designated heir did not succeed automatically, since the leading men of the kingdom could set aside his claim in favor of another of his brothers. In practice, in any case, effective occupation of the royal palace was as important as seniority, designation, or election: as one European observer explicitly observed, a claimant to the succession sought primarily \"to take possession of the late King's court and wives,\" since ‘the commonalty will not easily consent that after that he shall be driven from the throne.’” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 205. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “Under the king, the affairs of the palace were administered by a number of male officials, who had responsibility for the management of the king's wives and the supply of provisions: whether these officials were free men or (as analogy with other kingdoms would suggest) royal slaves is not made clear. The bulk of the palace staff consisted of women, legally regarded as the king's \"wives\" although clearly including servants engaged in menial tasks as well as \"wives\" properly speaking, who are said to have numbered several hundreds. Besides ministering to the king's needs within the palace, these women played an important role in enforcing his authority outside it. Their status as royal wives made them sacrosanct, merely touching them being a capital offence, so that they could not be effectively obstructed or resisted. The king in consequence was able to use them to execute his judicial decisions, sending them to destroy the houses of condemned offenders. They might also be employed to impose peace in disputes which threatened to lead to civil war, by literally interposing their bodies between the two factions to prevent them fighting. In addition to his wives, the king is also said to have had a group of 200-300 male servants, distinguished by having half of their heads shaved bare, who served as his guards and carried messages outside the palace: these are not, however, attested earlier than the 1710s, and may possibly have been then a recent innovation. In addition to the king and the officials of his palace, there were numerous other office-holders in the Whydah kingdom. In contemporary European sources, these are generally called \"captains\" or \"caboceers\" (from the Portuguese cabeceiro, \"head man\"), both of which terms appear to have been employed to translate the vernacular generic suffix -gan; the more familiar modern term \"chiefs\" is employed in this article as an equivalent. Some accounts distinguish, within the generality of chiefs, a smaller group of higher rank, termed the \"grand [or great] captains,\" or simply \"the great men,\" who are said to have shared political authority with the king. Most of these offices were evidently hereditary, passing like the monarchy normally from father to eldest son, it being explicitly noted that the king \"cannot grant them to anyone else.\" The senior chiefs can thus be regarded as forming a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy. The most important of the Whydah chiefs had the titles of Gogan and Aplogan, which were also those of the highest-ranking officials in the later kingdom of Porto-Novo. In Porto-Novo the Gogan was the head of the royal lineage (and as such, conducted the ceremony of the king's own installation) and the Aplogan had general charge of the community's religious cults, and these may well also have been the functions of their namesakes in Whydah. In addition to their specific individual functions, the more important chiefs also served as hereditary governors of the component villages of the Whydah kingdom: the Gogan and the Aplogan, for example, served as governors respectively of the important settlements of Paon and Gome, both in the north of the kingdom.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 206-208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “It appears that the king was expected to act in conjunction with a council of \"elders,\" who normally included the principal hereditary chiefs, but whether the membership of this council was fixed or variable according to the king's choice is not clearly indicated.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 208. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§ “What is clear is that those chiefs who served as governors of subordinate villages of the kingdom enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy in their local administration: as was noted in the 1690s, \"these in the King's absence and in their Vice-royalties, command as arbitrarily and keep up as great state as the King himself.' The governors exercised an independent local judicial authority in minor cases, acted as spokesmen before the king on behalf of those under their government, and transmitted their tribute to him. They also raised contingents of soldiers for the national army, and commanded them in battle. The king's power in practice was clearly limited by that of these provincial governors, and its effectiveness dependent upon their cooperation.” §REF§Law, Robin. “‘The Common People Were Divided’: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Political Factionalism in the Kingdom of Whydah, 1671-1727.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–29: 208-209. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/8JKAH2V5/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1600, "year_to": 1699, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Dahomey was, from the first, a monarchy. Based on the following selection of quotes, it seems reasonable to infer the following levels, at least for the period from the 18th century on:1. King :2. Core group of high ministers (bonugan daho and begani) (from the 18th century, possibly earlier) ::“For example, eighteenth-century sources identify a core group of high ministers, or bonugan daho, who provided support for the expanding state. Under King Gezo, the palace became the residence of additional female officials, or begani, who corresponded to the major male dignitaries and their subordinates. In all, these officers, male and female, were state-appointed officials, charged with directly administering various political, economic, military and religious sectors of the kingdom.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ :2. Royal wives ::\"Many of the royal wives, officials themselves, were placed in palaces throughout Dahomey to manage the interests of the monarchy. Agaja may have built nine palaces during his reign, and references to additional palaces at Allada, Cana and other towns are common in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources. The presence of these structures across the landscape clearly facilitated political integration in Dahomey.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 356–357. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ ::3. Regional and town officials (from the 19th century, possibly earlier) :::4. Town officials ::::5. Within-town divisional officials :::::6. Subordinates :::::: :::“Additionally, whereas eighteenth-century sources are relatively silent on the nature of regional governance, by the nineteenth century, towns throughout Dahomey were clearly managed by officials sent from Abomey. Indeed, major centers like Whydah and Allada, as well as minor towns such as Whegbo, were divided into quarters, each of which was controlled by lower-ranking officials 'who regulate their own departments, and distribute justice except in some extraordinary cases which are referred to Abomey'.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1799, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Dahomey was, from the first, a monarchy. Based on the following selection of quotes, it seems reasonable to infer the following levels, at least for the period from the 18th century on:1. King :2. Core group of high ministers (bonugan daho and begani) (from the 18th century, possibly earlier) ::“For example, eighteenth-century sources identify a core group of high ministers, or bonugan daho, who provided support for the expanding state. Under King Gezo, the palace became the residence of additional female officials, or begani, who corresponded to the major male dignitaries and their subordinates. In all, these officers, male and female, were state-appointed officials, charged with directly administering various political, economic, military and religious sectors of the kingdom.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ :2. Royal wives ::\"Many of the royal wives, officials themselves, were placed in palaces throughout Dahomey to manage the interests of the monarchy. Agaja may have built nine palaces during his reign, and references to additional palaces at Allada, Cana and other towns are common in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources. The presence of these structures across the landscape clearly facilitated political integration in Dahomey.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 356–357. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ ::3. Regional and town officials (from the 19th century, possibly earlier) :::4. Town officials ::::5. Within-town divisional officials :::::6. Subordinates :::::: :::“Additionally, whereas eighteenth-century sources are relatively silent on the nature of regional governance, by the nineteenth century, towns throughout Dahomey were clearly managed by officials sent from Abomey. Indeed, major centers like Whydah and Allada, as well as minor towns such as Whegbo, were divided into quarters, each of which was controlled by lower-ranking officials 'who regulate their own departments, and distribute justice except in some extraordinary cases which are referred to Abomey'.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 671, "name": "ni_dahomey_k", "long_name": "Foys", "start_year": 1715, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": 1800, "year_to": 1892, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Dahomey was, from the first, a monarchy. Based on the following selection of quotes, it seems reasonable to infer the following levels, at least for the period from the 18th century on:1. King :2. Core group of high ministers (bonugan daho and begani) (from the 18th century, possibly earlier) ::“For example, eighteenth-century sources identify a core group of high ministers, or bonugan daho, who provided support for the expanding state. Under King Gezo, the palace became the residence of additional female officials, or begani, who corresponded to the major male dignitaries and their subordinates. In all, these officers, male and female, were state-appointed officials, charged with directly administering various political, economic, military and religious sectors of the kingdom.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ :2. Royal wives ::\"Many of the royal wives, officials themselves, were placed in palaces throughout Dahomey to manage the interests of the monarchy. Agaja may have built nine palaces during his reign, and references to additional palaces at Allada, Cana and other towns are common in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources. The presence of these structures across the landscape clearly facilitated political integration in Dahomey.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 356–357. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§ ::3. Regional and town officials (from the 19th century, possibly earlier) :::4. Town officials ::::5. Within-town divisional officials :::::6. Subordinates :::::: :::“Additionally, whereas eighteenth-century sources are relatively silent on the nature of regional governance, by the nineteenth century, towns throughout Dahomey were clearly managed by officials sent from Abomey. Indeed, major centers like Whydah and Allada, as well as minor towns such as Whegbo, were divided into quarters, each of which was controlled by lower-ranking officials 'who regulate their own departments, and distribute justice except in some extraordinary cases which are referred to Abomey'.” §REF§Monroe, J. C. (2007). Continuity, Revolution or Evolution on the Slave Coast of West Africa? Royal Architecture and Political Order in Precolonial Dahomey. The Journal of African History, 48(3), 349–373: 355. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ASTPFKNP/collection§REF§" }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 280, "name": "hu_hun_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of the Huns", "start_year": 376, "end_year": 469 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "“Ammianus explicitly notes the absence of kings from their society, ‘they are not subject to the authority of any king’.14 Instead of kings, he says, each group was content with the improvised leadership of their leading men (tumultuario primatum ductu). Who these chief men (primates) were he does not say, but it is clear from his language that their leadership (ductus) existed only in time of war. Indeed, we may guess that even in war-time they could not so much exercise any legal or traditional power as merely use personal influence: they had, one may suspect, little or no right of coercion.”§REF§(Thompson 2004: 50) Thompson, E.A. 1996. The Huns. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49W8PAAS§REF§ “The Huns had had kings before Attila. Around 420 we hear of one Rua and his brother Octar. however, as with many other nomad groups, the power of the king seems to have been very limited and real authority lay with chiefs of much smaller groups who were largely autonomous and did very much what they liked. Perhaps it was only when dealing with outside powers, notably the Eastern and Western Roman Empire, that the kings had a leadership role. In 434 Attila became king, ruling initially with his brother BIeda.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 38) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§ “In 435 a Roman embassy, led by a Gothic soldier and a Roman diplomat – a typical division of labour at that time - met Attila at Margus (on the Danube just east of modern Belgrade)… Eventually it was agreed that the Romans would pay him the vast sum of 700 pounds of gold per year. It was also stipulated that the Romans would not receive or protect anyone fleeing from Attila's anger and that the Huns should have open access to markets. This treaty established the Hunnic monarchy on a new basis. We can have no doubt that these large sums of gold were to be paid to Attila. This completely changed his relationship with the lesser tribal chiefs for he was now the source of patronage and all good things. If they wanted to be rewarded, the chiefs would have to obey Attila's orders. Now, probably for the first time, the Huns had a king with real authority.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 38) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§ : 1. King :: 2. Chiefs " }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "There were several iterations of administrative and governmental structures during this period owing to the fact that “The new nation that came out of the conflicts of 1808 to 1821, briefly a Mexican monarchy, then a republic from 1824, searched simultaneously for a new polity and a new economy.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 252) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “From 1821 to 1857 no less than fifty different governments proclaimed control over the nation. All sorts of governments—from dictatorships, to constitutional republican governments, to monarchies—experimented with different methods to placate the divisions among the elites, and nearly all the governments struggled to ensure elite dominance over the masses.”§REF§(Kirkwood 2000: 89) Kirkwood, Burton. 2000. History of Mexico. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=3000600. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/kirkwood/titleCreatorYear/items/6ICDTQLE§REF§ “Porfirio Díaz’s first re-election to the presidency in 1884 marked a significant watershed in the political evolution of the regime. As a foretaste of what was to come, Díaz was unopposed in the election… He became the patriarch of the nation, and the custodian and arbiter of the rules of conduct of political life. This meant not only the assertion of personal authority over the institutions which governed the conduct of politics (the cabinet, both houses of Congress, the state governors, the state legislatures, the regional jefes políticos), but also over the institutions which had played a decisive role in nineteenth century politics (above all, the army, the Church, and the press).”§REF§(Garner 2011: 297) Garner, Paul. 2011. “The Civilian and the General, 1867–1911,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 288–301. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EMSG558V§REF§ : 1. President :: 2. Vice President ::: 3. Executive Cabinet :::: 4. Council of Government :::: “The Council of Government or State, exists only during the intervals between the sessions of the Congress, and is composed of one half of the Senate, or one Senator from each State, with the Vice-President of the Republic at its head.”§REF§(Ward 1827: 219) Ward, Henry George. 1900. Mexico in 1827. London : H. Colburn. http://archive.org/details/mexicoin04wardgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IY7FJEM7§REF§ ::::: 5. State Governors :::::: 6. City councillors " }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 579, "name": "gb_england_plantagenet", "long_name": "Plantagenet England", "start_year": 1154, "end_year": 1485 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.:1. King : The king was at the very top of all social and administrative hierarchies. However by this period he was more accountable to his council and the aristocracy, though ultimately, his decision on all state matters was final.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ The kings council usually consisted of a mixture of trusted nobles, experienced officials (usually the chancellor and treasurer), ecclesiastical members, judges and sometimes a close and trusted member of his family.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ Administrative duties were divided between the King’s Household, and the two central administrative departments: the exchequer and the chancery. The law courts were also an integral part of government. State and local departments were not truly separated, but they were hierarchical in the local officials reported into direct lines to the main state department.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58, 60, 66. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ ::2. The King’s Household The Kings Household was an administrative department that was responsible for a variety of duties and was a central hub of the government. It provided for the domestic and organisational needs of the court as well as §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ :: 2.1 The Wardrobe :: The wardrobe was the financial department of the king’s household and at times would out-rank the exchequer in terms of financial hierarchy. Orders issued under the privy seal to the exchequer and chancery came from the wardrobe. By the reign of Edward III the exchequer was recognised as the head department of financial administration, though when it suited the king, the wardrobe would be used to issue huge sums of money sum – without the consent of the exchequer – such as during the French War in the 1330’s and military campaigns. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58-60. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ ::: 2.2 Clerks of the Household ::: Responsible for the organisation of war, recruitment of soldiers and upper management, pay and board.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ ::2. The Exchequer “The exchequer was divided into two sections, the lower, which dealt with money paid in and the issue if receipts in the form of wooden tallies, and the upper, which was the court where accounts were rendered and heard.”§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ It assigned revenue. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ :: 2.1 Treasurer§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57, 59. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ ::: 2.2 Chief Baron of the Exchequer§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 59. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ :::: 2.3 Chamberlains§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::: 2.4 Sheriff§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57, 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::::: 2.5 Under-sheriffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Clerks§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::::: 2.5 Baliffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Sub-Baliffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. Chancery The chancery issued writs and in the early period was closely linked to the King’s Household. However after being divided between Gascony and England during Edward I’s campaign in the 1280’s, the chancery became increasingly separate from the royal household and no longer followed the king around as the Household did and by Edward III’s reign was based permanently at Westminster in London.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.§REF§ :: 2.1 Chancellor§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::: 2.2 Sergeants§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::: 2.3 Masters :::: Twelve ‘Masters’ (senior clerks) ran the department and managed the clerks, curistors, and assistant clerks and servants below them.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::: 2.4 Clerks ::::: By the fourteenth century around one hundred clerks were employed. Records from 1324 show that they were producing about eighty writs and day – 29,000 in that year. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::::: 2.5 Curistors :::::: Those who wrote standardised writs.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Assistant Clerks§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ The law courts were divided between the King’s Bench and the Common Pleas. ::2. The King’s Bench :: The King’s Bench travelled with the king in order to action any necessary legal work immediately. It also dealt with appeals from the lower courts and criminal matters.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. The Common Pleas :: The Common Pleas was the court based permanently at Westminster and dealt mainly with property matters. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ " }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 568, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. “The Golden Bull of 1356 is therefore rooted in Charles’ concept of sovereign power. According to that concept, the king must legislate. The sovereign was entitled to intervene and modify the law because of his grasp of divine justice and reason, with which he held council during sleepless nights, as well as by his effort to elevate the country and ensure general peace and security for the people, whose benefit Charles sought in his capacity as a good king.”§REF§(Antonin 2017: 325) Antonín, Robert. 2017. The Ideal Ruler in Medieval Bohemia, trans. Sean Mark Miller, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450-1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G2S9M8F6§REF§ “The high nobility of the 14th century wished to consolidate its influence over the administration of the land and reduce its dependence on rulers. In accordance with the agreement with the constituency of Czech nobles from 1310, King John named his most important Land officials – i.e., the Supreme Burgrave, Supreme Chamberlains and the Land Judges – from the ranks of the noble lines. The first of these took executive power as the ruler’s deputy; the others looked after finances of the country and ran the Land court, generally considered the foundation of legal order in the country.”§REF§(Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 142) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ§REF§ “Not only did Bohemia both settle on primogeniture as the guiding principle for its elected sovereign and gain influence in the Empire, but the internal governance of the kingdom also became more institutionalized. In the second half of the thirteenth century, the settlement of land disputes among nobles changed venues from general judicial assemblies to a special court, the land court (zemský soud). The higher nobles thus assumed jurisdiction over their own and their immediate vassals’ land disputes, and at the same time gained a venue that helped define them as a group ritually, institutionally, and with respect to authority in the land.”§REF§(Grant 2014: 8) Grant, Jeanne E. 2014. For the Common Good: The Bohemian Land Law and the Beginning of the Hussite Revolution, East Central and Eastern in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Leiden; Boston: Brill. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCJGUZZZ§REF§: 1. Monarch :: 2. Monarch’s appointed advisory council ::: 3. Land officials (Supreme Burgrave, Supreme Chamberlains and Land Judges) :::: 4. Local noble authority ::::: 5. Provincial Officials (judges etc) :::::: 6. Lesser administrators " }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "it_lombard_k", "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Christie 1998: 115. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§ §REF§Clayton 2021: 162. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4N2ZFRX8§REF§§REF§Wickham 1981: 39-42. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z539DW5B§REF§Kings were elected from the noble class and were seen as a representative or head of the Lombard people, rather than a monarch with absolute power. : 1. King :: 2. War Chiefs (later as Dukes) ::: 3. Officials (notaries, chancellor, cellarer, treasurer) :::: 4. Lesser/local administrators " }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 575, "name": "us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction", "long_name": "Us Reconstruction-Progressive", "start_year": 1866, "end_year": 1933 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 11, "administrative_level_to": 11, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§Critchlow 2015: 18. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YKCJXB2Y.§REF§§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 70. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§§REF§Politics of the United States. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DNTMUYZ9.§REF§§REF§Branches of the U.S. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MNYMTVJB.§REF§:_Federal Government_ :Executive Branch : 1. President :: 2. The Cabinet (Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury etc) :::Legislative ::: 3. The Senate ::: 3.1 Committees ::: 3. House of Representatives ::::Judicial :::: 4. Supreme Court ::::: 4.1 Lower Federal Courts :::::_State Government_ :::::Executive ::::: 5. State Governor ::::::\"Upper House / Senate\" :::::: 6. Senator :::::: 6.1 Party Secretaries, committee staff, etc :::::::\"Lower House / House of Representatives\" ::::::: 7. Members of the House ::::::::_Local Government_ :::::::: 8. County governments / Town or township governments / Municipal governments / Mayors-Council. ::::::::: 9. Mayor / Commissioner :::::::::: 10. Governing board / City Manager ::::::::::: 11. Local authorities such as administrators, sheriffs, police etc. " }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 576, "name": "us_chaco_bonito_3", "long_name": "Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1140 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“Chaco Canyon villagers reached their maximum population of around 5,500 people by 1050 ce. There is no evidence of centralized government, so most archaeologists infer that it was probably organized around ritual, as is still the case among the Hopi. Despite this politically weak form of chiefdom organization, Chacoan builders accomplished great things, such as the importation of 200,000 timbers for construction projects, most of them from great distances (English et al., 2001).”§REF§(Snow et al 2020: 195) Snow, Dean R., Gonlin, Nancy, and Siegel, Peter E. 2020. The Archaeology of Native North America, 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT§REF§ " }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "long_name": "Antebellum US", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 11, "administrative_level_to": 11, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§Critchlow 2015: 18. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YKCJXB2Y.§REF§§REF§Volo and Volo 2004: 70. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SIB5XSW97.§REF§§REF§Politics of the United States. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DNTMUYZ9.§REF§§REF§Branches of the U.S. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MNYMTVJB.§REF§_Federal Government_ Executive Branch : 1. President :: 2. The Cabinet (Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury etc) Legislative ::: 3. The Senate ::: 3.1 Committees ::: 3. House of Representatives Judicial :::: 4. Supreme Court ::::: 4.1 Lower Federal Courts _State Government_ Executive ::::: 5. State Governor \"Upper House / Senate\" :::::: 6. Senator :::::: 6.1 Party Secretaries, committee staff, etc \"Lower House / House of Representatives\" ::::::: 7. Members of the House _Local Government_ :::::::: 8. County governments / Town or township governments / Municipal governments / Mayors-Council. ::::::::: 9. Mayor / Commissioner :::::::::: 10. Governing board / City Manager ::::::::::: 11. Local authorities such as administrators, sheriffs, police etc. " }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "gb_tudor_stuart", "long_name": "England Tudor-Stuart", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.The governmental structure of the early modern period continued over from the preceding period of Plantagenet England. :1. King : The king was at the very top of all social and administrative hierarchies. However by this period he was more accountable to his council and the aristocracy, though ultimately, his decision on all state matters was final.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§The kings council usually consisted of a mixture of trusted nobles, experienced officials (usually the chancellor and treasurer), ecclesiastical members, judges and sometimes a close and trusted member of his family.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ Administrative duties were divided between the King’s Household, and the two central administrative departments: the exchequer and the chancery. The law courts were also an integral part of government. State and local departments were not truly separated, but they were hierarchical in the local officials reported into direct lines to the main state department.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58, 60, 66) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. The King’s Household The Kings Household was an administrative department that was responsible for a variety of duties and was a central hub of the government. It provided for the domestic and organisational needs of the court as well as §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :: 2.1 The Wardrobe :: The wardrobe was the financial department of the king’s household and at times would out-rank the exchequer in terms of financial hierarchy. Orders issued under the privy seal to the exchequer and chancery came from the wardrobe. By the reign of Edward III the exchequer was recognised as the head department of financial administration, though when it suited the king, the wardrobe would be used to issue huge sums of money sum – without the consent of the exchequer – such as during the French War in the 1330’s and military campaigns. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58-60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::: 2.2 Clerks of the Household ::: Responsible for the organisation of war, recruitment of soldiers and upper management, pay and board.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. The Exchequer “The exchequer was divided into two sections, the lower, which dealt with money paid in and the issue if receipts in the form of wooden tallies, and the upper, which was the court where accounts were rendered and heard.” It assigned revenue. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 58, 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :: 2.1 Treasurer§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57, 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::: 2.2 Chief Baron of the Exchequer§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::: 2.3 Chamberlains§REF§( Prestwich 2005: 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::: 2.4 Sheriff§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57, 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::::: 2.5 Under-sheriffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Clerks§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§:::::: 2.5 Baliffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Sub-Baliffs§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. Chancery The chancery issued writs and in the early period was closely linked to the King’s Household. However after being divided between Gascony and England during Edward I’s campaign in the 1280’s, the chancery became increasingly separate from the royal household and no longer followed the king around as the Household did and by Edward III’s reign was based permanently at Westminster in London.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :: 2.1 Chancellor§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 57) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::: 2.2 Sergeants§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::: 2.3 Masters :::: Twelve ‘Masters’ (senior clerks) ran the department and managed the clerks, curistors, and assistant clerks and servants below them.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::: 2.4 Clerks ::::: By the fourteenth century around one hundred clerks were employed. Records from 1324 show that they were producing about eighty writs and day – 29,000 in that year. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ :::::: 2.5 Curistors :::::: Those who wrote standardised writs.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::::::: 2.6 Assistant Clerks§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ The law courts were divided between the King’s Bench and the Common Pleas. ::2. The King’s Bench :: The King’s Bench travelled with the king in order to action any necessary legal work immediately. It also dealt with appeals from the lower courts and criminal matters.§REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ ::2. The Common Pleas :: The Common Pleas was the court based permanently at Westminster and dealt mainly with property matters. §REF§(Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ " }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.: 1. King : It seems that kingship was not fully established in Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ until the mid-to-late sixth century. These are evidenced by increasingly rich male burials which are distinctive to the previously higher class of warrior burials. The arrival of Anglo-Saxon leaders resulted in the establishment of the first smaller kingdoms, which set aside any remaining power structures of the post-Roman Britons and started the beginnings of kingship which quickly became widespread throughout the region. §REF§Higham 2004: 4§REF§§REF§ Yorke 1990: 9, 15§REF§ §REF§Wright 2015: 27§REF§ Kings now governed through royal officials as outlined below.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ :: 2. Patricius (deputy to the king) :: The position of patricius is known from Kent, Mercia and Northumbria in the eighth century. The patricius could deputize for the king as military leader and probably played a major role in the co-ordination of royal government.”§REF§(Yorke 1990: 171) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ ::: 3. The Witan::: A council made up of elected wise-men who acted as advisors, particularly for assisting the king on important state matters, new laws, land grants, or war strategy. The Whitan usually consisted of a collection of bishops, abbots, chaplains, ealdormen, royal family members and royal officials.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ :::: 4. Royal Officials:::: 4.1 Port-Reeves:::: Port-Reeves were the royal officials in the Boroughs. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§:::: 4.2 Ealdormen.:::: Ealdormen were the royal officials in the Shires. They were from a noble family and were the chief officer for the king in the shires. They preceeded over the bi-annual court. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ ::::: 5. Baliffs::::: Baliffs became the royal official in the ‘Hundreds’ - smaller divisions of the Shires. They dealt with common criminal and civil matters at a monthly open court.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ " }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 61, 75, 77, 79 . https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§1. Shah : 2. Vizier (Chief official and senior advisor to the ruler) :: 3. Hajib (senior official) :: 3.1 Kuttab (Secretaries) :: 3.1 Mutasarrif (Financial officials) :: 3.1 Ustadhdar (royal household officials) ::: 4. Provincial viziers :::: 5. Shihnas (Governors – appointed in all conquered cities, towns and regions) ::::: 6. Lesser administrative posts levels.<br>\"during the twelfth century one city, Merv, had a staff of twelve thousand to maintain the hydraulic system, among them three hundred divers!\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>1. Khwarazmshah §REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://archnet.org/sites/3881\">http://archnet.org/sites/3881</a>§REF§<br><br>_Central government_<br> 2. Vizier In this period the inherited Saminid/Seljuk administration was breaking down.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br> 3. Assistants, clerks<br>_Regions_<br> 2. Governors§REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://archnet.org/sites/3881\">http://archnet.org/sites/3881</a>§REF§<br> 3. Assistants, clerks<br>\"Bukhara was in practice controlled by the sadrs (leaders of the Muslim religious classes) of the Burhan family. They were extremely rich and used their power to oppress the people.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 141) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>Samantha Holder findings:" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.The remains of their villages show that Hohokam society had a hierarchical structure. §REF§“Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN/library§REF§ It is not known exactly how this was organised or how society was governed based on evidence from the Hohokam sites, but when considering nearby peoples and their political organisation, it is generally considered that the levels would have been as follows:§REF§McGuire 2018: 46-47 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9FB2IXT§REF§ : 1. Tribal leader (overall leader but without direct authority over each settlement) :: 2. Village leader (someone who had gathered followers and respect and was generally the head of the village) :: 2. War leader (individual who organised and commanded anything relating to war) ::: 3. Village council (made up of a group of respected people) " }, { "id": 439, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§ : 1. Sultan :: 2. Standing officers: “…the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde…”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§ ::: 3. Viceroys – governors of provinces :::: 4. Governors – of cities or towns ::::: 5. Alcaydes :::::: 6. Lesser administrative staff " }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 797, "name": "de_empire_1", "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty", "start_year": 919, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.The administrative hierarchy of the empire was not simple, owing to the fact that although the pope and emperor provided spiritual and moral leadership, each country within the empire had its own monarch and imperial/local governance." }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 565, "name": "at_habsburg_1", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“Austria’s hereditary lands was divided among several members of the family, and as a result, distinct archducal courts came into being at Innsbruck (1564–1665) and Graz (1564–1619). These constituted a discernable, second level of princely courts within the Austrian Habsburg territories, one step below the imperial court in Prague and Vienna… The Austrian branch of the dynasty underwent a rapid expansion in numbers. At its highpoint in 1613, there were no fewer than 14 archdukes and 13 archduchesses, and regardless of their seniority, all of them had to be provided for in a Standesgemäß fashion. If they reached adulthood, they received a household of their own. In quite a few cases they were allowed their own residence, and some went on to become the governors of provinces, or, as in the case of the aforementioned archduke Albert, rulers in their own right. Others were provided with ecclesiastical benefices, which gave them access to important revenues and sometimes allowed them to act as independent rulers, as was the case with prince-bishoprics, or grandmasterships of the Teutonic Order.§REF§(Vermeir et al 2021: 17-18) Vermeir, René, Raeymaekers, Dries, and Hortal Muñoz, José Eloy. 2021. A Constellation of Courts: The Courts and Households of Habsburg Europe, 1555–1665, vol. 15. Leuven University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt14jxsxk. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SRBKH6ZG§REF§ Curtis (2013) suggests three layers of political power that had to work with each other across the domains. All levels of administration fed into the imperial power but were ultimately self-governing at regional level:§REF§(Curtis 2013: 98, 101, 128) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ : 1. Monarch and Holy Roman Emperor : 1.2. Imperial Government : 1.3. Imperial/Privy Council (The court council included a chancellery and treasury.)§REF§(Fichtner 2017: 18) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K§REF§ : 1.4. Secretaries, ministers etc. :: 2. Regional ruler (eg archduke, prince) :: 2.2. Local Government :: 2.3. Local council ::: 3. Local nobility (tax collection, local authority) :::: 4. Lesser administrative positions (i.e. administrators, accountants) " }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 297, "name": "kz_oirat", "long_name": "Oirats", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“The dynamics of the Oirat polities’ inner circles are by comparison less well understood. The ruler had a privy council called variously the yamu (‘office’) among the Zünghars or zarghu (‘court’) among the Kalmyks. This privy council’s members were called tüshimed (‘ministers’) among the Zünghars or zaisang (‘officials’) or zarghuchi (‘judges’) among the Kalmyks (Doronatib 1985: §§7–8, 17–18, 25, 33; Halkovic 1985: 69, 121; Khodarkovsky 1992: 44). The members numbered four at the time of the Mongol-Oirat Code (1640), but Galdan-Tseren (r. 1727–1745) expanded the Zünghar yamu by adding six zarghuchis to the existing four tüshimed (Tayama 1987: 47–49).”§REF§(Atwood 2010: 615) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER§REF§ See also the table clarifying this structure and showing levels 4-6 in Atwood 2010, p618.§REF§(Atwood 2010: 618) Atwood, Christopher. 2010. “Titles, Appanages, Marriages and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-Century Mongol Empires,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2CK8T6ER§REF§ : 1. Khan :: 2. Four Oirats (representatives and heads of different regions/tribes of the Oirat people) ::: 3. Ministers (tüshimed or zaisang) of the Privy Council (yamu or zarghu) :::: 4. Albachi zaisang (officials) ::::: 5. Demchis (rulers of 40s) :::::: 6. Shülengge (rulers of 20s) " }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "long_name": "Golden Horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Atwood 2004: 205. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.§REF§§REF§Halperin 1987: 26, 30-39. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§Prior to Islamic conversion : 1. Khan (head of state) :: 2. Family Council (quriltai) :: 2.1. Commander in chief / Deputy to the Khan (beglerbegi) :: 2.2. Vizier ::: 3. Ulus khans (a minor khan within each state, ulus, of the wider empire) :::: 4. Ulus Emirs ::::: 5. Lesser administrative posts. After Islamic conversion With the official conversion to Islam in the fourteenth century came the adoption of the Persian diwan system of governance. §REF§Halperin 1987: 26, 36-39. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§ _Regions with direct administration_ : 1. Khan :: 2. Central Council ::: 3. Vizier (head of the treasury) :::4. Baskaki (local official, tax collector, supervisor, military commander) (changed to darugi in the fourteenth century) ::::: 5. Lesser administrative posts. _Regions with local administration_ The Golden Horde chose not to have direct administration in Russian or Armenia-Georgia due to the expense, and so allowed local rulers, such as princes, to administer the region. Although they initially had resident Mongol officials (baskaki) in Russia, this was later changed so that envoys (posoly) relayed direct orders from the Khan to the local Russian princes.§REF§Halperin 1987: 30-31, 34. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VCPWVNM.§REF§ : 1. Khan :: 2. Posoly (official envoys, important aristocrats) ::: 3. Local nobility (e.g. a foreign prince) :::: 4. Lesser administrative posts. " }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 360, "name": "ir_saffarid_emp", "long_name": "Saffarid Caliphate", "start_year": 861, "end_year": 1003 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Frye 2007: 107, 128. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7XE9P8HB§REF§: 1. Amir :: 2. Vizier ::: 3. Governors :::: 4. Local administrators " }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“The first author to examine the evolution of classical Hawaiian political system in the explicit context of its further evolution as a modern state in the nineteenth century is Kamanamaikalani Beamer. In his 2014 book, Beamer identifies three main traditional principles of governance that shaped the classical Hawaiian polity. First was the mō‘ī, a supreme ruler at the head of each polity, a hereditary position that carried not only effective political power but also high rank sanctioned by mana (spiritual power). Unlike the Proto-Polynesian term *‘ariki (tribal chief) and in its derivative form ali‘i (noble class) in classical Hawai‘i, the Hawaiian neologism mō‘ī can be safely translated into English as “monarch”—albeit carrying the same cautions as the terms “king,” “emperor,” and the like as translations for the titles of the rulers of other non- Western polities. The most basic prerequisite for becoming mō‘ī was to be a member of the ‘aha ali‘i (council of chiefs), an institution assembling the higher-ranking members of the chiefly class that was of divine origins and that would also serve as principal advisory body to the mō‘ī (Fornander 1996, 28–29). Below the mō‘ī, the government apparatus of a classical Hawaiian polity included various office holders. Besides various specialized personal attendants, these included the kuhina (executive counselors) of the ruler and, most important among them, the kuhina nui (chief executive), who in turn presided over kia‘āina (governors) (Keauokalani 1932, 132–133, 146–147) .”§REF§(Gonschor 2019: 20)Gonschor, Lorenz. 2019. A Power in the World: The Hawaiian Kingdom in Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FB64GREZ§REF§ : 1. mō‘ī (king/monarch) :: 2. kuhina nui (chief executive) ::: 3. kuhina (executive counsellors) :::: 4. kia‘āina (governors) " }, { "id": 446, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.“The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ It seems that kingship was not fully established in Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ until the mid-to-late sixth century. These are evidenced by increasingly rich male burials which are distinctive to the previously higher class of warrior burials. The arrival of Anglo-Saxon leaders resulted in the establishment of the first smaller kingdoms, which set aside any remaining power structures of the post-Roman Britons and started the beginnings of kingship which quickly became widespread throughout the region. §REF§(Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§§REF§(Yorke 1990: 9, 15) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§§REF§(Wright 2015: 27) Wright, Duncan W. ‘Early Medieval Settlement and Social Power: The Middle Anglo-Saxon “Home Farm”’, Medieval Archaeology 59, no. 1 (1 January 2015): 24–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.2015.1119395. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H4A8AR5P§REF§ “In the eighth century the subkingdoms were replaced by ealdormanries, but the tendency of rival branches of the royal house to challenge for the throne did not decline and in some kingdoms it increased. In a number of cases royal collateral lines which had provided subkings probably controlled the same areas as ealdormen. In Mercia and Northumbria we know that a number of the successful royal candidates were either ealdormen or the sons of ealdormen, and the powers inherent in the office of ealdorman may have helped the rival branches make their bids for power. Although removing the subkingships concentrated executive power in the hands of one king, which seems to have been of advantage in the kingdom’s struggle for expansion and survival, the ealdormen inherited many of the regalian rights of the subkings and provincial kings whom they had succeeded.87 Above all the armies of the provinces served under their ealdormen and would give their loyalty in the first instance to them.88 The Northumbrian chronicle gives many instances of how combinations of ealdormen and their armed followings decided the success or failure of royal candidates.”§REF§(Yorke 1990: 9, 15) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ “A number of ealdormen seem to have been the sons of ealdormen and the family of Berhtfrith of Northumbria exercised considerable power for three generations. Beornhæth, Berhtred and Berhtfrith seem to have been not just ealdormen, but to have enjoyed a rank second to that of the king, as Stephanus says of Berhtfrith.90 In the eighth century the title of patricius was frequently applied to individuals in this position which seems to have been analogous to that of mayors of the palace in Francia (for whom Bede used the title patricius).91 The position of patricius is known from Kent, Mercia and Northumbria in the eighth century. The patricius could deputize for the king as military leader and probably played a major role in the co-ordination of royal government.”§REF§(Yorke 1990: 171) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ From the sixth century: 1. King ::: 3. Ealdormen Pre-sixth century : Warrior chief / early king: The earliest ‘kings’ in Anglo-Saxon England were essentially warrior chiefs who had their own personal followers, as in the tribes of northern Europe.§REF§Roberts et al 2014: 30§REF§ The actual nature of these warrior chiefs is dubious and there is not sufficient evidence to explain exactly how they governed or the hierarchy or administration that may have existed.§REF§(Hamerow 2005: 282-3) Hamerow, Helena. 2005. “The Earliest Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms.” Chapter. In The New Cambridge Medieval History, edited by Paul Fouracre, 1:263–88. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521362917.012. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5JNINHPQ§REF§ Post-sixth century : 1. King : It seems that kingship was not fully established in Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ until the mid-to-late sixth century. These are evidenced by increasingly rich male burials which are distinctive to the previously higher class of warrior burials. The arrival of Anglo-Saxon leaders resulted in the establishment of the first smaller kingdoms, which set aside any remaining power structures of the post-Roman Britons and started the beginnings of kingship which quickly became widespread throughout the region. §REF§Higham 2004: 4§REF§§REF§ Yorke 1990: 9, 15§REF§ §REF§Wright 2015: 27§REF§ Kings now governed through royal officials as outlined below.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ :: 2. Patricius (deputy to the king) :: The position of patricius is known from Kent, Mercia and Northumbria in the eighth century. The patricius could deputize for the king as military leader and probably played a major role in the co-ordination of royal government.”§REF§(Yorke 1990: 171) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ ::: 3. The Witan::: A council made up of elected wise-men who acted as advisors, particularly for assisting the king on important state matters, new laws, land grants, or war strategy. The Whitan usually consisted of a collection of bishops, abbots, chaplains, ealdormen, royal family members and royal officials.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ :::: 4. Royal Officials:::: 4.1 Port-Reeves:::: Port-Reeves were the royal officials in the Boroughs. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§:::: 4.2 Ealdormen.:::: Ealdormen were the royal officials in the Shires. They were from a noble family and were the chief officer for the king in the shires. They preceeded over the bi-annual court. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ ::::: 5. Baliffs::::: Baliffs became the royal official in the ‘Hundreds’ - smaller divisions of the Shires. They dealt with common criminal and civil matters at a monthly open court.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 31) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ " }, { "id": 447, "polity": { "id": 566, "name": "fr_france_napoleonic", "long_name": "Napoleonic France", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.Despite several changes between monarchical and republic rule, France’s administrative framework was almost completely unaltered during this period. §REF§Crook 2002: 57, 132. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/29D9EQQE§REF§ :1. Monarch/Emperor :: 2. Council of State ::: 3. Prefect / Commissioners :::: 4. Sub-prefect ::::: 5. Local councils :::::: 6. Mayors (towns and cities) ::::::: 7. Local minor authorities " }, { "id": 448, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918 }, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "levels.The Austrian and Hungarian states had their own parliament and government, however there were three joint ministries which administered their common affairs: ministry of war, ministry of finance, and the ministry of foreign affairs and of the imperial and royal house. §REF§‘Austria-Hungary’. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/47VQW2IL.§REF§§REF§Judson 2016: 335. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW.§REF§ “The centralistic governmental structure in a country increasingly weakened by national strife faced great difficulties. They affected the stability of the administration. Thus in Germany, where the powers of the legislative branch of government were encumbered with limitations similar to those in Austria, only five chancellors headed the cabinet between 1871 and 1917. In the dual states of the Habsburg empire the situation was different. Hungary had seventeen prime ministers and Cisleithanian Austria twenty during that period.”§REF§(Kann 1974: 424) Kann, Robert A. 1974. A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918. Los Angeles: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RP3JD4UV §REF§ : 1. The Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (dual title) :: 2. Prime Minister ::: 3. Chancellors :::: 4. State Government/Parliament ::::: 5. Diets (in each territory) :::::: 6. Town Council ::::::: 7. Mayor or other locally elected ruler :::::::: 8. Local authorities and administrators" }, { "id": 449, "polity": { "id": 786, "name": "gb_british_emp_2", "long_name": "British Empire II", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1968 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels._UK_ : 1. Monarch _British Raj_ Example of British India, which from 1861 was directly controlled by the British government via the following in-place administration. Lower levels of administrators (e.g. Deputies and Assistants) are responsible for the districts or lesser divisions within each province in British India. There were 848 civil service members in 1881.§REF§(Smith 1882: 7-10) Smith, George. 1882. The Geography of British India, Political & Physical. London: J. Murray. http://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AW5H8NPI§REF§ : 1. Viceroy and Governor-General of India (Later shortened to Viceroy of India) : Viceroy and Governor-General was directly appointed by the Crown and Parliament and ruled the territory as a representative of the monarch. They had a Legislative Council of six high ranking members, one of which is the Commander-in-Chief or Lieutenant-General of the army. The Secretary of State ran the Executive Council. Other members of the councils include prominent mercantile members and representatives of the native population. :: 2. Secretary of State ::: 2.2. Executive Council ::: 2.2. Legislative Council ::: 2.2. High Court of Justice :::: 3. Governors ::::: 4. Lieutenant-Governors :::::: 5. Chief-Commissioners ::::::: 5.2. Deputy-Commisioners :::::::: 5.3. Assistant Commisioners :::::: 5.1. Financial Commissioner :::::::: 6. Collector-Magistrate ::::::::: 6.2. Deputy Magistrate :::::::::: 6.3. Assistant Magistrate ::::::::::: 7. Lesser administrative posts throughout the region. " }, { "id": 450, "polity": { "id": 351, "name": "am_artaxiad_dyn", "long_name": "Armenian Kingdom", "start_year": -188, "end_year": 6 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Payaslian 2007: 14-15. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H8NEU6KD§REF§: 1. King :: 2. The kings advisors ::: 3. Royal functionaries (“supervised the administrative bureaucracies, fiscal policy, transportation, commerce and customs, agriculture, and public works.”) §REF§Payaslian 2007: 14. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H8NEU6KD§REF§ " } ] }