Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=7
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=8", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=6", "results": [ { "id": 301, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "eg_inter_occupation", "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Centralized monarchy during the Saite Period prior to the Persian invasion.<br>1. King<br>\"During the next six decades, indigenous kings ruled Egypt; this period is traditionally divided into three dynasties (Twenty-eighth to Thirtieth, 404-343 BC).\" §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>2. Chief official of court <i>inferred from Saite</i><br>2. High Council <i>inferred from Saite</i><br>2. Vizier <i>inferred from Saite</i>3. Head of a particular domain <i>inferred from Saite</i>4. Lesser administrators/scribes <i>inferred</i>5.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. level between nomarchs and the central administration?3. Nomarchs? - <i>presumably this was the last period in which we have local leaders called nomarchs</i>During the Saite period king Amasis \"modified the role of nomarchs for the entire administration of Egypt.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1007)§REF§4. Village head" }, { "id": 302, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "eg_badarian", "long_name": "Badarian", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " Analysis of Badarian grave goods demonstrates an unequal distribution of wealth and the wealthier graves tend to be separated in one part of the cemetery. This clearly indicates social stratification. §REF§Shaw, I. 2003. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. Pg.37.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 303, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Exarch of Ravenna<br>In the early years of the period the Pope was elected by citizens and the army usually based on the choice of the clergy. Representatives would the certify the choice to the Exarch in Ravenna for imperial approval. However, the Exarch could make the choice himself in case of disagreement. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>1. Pope<br>By 781 CE (Charlemagne agreement) \"what had been the Dutchy of Rome was, somewhat enlarged, recognised as St. Peter's and the Pope's own principality.\" Authority over Ravenna \"shared in ill-defineded tandem.\" §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>Bishop of Rome, the Pope, took responsibility for feeding Romans and refugees from Lombard war. §REF§(Partner 1972, 9)§REF§<br>Pope was head of the senate. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>Pope, sovereign and \"universal bishop\", symbolically crowned with tiara. §REF§(Noble 2011, xx)§REF§<br>_Central government (Ravenna - 781 CE)_<br>2.<br>3.<br>4.<br>_Central government (Rome)_<br>2. Senators?Pope was head of the senate. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>Rome's governmental infrastructure was remarkably complex, a fact that Wickham attributes to the degree of continuity between 10th-century Rome and the Byzantines and of course, before them, the Roman Empire.§REF§Wickham (2015), 4§REF§<br>At times during this period, it possessed three different official hierarchies, military, judicial, and clerical.§REF§Wickham, 4§REF§<br><br>2. Administrative subdivisions - Chief of Papal chancery / Papal archives etc.arcarius §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§ - treasurer<br>Papal chancery §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Archives held in Lateran Palace with other paperwork. However, very important documents were kept in tomb of St Peter. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>High-ranking ecclesiastical officials (legates, papal representatives, etc.): The Papal state had administrative subdivisions, loosely conceived. Noble has argued that through its extensive landholding, charitable actions, and diplomatic role as a negotiator with the Lombards, the Roman Church significantly impacted most residents of Byzantine Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>Regional elites \"sought and gained grants of land and jurisdiction from the popes.\" §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004)§REF§ Described as feudal in the ninth century. §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://faculty.ucc.edu/egh-damerow/papal_monarchy.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>§REF§<br>3. Head of Sub-division within an administrative subdivisionSome scholars have claimed that it was the most effective government in Western Europe by the end of the seventh century (although this isn't saying much, given how small-scale papal administration was).§REF§(Partner 1972, 9§REF§<br>Lower-ranking administrative officials: A nomenclator was probably assisted by ordinator. Vicedominus was steward of the papal Lateran palace. Vicedominus more involved in central administration than a major domus.§REF§(Richards 1979, 298)§REF§<br>Amoner (financial controller).<br>Major-domo (treasurer and controller of wardrobe).<br>Pilgrims to the city of Rome was a source of income for the popes. §REF§(Trevor 1869, 115)§REF§<br>4. primicerius defensorumDefensores defended \"the rights of the Roman church ... and the oppressed. The formula of appointment was vague enough to allow them to undertake virtually any duty on behalf of the church.\" There was a college of defensores headed by a primicerius. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. defensorum<br>4. primicerius notariorum (head of college of notaries) §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. secundicerius notariorumA college of notaries headed by primicerius, later joined by college of defensores headed by primicerius, and a college of subdeacons. Notaries were the staff of the papal chancery, career bureaucrats. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Clerical officers (acolytes and guardians) §REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>6. notariorumBy this period, the popes had been caring for orphans, widows, and others as part of their pastoral duties.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Regional governor of a DutchyAfter 756 CE, the duchies were officially controlled from Rome through Papal government administration. Every major city had a bishop. Regional governors. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials. §REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>The popes became increasingly involved during this period in appointing the duke for the Dutchy of Rome. §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>On several occasions, indeed, papal authority over the imperially-appointed dukes was demonstrated when popes had to save dukes from the irate Roman mob, or were able to defy the duke or Exarch of Ravenna with the aid of <i>militia totius Italiae</i>, \"the entire army of Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 18§REF§<br>Regionary guardians. Regional notaries.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>3. Bishop of a CityEvery major city had a bishop. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials.§REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>Under the Lombards, a system of episcopal immunities emerged that made the bishops virtually local temporal sovereigns and enabled them to preserve the local spirit of municipal independence and organization (e.g., consuls, guilds). The urban population was free, and the town walls (often built by the bishops) were refuges. §REF§(Stearns 2001 173)§REF§<br>The Roman bishop administered lands of the Church and lands of Roman basilicas, classified as tituli. §REF§(Partner 1972, 6)§REF§<br>4. Rectors of the Patrimony (in a Diaconate?)Ecclesiastical government contained other important regional officials. Rectors of the Patrimony were appointed for each major territory. These were drawn from subordinate Roman officials: sub-deacons or notaries and guardians, among them whom could be laymen.§REF§(Partner 1972, 8)§REF§<br>Diaconates were established to store and distribute grain, and be centers of social welfare. §REF§(Partner 1972, 9)§REF§5. Granary worker<br>5. Town / village leaderA more informal, often <i>ad hoc</i>, stratum but probably the most important on a day-to-day level. They included local landholders in particular. The aristocratic, land-holding stratum of Byzantine Italy emerged following Justinian's 6th-century reconquests.§REF§Noble, 5-6§REF§<br>By the late seventh century, many sources speaks of this stratum, which Noble has described as forming \"the key social class in late Byzantine Italy.\"§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§<br>These landholders, often of eastern origin, acquired land through leasing them from bishops contractually.§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 304, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. Sultan (Cairo)<br>During his absence Egypt/Cairo was governed by a viceroy (na'ib al-saltana)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 152)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br><br>2a. Central administration\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks. High government officials were also recruited from their number.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§<br>\"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§<br>_ Cairo line _<br>2<small>cairo</small> Magistracies. \"The administration of Cairo and its inhabitants was in the hands of three traditional magistracies. The judges (qudah; sing. qadi) had a very broad jurisdiction that covered matters of civil law, and many urban problems were addressed in their courts.3<small>cairo</small> Chief of the Sergeants of the watch. Top police prefect.4<small>cairo</small> \"The police prefects (wulah; sing. wali) saw to public order and security. They were particularly responsible for making the rounds at night and therefore also of fighting fires.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 153)§REF§<br>Overseer of the market (muhtasib) §REF§(Raymond 2000, 154)§REF§<br>\"The quarter served as an important basis of communal association and as an essential administrative unit.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§<br>_ Egyptian line _<br>2egypt \"diwan (government bureau) of Salar\" §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>3egypt Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§<br>4egypt Governor of a small town<br>5egypt. Village head.<br>_ Syrian line _<br>2<small>syria</small> Syrian chief governor §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 176)§REF§Viceroy?<br>3<small>syria</small> Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§e.g. the bureaucracy niyaba of Safed contained:4. katib al-sirr/katib al-insha (chief secretary who wrote governor's letters, read mail) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§5. muwaqqi (who ratified the governor's letters) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§6. katib al-dast §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§7. katib al-darj (minor correspondent) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§<br>nazir (overseer who was responsible for financial management, expenditure, salaries) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180)§REF§<br>kashif (inspector of bridges, agricultural lands and irrigation canals) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>muhtasib (market inspector) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir diwan al-jaysh (superintendant of fiefs) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir al-mal (financial controller) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>4. governor also had a dawadar (personal assistant) often sent to the villages to represent the governor and an ustadar (private caretaker) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 172)§REF§<br>4<small>syria</small> wali al-wulat of a niyaba §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>often the wali al-wulat also doubled as the shadd or mushidd al-dawawin \"whose duty it was to check and observe the collection of the Sultans' dues and taxes from state estates.\"§REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>5<small>syria</small> Wali, officer of a small town\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>6<small>syria</small> Village head.<br>" }, { "id": 305, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Decimal structure like previous and following polities. \"He radically reorganised the military-administrative structure of the Rouran society, dividing the population-army into hundreds and thousands, introduced the obligatory registration of available warriors, established strict rules of behaviour in battle and the penalties for their violation [...].\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 154)§REF§\"It was divided into western and eastern wings, but, as we know, the dual organisation was recorded already during the pre-empire period. Initially, the ruler of the eastern wing was considered to have the higher status (WS 103: 1b-2a; Taskin 1984, p. 267) but later this, seemingly, changed (Taskin 1984, pp. 273, 278, 285).\"§REF§(Kradin 2005, 154-155)§REF§<br>The administrative structure is not mentioned, but Kradin refers to the following elite hierarchy:<br>1. Khagan<br>2. Rulers of empire wings (silifa)3. Dignitaries - ruling elite, chiefs, elders §REF§(Kradin 2005, 161-162)§REF§4. Tribal chiefs and clan elders (commanders of 1000 and 100 horsemen)<br>\"The social organisation of the Rouran was slightly different from the public organisation of other nomads in Eurasia, and it was a complex hierarchical multi-level system.\" §REF§(Kradin 2005, 162)§REF§" }, { "id": 306, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King (Psamtik I)<br>Centralized monarchy<br>2?. Royal scribe of the Pharaoh. (The petition of P3-di-3st. Amasis.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 907) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. Court/Household (Psamtik I)<br>2.Chief Physician (from Amasis). More than a medicine man. Also occupied \"major military positions\" such as Leader of Aegean foreign (troops)and admiral of royal fleet. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 972)§REF§<br>2. Manager of the Antechamber (Psamtik I - Amasis). In charge of organizing royal audiences.§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 973) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§3. Accountant scribes. According to the Petition of Peteise \"he has accountant scribes to perform investigations throughout the country.\"§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 973) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§<br>2. Viziers played a role of \"supreme judge\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 974)§REF§<br>2. High Council (Psamtik I) (High Council reported directly to the king §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§)\"Convened to assist the sovereign in taking decisions\" (Psamtik I) §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 969)§REF§ The statuette of General Djedptahiufankh says the king \"relies on his words on the day of the High Council ... distinguished by the king because of his excellent ideas ... pronouncing wise judgements in the Council of Nobles ... and speaking to them next to the king so that they were satisfied by his remarks.\"§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 696) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§<br>3. Manager of the scribes of the council §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 996)§REF§ Manages the audit office of the Royal Household (from second half of Saite Period). §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1001)§REF§4. Scribes of the council §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 996)§REF§5. Royal accounting scribes \"dispersed throughout the various royal domains.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 997)§REF§<br>3. Manager of the royal boats - logistics within royal domain. (from Psamtik II) §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1001)§REF§<br>3. Manager of the fields - \"protecting the royal lands and their products from attempts at seizure.\" (from Psamtik II) §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1001)§REF§<br>3. Senti - top administrator in charge of sacred domains. (from Psamtik II) §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1001)§REF§<br>2. Council of Nobles (Psamtik I) (Council of Nobles also likely reported directly to the king. §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§)\"a deliberative meeting in which the king had to defend his point of view and obtain adherence.\" (Psamtik I)§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 971)§REF§<br>3. Head/controller of the 'h. (Statue of Psmtk-snb)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 939) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. pr pr-'3 (The petition of P3-di-3st. Amasis.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 907) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. pr-nswt (Fragment of an Isis-statue with Horus of Nht-Hrw-hb)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 943) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the 'hnwty (Statue of Psmtk)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 956) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the treasury of the gold of the hnw. (Tomb of Hk3-m-s3.f. Amasis.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 960) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>_ Provincial line_ <i>ET: this is not in the correct order - nomarchs, counts, governors should not be level 4?</i><br>3. Thebaid regionReligious and political center - through a priestess based at the Amun temple. §REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>3. Royal DomainLand, quarries, fisheries, flocks, ships, other assets. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 995)§REF§<br>Manager of the royal boats, Manager of the two granaries, Manager of the scribes of the High Camp. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 996)§REF§<br>Manager of the scribes of the council4. Scribes of the council5. Royal accounting scribes \"dispersed throughout the various royal domains.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 997)§REF§<br>4. senti appointed to manage temple affairs (end of Saite Period)<br>4. Governors. e.g. Governor of Heracleopolis. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 974)§REF§<br>4. Counts<br>4. Principalities in DeltaHigh Chief of the Ma disappeared in 660s BCE. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 975)§REF§<br>Ruled by Libyan warlords. \"Great Chiefs of the Ma.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 975)§REF§<br>4. Southern LandInitially administered as single unit (Psamtik I) ignoring nome boundaries. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 981)§REF§<br>\"Southern Land\" (Syene/Aswan to Memphis) under official called Leader of the Fleet (Psamtik I) based in Heracleopolis. He had financial duties as \"revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt.\" Title of Leader of Fleet probably no longer present c590s BCE. At least one holders known to have had title of governor. §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 981-983)§REF§<br>By 592-591 BCE there was a \"Governor of Heracleopolis\" and a \"traditional division in nomes ruled from a capital city under the authority of a governor.\"5. Nome ruler from c591 BCE<br>4. NomarchsAmasis \"modified the role of nomarchs for the entire administration of Egypt.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 1007)§REF§<br>5. Village levelSoldier rewarded \"with a gold bracelet and an Egyptian village.\" §REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 989)§REF§<br>\"In sum, the first Saite Period, the seventh century, was a reign of skillful politics aimed at taking over the territory. The second period, the sixth century (the years 592-591 could well mark this turning point), was an age of administrative standardization, and P. Rylands 9 reveals a country divided into nomes (ts.w)\" e.g. Oxyrhynchos, Hermopolis, Cynopolis. \"even if the territorial powers of intermediate level between the nome and the city, like the 'district-q'h.t', continue to be problematic.\"§REF§(Agut-Labordere 2013, 984) Agut-Labordere, Damien. \"The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power.\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§<br>A \"superintendent of the central treasury\" and a \"chief steward\" are known under Apries and Amasis.§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 186) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 307, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": 732, "year_to": 899, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br><br>_Court government_<br>2.As the kingdom grew in the tenth century, during the reign of Baltigung, more state officials created more administrative levels. §REF§(Rahardjo 2002, 111)§REF§<br>3.4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Dispersed wanua (regional landlords)<br>3. Village leaders?<br>" }, { "id": 308, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. No good data. However, administrative levels usually correlates with military levels so have used the military levels as an estimate.<br>1. Fama§REF§S.A. Djata, The Bamana kingdom by the Niger (1997), pp. 9-25§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 309, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. <i>Dharmamaharaja</i><br>In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as <i>Dharmamaharaja</i> §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§.<br>_Court_<br>2. Royal CouncilMade up of the <i>pradhyana</i> (head minister), the <i>manevergade</i> (steward of the household), the <i>kramukapala</i> (betel-carrier), the <i>tantrapala</i>, and the <i>sabhakaya</i> (secretary of the council) §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§.<br>3. Other ministersIncluding the Chief Justice, the <i>dharmadhyaksha</i> §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§.<br>. The Crown Prince §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§.<br>_Provincial government_<br>4. Viceroys/PrincesGoverned over <i>mandalas</i>, or provinces §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§.<br>5. Governors of vishayas (<i>Manneyas</i>?)The Vishaya was the administrative division of Kadamba territory immediately beneath the mandala §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§: it is presumed that someone was in charge of governing it. It may have been the manneyas, who some sources say were in charge of \"districts\" §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), pp. 50§REF§.<br>6. Governors of mahagramas and dashagramas<i>Mahagramas</i> were groups of ten villages, <i>dashagramas</i>, groups of twenty-four §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 38§REF§: it is presumed that someone was in charge of governing them.<br>7. Gramikas/Grama-mukhtasIn charge of villages §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 50§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 310, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Kings who ruled Kingdoms<br>King ruled by decree §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330)§REF§<br>After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun lands partitioned among Louis the Pious’s sons: \"to Charles went the western regions, to Louis the German the eastern territories, and to Lothair the middle section.\" §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 332)§REF§<br>Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) divided the lands of the middle territory between East and West §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 332)§REF§<br>Reunited into one kingdom briefly 884-887 CE §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 333)§REF§<br>887-898 CE Western territory ruled by a non-Carolingian §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 333)§REF§<br><br>_Court institution_<br>\"Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates.\"§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.§REF§<br>2.3.4.<br><br>_ Regional government_<br><br>2. Fief holdersVassals with their own fiefs, often hereditary.§REF§(Nicolle 1995, 18)§REF§<br>2. Missi dominici (to 877 CE)<br>Kings representative appointed to inspect counties (noble laymen, bishops or sometimes abbots) §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330)§REF§<br>Passed on king's law, often recorded in written documents called capitularies §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 3308)§REF§<br>after 843 CE capitularies were only found in West Francia and then not beyond 877 CE.§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330, 318)§REF§ This might suggest the institution of Missi dominici did not exist beyond that date.<br>Could get involved in local judicial work §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330)§REF§<br>2. Counties ruled by a count3. Viscount was an appointed officer (from 1000 CE hereditary everywhere except Normandy) who was the deputy of a count. about 850 CE \"850, virtually every county in the new West Frankish kingdom seems to have been provided with a viscount\" §REF§(Boulton 1995, 1823)§REF§4.Under Charlemagne (reign 800-814 CE), counties were basic unit of governance §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330)§REF§<br>Count enforced laws and responsible for justice and set taxes §REF§(Chazelle 1995, 330)§REF§<br>original duties lost with end of Carolingian administration §REF§(Boulton 1995, 1823)§REF§<br>Marches were a form of county, established by Charlemagne§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 1107)§REF§, organised along military lines§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 1107)§REF§, commanded by \"count of the march\" who was also head of the March government§REF§(Chazelle 1995, 1107)§REF§<br>4. PagiIn 10th century \"increasingly powerful\" pagi, who were a provincial aristocracy. \"In late 10th-century Anjou, for example, a loyal cavalryman might hope to be given authority over part of Count Foulque's widespread territory.\" §REF§(Nicolle 1995, 18)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 311, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. Ruler<br><br>_Central government_<br>2. Prime Minister\"The most important codification of Chinese law is the Fa jing (Canon of Law), compiled during the Warring States period by the prime minister of the Wei state Li Kui (455-395 B.C.)\"§REF§(Fu 1993, 108) Fu, Zhengyuan. 1993. Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. Chancellor, Secretaries, etcCourt officials (Chancellor, Secretaries, etc)§REF§(Li 2013, 194)§REF§<br>4. Assistants / Secretaries / scribes<br>4. Manager of state-run iron/bronze foundry <i>inferred level</i>5. Worker in state-run iron/bronze foundry <i>inferred level</i><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. jun (commanderies)Provincial / commandery governors; military generals§REF§(Li 2013, 194)§REF§<br>\"At the onset of the Warring States period, Wei reorganized the whole guo - core as well as conquered territories - into a two-tier structure of jun (commanderies) and xian (which evolved from dependent districts to counties). As the jun and xian became standard administrative units in the Warring States period, strategists could evaluate the relative capabilities of various states in terms of their numbers of jun and xian.\"§REF§(Tin-bor Hui 2005, 98) Tin-bor Hui, Victoria. 2005. War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. xian (counties)<br>4. town heads<br>5. village-level chiefs<br>" }, { "id": 312, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§(Potter 1995)§REF§<br>1. King<br>considered guardian of divine and human law<br>_Central government_<br><br>2. Conseil du roi3. Head of the Royal Secretariat (recorded council business and drafted acts, correspondence, etc. and archived. Head-quartered at Celestins monastery).title of Premier secretaire du roi not in use after 1460 CE but position still de facto occupied. gained further responsibilities including those of the secretaires des guerres (created 1472 CE) and greffier (clerk) of council.<br>4. Bureaucrats of the divisions of the Royal Secretariat head-quartered at the Celestins monastery5 Lesser bureaucrats <i>inferred</i>6. Lesser bureaucrats <i>inferred</i><br>4?. secretaire des finances<br>Conseil du roi (highest organ of public power in 15th and 16th centuries) over-overwhelmingly composed of aristocrats, especially as cardinals from 1520s CE. councils of government reflected a strong ethos of collective decision-making process.<br>Grand conseil de justice emerged under Louis XI (1461-1483 CE).<br>Conseil Etroit (known by this name from 1484 CE) - inner councillors and princes of the blood.. Conseil secret within this conseil had 3 members. Conseil Etroit became known as Conseil prive from mid-1530s CE.<br>Conseil des affaires, morning council with the king which considered the latest despatches. mid-16th century?<br>Parlements of Paris. \"Each Parlement claimed sovereign jurisdiction in its own territory and not all edicts registered at Paris were registered in the provinces. They thus remained unimplemented. However, only the Parlement of Paris could admit officiers or constitute itself as a chamber of peers.\"<br>_Provincial government_<br><br>2. Provincial Parlements\"Each Parlement claimed sovereign jurisdiction in its own territory and not all edicts registered at Paris were registered in the provinces. They thus remained unimplemented. However, only the Parlement of Paris could admit officiers or constitute itself as a chamber of peers.\"<br>2. Provincial governor of provincial gouvernements (King's lieutenant-general)\"representatives of the King's person in the provinces\"<br>Limited terms, perhaps 3-5 years<br>Powers between provincial Parlements and provincial governments often contested.<br>3. Bailiff in a Bailliages (Northern France); seneschal in a Sénéchiaussée (Southern France)1515 CE France had about 100 bailliages<br>Bernard Guenee said: bailliages were not divided into chatellenies, they were made up of them.<br>4. Prévôt in a Prévôté (or vicomte)/Chatelleniethis level was the \"bedrock of the system of law and administration.\"<br>consisted of a \"castle, dependant lands and rights with, significantly, only one \"custom\" prevailing in it.\"<br>5. Leader of a parishwithin Chatellenies. E.g. in 1562 CE there were 43 parishes within the Pontoise chatellenie.<br>X. Seigneuries<br>Seigneuries (lordships) owned by seigneurs<br>The \"chatellenie was the essential administrative unit, sometimes a royal chatellenie, sometimes seigneurial.\"<br>X. Great fiefs and (apanages of the crown) - level replaced by provincial bodies80 fiefs in 1480 CE, c40 in 1530 CE<br>Apanage of Orleans returned 1498 CE. Burgundy 1477 CE. Picardy-Artois 1477 CE. Avergne 1531 CE. Brittany 1536 CE. Maine 1481 CE. Anjou 1481 CE.<br>" }, { "id": 313, "polity": { "id": 372, "name": "ye_tahirid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as 'Sultan 'Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier'§REF§Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/</a>§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>Sultans.§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"Ayyubid traditions remained strong in the new state, seen for example in their royal titulature.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, \"proclaimed himself sultan of Yemen with the title al-Mansur.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Council of Notables\"Reflecting the orthodox Muslim respect for the community consensus, the proclamation was issued by the council of notables of the realm, not as the sovereign's personal act. The Rasulids sought at least the appearance of public support for major decisions. The opinion of high state officials, it is recorded, was unanimous as to the accession of al-Ashraf II upon his father's death.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 119) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. WezirTop administrative official? \"al-Ashraf I ordered his minister\" who is referred to as a \"wezir\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3.\"an official in his chancery\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>The Rasulids had a \"public administration\" with a \"body of functionaries\" that attempted to extract \"as much revenue as practicable from their domain.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3.4. Tax collector5. Deputy tax collector\"Al-Ashraf II abolished an oppressive tax on cotton introduced by a deputy tax collector in the days of the sultan's predecessor.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 113) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>_Provincial line_<br>2. Chief JudgeProvinces had a chief judge who could get into disputes with the provincial governor.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. AmirRuler of region (or city?). e.g. Amir of Aden§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ and \"governor of Sanaa\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 110) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Deputy governor worked under a provincial governor.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Deputy governorAl-Khazraji \"dates the ruin of the Tihama to the year 1353, and ascribes it to the malevolence of a deputy governor at Fashal\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Town official\"and furthermore wrote to officials in the chief towns\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 119) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>4. Customs inspectorCustoms inspectors e.g. at Aden.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 113) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Difference between Rasulids and Zaidi Imamate: \"the Zaidi imam al-Hadi's officials were simple, and derived solely from the Koran and hadith; under the imam's close guidance, a fairly rudimentary knowledge sufficed for their interpretation and application. Rasulid officials had a much more complex tax system to administer. While the core of the rules had roots in the shari'a, many other regulations were introduced for the sake of uniformity and increasing revenue.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Upper and Lower Yemen: \"For two centuries the two regions coexisted in a state of mutual hostility, under sharply contrasting styles of leadership.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 124) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>§REF§(Stookey 1978, 125) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 314, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1.<br>\"The Abbasid court continued to send governors to Sanaa.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 54) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. Court-based administrator?In the ninth century \"the livelihood of the people was not particularly dependent upon efficient, centralized government, the attachment was strong to small social units which central control was likely to threaten.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 50) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3.<br>2. Ruler of a petty state.In the ninth century attempts were made to unify Yemenis under Islamic rule but there was no agreement on any one person having an \"exclusive right to rule\" and \"central authority tended to be fragile and weak. The region was in fact fragmented into several petty states, each enfeebled by domestic disaffection and the hostility of its neighbours.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 50-51) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"The Ziyadi state was firmly entrenched in the Tinhama, and enjoyed loose suzerainty over a sultan at Aden, whose authority extended eastward along the coast. The Banu Ziyad, on the other hand, had no influence in the highlands. The Abbasid court continued to send governors to Sanaa.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 54) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Tribal chiefsTribal chiefs: \"The ruler's authority inevitably impinged upon the freedom of action of the tribal chiefs, whose loyalty was intermittent and often a matter of expediency.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 46) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"In the tenth century as in the twentieth, detailed knowledge of tribal interrelationships, and accommodation to their sensibilities, were necessary elements of effective government in northern Yemen.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 50) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>\"The Himyarites asserted their autonomy in the central highlands, at times acknowledging a vague Ziyadi suzerainty, and invoking the Abbasid caliph in public prayers. The tribes in the north, between Nejran and Sa'da, refused any outside control or interference in their mutual quarrels until they themselves called in the first Zaidi imam as umpire. In the southern and west-central mountains, the continuing development of Shi'a sentiment provided opportunity for founding the first Fatimid regimes in Yemen. At the beginning of the tenth century, thus, Yemen was divided among four essentially independent entities.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 45) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 315, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Merovingian administration was singularly crude and poor: neither literacy, currency nor Christianity were introduced by the counts dispatched to rule beyond the Rhine. In its economic, social and political structures, Western Europe had left behind the precarious dualism of the first decades after Antiquity; a rough mixing process had occurred, but the results still remained unformed and heteroclite. Neither simple juxtaposition nor crude mixture could release a new general mode of production, capable of surmounting the impasse of slavery and colonate, and with it a new and internally coherent social order.\"§REF§(Anderson 2013, 126-127) Anderson, Perry. 2013. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. Verso Books.§REF§<br>1. King<br>The court was a peripatetic institution §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§<br>_ Court institution_<br>2. Senior Palace official was known as \"Mayor of the Palace\" §REF§(Halsall 2003, 28)§REF§ maior domus §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§3. Treasurer §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§4. Notaries and scribes<br>Comes palatii §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§<br>Magnates known as Obtimates, were consulted by the king at an annual gathering around March 1st. §REF§(Wood 1994, 104)§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br><br>2. Dukes and BishopsGroup of cities and counts could be placed under a duke (for military and administrative purposes). §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 67)§REF§<br>Magnates (dux?) and Church (bishops)<br>\"Many bishops owed their position to the king\" and \"were royal servants with no known connections with their sees.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 78)§REF§<br>Individuals in charge of multiple civitates? called dux (pl. duces). §REF§(Wood 1994, 61)§REF§<br>Aristocrats dependent on patronage from king. §REF§(Halsall in Wood ed. 1998, 149)§REF§<br>Alternative ruling structures had been innovated such as dukedom (higher scale) and the pagi (lower scale).§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>3. Comes (count) of the Civitas (city-district)Merovingians maintained existing Roman administrative systems where possible. Gregory of Tours (538-594 CE) writings show cities are the basic units of the administrative system. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>local law-men called rachinburgi §REF§(Wood 1994, 107)§REF§<br>City archives: defensor, curator, magister, militum. Known from Formularies from a few civitates but no evidence uniform across polity. Senior official of civitas was the comes (pl. comites) or count (lit. \"companion). Heard law-suits, enforced justice, lead the military. In north graphiones instead of comes. §REF§(Wood 1994, 60)§REF§ Civitas administration \"provided dominant source of tax revenue\" and some of the manpower for the army. §REF§(Wood 1994, 64)§REF§<br>In sixth century the role of the Roman curiales had been taken over by a single official appointed by the Merovingian king, the \"count\" or the \"grafio\" in the Frankish homelands. This official - where present the most important city official - had its origins in the Roman imperial comes civitatis. The first such official in Gaul is known from 471 CE. They executed judicial and administrative functions and sent the king his tax revenue. Rule through these city officials gradually spread across Gaul in the post-Roman period.<br>Gregory of Tours refers to \"leading officials\" who could be members of a local council.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Gregory of Tours' region in central Gaul likely had longest persisting continuity with Roman structures of city-based rule. These were the \"basic building-blocks of which the various Merovingian regna were composed.\" However, in Frankish regions the rule-through-city framework may have been less pervasive. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Internal administrative regions due to the city based taxation system. The \"guiding imperative behind the divisions would appear to be the sharing out of the profits from various forms of taxation\" on the civitas §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>4. PagiSub-division of the civitates. Replaces civitates in some parts of Gaul §REF§(Halsall 2003, 48)§REF§<br>Alternative ruling structures had been innovated such as dukedom (higher scale) and the pagi (lower scale).§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 316, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": 899, "year_to": 1019, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br><br>_Court government_<br>2.As the kingdom grew in the tenth century, during the reign of Baltigung, more state officials created more administrative levels. §REF§(Rahardjo 2002, 111)§REF§<br>3.4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Dispersed wanua (regional landlords)<br>3. Village leaders?<br>" }, { "id": 317, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Governor<br>Governor's residence in the capital city mentioned by Abdoullaev in his review of Chinese chronicles. §REF§(Abdoullaev 2001, 202)§REF§<br>2.3.4.<br>Five chiefdoms.<br>Hou Han Shu said: \"When the Yeuh-chih were destroyed by the Hsiung-nu, they migrated to Ta-Hsia [Bactria] and divided the country into five Hsi-hou [Chiefdoms] ... Then 100 years later Chiu-chiu-chu'ueh [Kujula Kadphises] hsi-hou [Chief] of Kuei-shuang having attacked and destroyed [the other] four hsi-hou became independent and set himself on the throne.\"§REF§(Samad 2011, 78) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 318, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. No specific data but Second Turk Khaganate coded 4 and this polity was similar in social complexity.<br>\"Apparently, the confederation still consisted of nine units, but the division was no doubt political rather than ethnical. In 744, the ruling tribe was the Uighurs, who were themselves subdivided into ten clans, collectively called On-Uighur (i.e. the Ten Uighurs). Of these, the dominant one was the Yaghlakar and, until the second dynasty was founded in 795, the whole empire was ruled by kaghans drawn from the Yaghlakar family.\" §REF§(Mackerras 1990, 320)§REF§<br>1. Kaghans<br>2. Rulers of the 10 clans?3.4." }, { "id": 319, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "Based on Imperial administration c.560 CE§REF§(Haldon \"after Delmaire 1995\" 2008, 547) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"wished to be regarded as the emanation of the sun-god and claimed the same veneration as the Apostles of Christ\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ - Valid only for Emperor Constantine the Great (d. 337 CE)§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§<br>from \"the point of view of the ceremonial\" the Christian Emperor \"was still a god\" in the pagan tradition. \"His arrival was heralded by the raising of several curtains, like the appearance of the deity in the oriental mystery religions. Hence the meetings of the Emperor's council held in this sacred setting were able to announce only decisions which had been discussed and settled outside this body (gremium).\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 55) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>Emperor \"received the Corona aurea, the crown of the triumphator, or the corona laurea, the laurel crown. This crown, which became the symbol of imperial authority, consisted in the sixth century of a double strand of pearls worn across the forehead broken only by a small shield. This earliest form of crown is better described as a diadem. The massive gold crown made up of a number of plaques joined to each other by links first dates from the time of Heraclius.\" Heraclius (r.610-641 CE).§REF§(Haussig 1971, 186) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>The consistorium was a ceremonial council \"in which things already decided and agreed upon were solemnly restated in a ceremonial setting. Thus liaison staff and new departments were formed for the purpose of working over the agenda before the official meetings of the consistorium.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ After reforms of Diocletian and Constantine \"consisted in the regularity of its meetings and the participation of its permanent members. It was no longer the same as before, when changing members from senatorial families, summoned erratically to the meetings, gave the assembly more of the character of a representation of a social class. Permanent members (comites), of whom each was in charge of a definite department, now attended to an ordered administration. The division of these councils into ranked classes was also carried out.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53-54 Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. quaestor sacri palatiiquaestor sacri palatii (minster of justice) \"had among his duties the preparation of the imperial laws and documents, for which he took over part of the responsibility with the authorization legi ('I have read').\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. comes sacrarum largitionum\"in charge of taxes and attended to the monetary obligations of the Empire, such as the payment of wages to the troops and salaries to the officials, and the payments of money to foreign princes, in so far as these had to be provided in accordance with political agreements.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Administrative staff <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. Diocesian officials4. Chiefs of workshops, mints<br>4. Supervisors of mines<br>4. Diocesian treasuries<br>2. comes rei privataecomes rerum privatarum \"in charge of the great income which accrued to the Emperor from his estates and demesnes (domus or Greek oikoi). He was the head of the curatores, of whom each was in charge of the Emperor's estates in one part of the Empire.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Administrative staff <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. Estates of domis divina4. Diocesian officials5. Provincial officials<br>5. Managers of estates, flocks and herds<br>3. Customs offices<br>2. Magister officiorum\"The magister officiorum was in charge of the departments of protocol and foreign affairs; he was also head of the political police (schola agentium in rebus) and commanded the palace guard.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Chiefs of the palatine bureaux<br>3. scrinium barbarorum and section heads <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. The Master of Audiences<br>3. Agents in rebus\"The magister officiorum was in charge of the departments of protocol and foreign affairs; he was also head of the political police (schola agentium in rebus) and commanded the palace guard.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Inspectors in provinces<br>3. Palace administration<br>3. Senior clerks and staff <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. Public post <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. Arms factories <i>- more than one level</i><br>3. Military billeting<br>3. comes domesticorum<br>3. Tribuni of the Scholae<br>3. Stratores<br>2. Praetorian prefectsAfter reforms of 395 CE the praefectus praetorio \"was given control and administrative authority over all branches of the economy. In this sphere the prefect had the power of unlimited jurisdiction and at the same time he was the highest instance for appeal.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 52) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"Among other duties of the prefect were the supervision of the postal system and of public works, and the control of urban corporations (obligatory guilds), schools, government munitions works, and factories, so far as they were working within the scope of a state monopoly. Similarly, the stores of supplies and arms depots were under his command.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 52) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ praefectus praetorio supervised \"the receipt of the annona. The annona was the delivery-target imposed on the rural districts and was determined by the provisioning needs of the cities and the army. The prefect supervised urban economy through control of prices and the assignments which urban industry had to make to the state (canon vestium).\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 52) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"With the aid of these full powers the prefect was able to build up within the imperium romanum a planned economy similar to the Egyptian one, which had already been working successfully for six centuries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 52) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Central bureaux4?. genike trapeza (department for general inland revenue) under office of praefectus praetorio NOTE: Genike trapeza is a Greek term common only after 7th cent.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§dealt with general taxes §REF§(Haussig 1971, 180) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4?. idike trapeza NOTE: idike trapeza is a Greek term common only after 7th cent.§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§responsible for the collection and checking of revenue. \"The idiki trapeza paid its intake over to the office of the comes rerum privatarum. After the introduction of the theme organization the office of idike trapeza was abolished.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 180-181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Vicarii (Diocesian governors) and staff\"planned economy after the Egypto-Hellenistic model meant above all the abolition of the hitherto existing form of regional government. ... The old large provinces were abolished ... The provinces, combined into twelve larger units, formed so-called dioceses.\" §REF§(Haussig 1971, 55) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. Provincial governors and staff <i>- more than one level</i>6. Officials deputed to cities (praefectus urbis?)\"The lowest unit of administration was then the city (civitas or polis) each with its district (territorium) upon which the assessment and collection of taxes ultimately devolved (Jones 1964:366454; Stein 1968:39-50; Kelly 1998:162-9).\"§REF§(Haldon 2008, 535) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>Is this official the praefectus urbis? \"The setting up of a new business depended upon acceptance into the appropriate gild [systema], membership of which could only be granted with permission of the state authority, in particular the praefectus urbis.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 60) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>7. Assistant/scribe/worker under city officials e.g. local tax official <i>inferred</i><br>8.possibly another city level e.g. local tax official has an assistant, particularly in the bigger cities.<br>Imperial palatine administration c.560.§REF§(Haldon \"after Delmaire 1995\" 2008, 548) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Head of imperial bed-chamber3. primicerius cubiculi4. cubiculariicubiculum (Imperial private chancery) headed by praepostius sacri cubiculi. praepostius sacri cubiculi was the head of the imperial cabinet.§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ members called cubicularri (chamberlains) and secreti (private secretaries)<br>3. decuriones4. silentiarii5. Estates of domus divina and staffs<br>" }, { "id": 320, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>Louis IX (reign 1226-1270 CE) began the rebuilding of the royal palace on Ile de la Cite, which was completed by Philip IV §REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>Philip IV (1284-1314 CE) strongly tried to link ruler-ship to divine origin. Persuaded Pope to posthumously canonise Louis IX.<br>_Central government_<br>Foundations of administrative system laid by Philip II. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 67)§REF§<br>Philip II had \"a small group of close counsellers who held offices with particular, if not always specialized, functions. Philip also employed royal agents in the demesne, and outside, to carry on the routine work of government and to enforce the changes which he introduced./ We speak of departments, and we know of the existence of a chancery and a chamber, but we should be mistaken to see these as entirely separated organizations. Household departments do not emerge until the reign of St Louis, but they were in the process of formation in Philip's time. The close counsellors and the clerks could still move from one area of the administration to another, and often did.../ Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates. Under Philip, one or two magnates held such titles ... But the trend was to pass office, and sometimes title, to more humble men and their professional staff, for example marshals assisting the constables.\"§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.§REF§<br>\"By the reign of Philip II (1180-1223), the Templars were effectively the French royal treasury. During the course of his reign, they increased the revenues from royal estates by 120 per cent, and were heavily involved in Philip's restructuring of Capetian finances. During the thirteenth century, the Templar treasurer in Paris was always a man selected by the king, and the treasurers became trusted advisers to Philip and his successors. ... That the Templars proved themselves to be so successful as bankers is due in no large part to the meticulousness of their records, and their objectivity in dealing with clients. Records survive from the Paris Temple for the period 12 March 1295 to 4 July the following year, and they give a clear indication of how busy the Paris Temple was in its role as banker. ... There were more than 60 active accounts at the Paris Temple during this period, with the account holders being a mixture of royalty, clergy, important nobles and Templar officials.\"§REF§(Martin 2011) Sean Martin. 2011. The Knights Templar. Oldcastle Books.§REF§<br>2. who replaced the senechal at this level?3. Department heads. Finance, Justice, Chancery, Treasury (from Philip IV - previously the treasury was kept by the Knights Templar at their Temple), auditors, law-courts (parlements), archives (muniments in tresor des chartres)Government departments within the Royal Palace, Ile de la City §REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>4. Lesser officials<br>Law courts Parlement De Paris from 1250-1790 CE<br>Philip II used non-noble officers to over-see courts§REF§(Bouchard 1995, 316)§REF§<br><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Leader of semi-autonomous city-state3.4.autonomous urban governments had independent judicial institutions, legal system, and administration and managed its own relations with the church and the monarchy.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)§REF§<br>Some cities were semi-autonomous city-states, e.g. Flanders §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 3)§REF§<br>2. Ruler of appanage3.4.\"Beginning with the sons of Blanche of Castile and Louis VIII (r. 1223-26), apanages became normal in France. By installing their sons as rulers, monarchs could control newly acquired outlying areas, as northern French nobles had long done.\" §REF§(Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 1995, 97)§REF§<br>Apanage: \"province or jurisdiction, or later for an office or annuity, granted (with the reservation that in the absence of direct heirs the land escheated to the crown)\" - often granted to sons of the Capetian king §REF§(Suarez 1995, 97-98)§REF§<br>2. Dukes/Barons/Counts who ruled principalities3. Principalities had capitals with their own mini-government system §REF§(Spufford 2006, 74-76)§REF§4.Example: the Dauphine of Vienne an independent principality (until 1349 CE). Territory from Rhone to The Alps. \"Capital\" city was Vienne. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 165)§REF§<br>Example: Burgundy. Duke of Burgundy had his administration based at Beaune, which moved to Dijon in the 14th century.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 154-155)§REF§<br>\"Between 1120 and 1481, no lord in France is known to have made any regular use of prince as a title of lordship\" §REF§(Boulton 1995, 1430)§REF§<br>3. District: Bailiff in a Bailliage (Northern France); seneschal in a Sénéchiaussée (Southern France)The basic provincial administrative unit of late-medieval France from late in the reign of Philip II§REF§(Henneman 1995, 147)§REF§<br>bailliage and sénéchiaussé were administrative subdivisions of France established by Philip II after 1190.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333)§REF§<br>seneschals of dukes, barons, counts became royal appointees, continued their role as chief administrative officers. the lands under their control became known as sénéchaussées.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§<br>baillis of royal provinces, particularly important under Philip II (1180-1222 CE) §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 10)§REF§<br>late Middle Ages 30-40 districts governed by a bailiff or a seneschal.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§<br>4. Prévôt in a Prévôté.The district for which a prévôt was responsible was called the prévôté, and there were half a dozen of these in each bailliage.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1427-1428)§REF§<br>prévot farmed the revenues of the royal domain and rendered justice at a local level.<br>a \"prevote\" was a military region used in the raising of armed forces (end 12th century)§REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 6)§REF§<br>5. Leader of a parishCities could be divided into parishes §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 4)§REF§" }, { "id": 321, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "cn_yangshao", "long_name": "Yangshao", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Village leader\"Decisions were made based on consensus in each level of organization. Leadership was both achieved and ad hoc.\"§REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§<br>\"Two to five corporate groups made up a village settlement\" §REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§<br>2. Corporate group leader\"Decisions were made based on consensus in each level of organization. Leadership was both achieved and ad hoc.\"§REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§<br>\"About a dozen households formed a corporate group\" §REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§<br>\"The Yangshao society was evidently regulated by egalitarian principles, comparable to the organization of a segmentary society like a tribe. The social organization was also heavily embedded with political functions. A two-level sequential hierarchy in community is expected. Decisions were made based on consensus in each level of organization. Leadership was both achieved and ad hoc. This observation has been confirmed by the strong egalitarian tendency documented in the burial treatment. Nevertheless, Yangshao society became increasingly internally differentiated. Simultaneous hierarchy might have emerged at the terminal period of Yangshao Culture.\" §REF§(Lee in Peregrine and Ember 2001, 336)§REF§" }, { "id": 322, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>King, viceroy, governor, + scribes and other workers.<br><br>\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>\"Shortly after [mid-14th BCE], when Middle Elamite sources reappear, we find a completely different situation from the period of the sukkal-mah. Susa ceased to be the political centre of Elam. The seat of power moved further inland, beyond the mountains, in Anshan (modern Fars). Consequently, Middle Elamite kings began to use the title of 'king of Anshan and Susa.'\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>After mid-14th BCE: \"Finally, the succession was by now patrilineal, a predictable result of that evolution of Elamite society that began in the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Middle Elamite kingdom had more of a \"local character\" compared to the sukkal-mah. \"At the time of the sukkal-mah, the choice of Susa as capital showed a clear intention of becoming a constitutive part of the Mesopotamian political system and of Babylonian culture. Now, however, following a tendency that has been attested in Hatti and Mitanni, Elam strived to maintain its uniqueness, while presenting itself as one of the protagonists in this decidedly polycentric Late Bronze Age Near East.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Neo-Elamite period saw a \"rival of ancient royal names and of the Middle Elamite royal titulature.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 528) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ In Neo-Elamite period this included: \"the ancient titles of 'king (sunkik) of Anshan and Susa', 'master (katri) of Elam', governor (hal-menik, translated as sakkanakku in Akkadian) of Elam', and the title of 'magnifier of the realm'. The latter emphasises the revival of Elamite expansion.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 529) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Public administration flourished under the 2500 years of the strong federated state of Elam, which made significant contributions to Iranian and world civilizations. The organization of the federated state of Elam was based on two pillars, the military and civil administrations, and there was a generally respected separation of these two functions. The civil administration was headed by a coordinating body of appointed functionaries who discharged the administrative responsibilities of the 'federal state' at Susa. The administrative body handled the financial, regulatory, and other civil affairs, and coordinated the intergovernmental relations with the member states in the system. Thus its experience in federalism and intergovernmental relations administration was perhaps the oldest in recorded history\".§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"Among the major administrative achievements of the Elamite Iran were the development and management of a gigantic system of underground irrigation, qanats, an earlier Iranian invention turning an unworked country into an agricultural land; the invention and development of the written language of Elamite and its extensive use in the administration of the federated state; and the construction and maintenance of numerous public enterprises like roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic trade centers with the neighboring states. Elamite Iran was relatively prosperous because of its rich minerals and precious metals, as well as other industries and arts.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"The earliest experiences of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale began around 6000 B.C. in Susa. As one of the oldest sites of ancient civilization, Susa began political and administrative life first as a city-state contemporary and rival to Sumer in the Mesopotamia, then as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam. Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people. The Elamite over-lordship in Susa was the main power of the federated states, the heads of which frequently assembled for political and military purposes. Decision making wa based on equality, and cooperation was key to the coordinated system of government in a federal structure.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 323, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Six for Abbasid Caliphate. Coding 5 as \"placeholder.\"<br>Reference for Abbasid Caliphate: In Iraq and Egypt local government was divided into a hierarchy of districts with the subdivisions (Kura, Tassuj and rustag) used for assessing taxation which was passed to the governor.§REF§Lapidus, History of Islamic Society, p.61§REF§<br>1. Governor (- 939 CE) al-Ikshid (939 CE -)<br>\"In 939 the caliph even acceded to Muhammed Ibn Tughj's demand to be given the title al-Ikshid, held by rulers in the Farghana region of Central Asia whence his grandfather had come.\" §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Treaty of 886 CE Abbasids \"granted the governorship of Egypt to Khumarawayh and his descendants for a period of thirty years.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Treaty of 939 CE Abbasids \"granted to the Ikshid and his heirs governorship over Egypt and Syria for thirty years\" §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br><br>2. Vizier §REF§(Raymond 2000, 35)§REF§<br>2. Financial director (until 871 CE)\"After becoming governor, Ibn Tulun had to struggle for several years with the power of Ibn al-Muddabir, financial director of Egypt since 861 and answerable only to the caliph.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 324, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. This number is equal to the number of levels in both the provincial government and the outer court, plus the Khan.<br>1. Khan<br>inscription discovered at an ancestral temple in Inner Mongolia shows early Tuoba Xianbei rulers used the title \"Khan.\" However, this inscription was written in Chinese characters. §REF§(Holcombe 2011, 66-67)§REF§<br>the guoren was initially the ruling clan then later \"widened to include the elites of many of the defeated peoples.\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 73)§REF§<br>_Central court_<br>At this time the typical post-Han central government bureaucracy consisted of a Royal Secretariat (shangshu tai), which had boards headed by presidents (shangshu). This later became a Department of State Affairs (shangshu sheng). §REF§(Xiong 2009, 182)§REF§<br>_Inner Court_<br>Political and military power concentrated in the \"inner court\" which was almost totally made up of Xianbei. Inner court made decisions in consultation with the king. Some powerful officials called directors (ling) could function simultaneously in both inner and outer courts. §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.63-64)§REF§<br>2. Chancellory, lead by shizhong (Palace Attendant)Had direct access to king as a companion/advisor. §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.64-65)§REF§<br>3.<br>_Outer Court_<br>Department of State Affairs§REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§<br>At the central court the Chinese style Department of State Affairs along with the Secretariat (less so regarding the Chancellory) were mostly manned by Chinese courtiers in what has been referred to as the Northern Wei \"outer court\", though, the highest ranking members of the Department of State Affairs could very well be Xianbei.\"§REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.63)§REF§<br>2. Board of works §REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§ lead by a president (shangshu) §REF§(Xiong 2009, 182)§REF§or lead by (Xianbei) directors? - is this same thing?<br>3. Qibu (Bureau of Works) lead by a ?Northern Wei: \"Bureau of Works, under the Board of Works.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§<br>4. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>5. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>2. Qibing (Board of War)§REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§ lead by a president (shangshu) §REF§(Xiong 2009, 182)§REF§or lead by (Xianbei) directors? - is this same thing?<br>3. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>4. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>5. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>2. Other boards (Justice, Personnel, Revenue, Rites)<br>3. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>4. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>5. lower levels, scribes etc?<br>_Capital District_<br>Pingcheng Capital District (dianfu)§REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.65-66)§REF§<br>2. Inner Capital District (jinei) - Eight Councillors (babu diafu)§REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.65-66)§REF§<br>3. Outer Capital District (jiwai) - Eight Chieftains (babu dashuai)§REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.65-66)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"Matsushita Kennichi has pointed out the existence of very early Northern Wei offices of Northern Chief and Southern Chief (beibu daren, nanbu daren) appointed directly by the throne and charged with maintaining surveillance over re-located tribal peoples in the Sang'gan river basin and its environs. Matsushita argues that this system remained in place from 386-398, and following the establishment of Pingcheng as the Northern Wei capital, was subsequently supplanted by the more elaborate arrangement of the Eight Councillors and Eight Chieftains. However, the administrative bailiwick remained the same and was later directly absorbed by the Northern and Southern Boards.\" §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.67)§REF§<br>2. Northern Board (beibu) - Director of Northern Board (beibu shangshu)Northern Board (beibu) and Southern Board (nanbu). Director of Southern Board (nanbu shangshu). Four out of twelve of the heads were Chinese, whereas all the Directors of Northern Board were Xianbei. §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.67)§REF§<br>\"Northern Wei did not have have standard Chinese style administrative units on its northern borders until the reign of Xiaowendi and later - these areas tended to be governed by garrison commanders. \" §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.66)§REF§<br>2. Southern Board (nanbu) - Director of Southern Board (nanbu shangshu)Northern Board (beibu) and Southern Board (nanbu). Four out of twelve of the heads were Chinese, whereas all the Directors of Northern Board were Xianbei. §REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.67)§REF§<br>\"Until 493 the Northern Wei regime formally functioned as an apartheid conquest dynasty. Conquered Chinese areas were generally left to be governed by customary law and inherited Chinese administrative institutions, but these local and provincial structures were assigned as many as two levels of Xianbei surveillance officials placed at all levels (Yan Yaozhong 1990, 77-83). Thus a prefect's office could very well comprise could very well comprise a member of a local elite Chinese family (the rule of avoidance was not strictly adhered to at this time), a Xianbei official, and, if the Xianbei official was not fluent in spoken or written Chinese, a Chinese courtier from the central court would be present as well.\"§REF§(Eisenberg, A. 2008. Kingship in Early Medieval China. BRILL. p.63)§REF§<br>3. Zhou (prefecture) headed by a mu or cishi (prefect) §REF§(Xiong 2009, 686)§REF§\"prefectures, headed by a mu or cishi (prefect). In the post-Western Jin era, the zhou and jun were greatly reduced in size ... So \"prefecture\" in lieu of \"province\" is used to translate zhou while \"commandery\" in lieu of \"region\" is used to translate jun. From Han to Six Dynasties, the zhou (province or prefecture) served as the highest-level local government, above the jun (region or commandery).\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, 686-687)§REF§<br>4. Jun (commandery)§REF§(Xiong 2009, 106, 182)§REF§ lead by a governor §REF§(Xiong 2009, 675)§REF§\"In the post-Western Jin era, the zhou and jun were greatly reduced in size ... \"commandery\" in lieu of \"region\" is used to translate jun. From Han to Six Dynasties, the zhou (province or prefecture) served as the highest-level local government, above the jun (region or commandery).\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, 686-687)§REF§<br>5. Xian (county) headed by a ling (magistrate)§REF§(Xiong 2009, 564, 182)§REF§During the Han to Six Dynasties period the xian was the \"lowest of the tri-level system (zhou [provinces or prefectures], jun [regions or commanderies], and xian [counties]), headed by a magistrate (ling). §REF§(Xiong 2009, 564)§REF§<br>_Three Chiefs System from 486 CE_<br>\"A system of mutual surveillance to facilitate tax collection ad fulfillment of corvee and military duties. Proposed by Li Chong ..., it was first promulgated in Northern Wei in 486 in the name of Xiaowendi. Replacing the system of clan masters (zongzhu ...) at the grassroots level, it organized every five households into units known as lin (neighbourhoods). Five lin constituted a li ... (village), and five li, a dang ... (community). The heads (zhang) of lin, li, and dang were the three chiefs.\" §REF§(Xiong 2009, 501)§REF§ Also known as the Taihe reforms. §REF§(Dardess, J W. 2010. Governing China: 150-1850. Hackett Publishing. p.14)§REF§<br>6. dang (community) lead by a zhang (chief)Constituted 125 households (five li) §REF§(Xiong 2009, 501)§REF§ perhaps 750 people<br>7. li (village) lead by a zhang (chief)Constituted 25 households (five lin) §REF§(Xiong 2009, 501)§REF§ perhaps 150 people<br>8. lin (neighbourhoods) lead by a zhang (chief)Constituted five households §REF§(Xiong 2009, 501)§REF§ perhaps 30 people?<br>_Subject peoples (self-governing)_<br>2. Xianbei were among other northern people \"subject to the Wei rulers\" who \"continued to speak their ancestral languages\" and remained herders.§REF§(Graff 2002, 97)§REF§<br>2. Erzhu clan allied with government to suppress 526-527 CE rebellions. Previously part of the Xiongnu tribal confederacy. They were living under \"their own tribal organization\" a pastoral lifestyle. Early 6th century estimated at 8,000 families. Possessed cattle, sheep, camels and horses, \"counted by the valley\" due to the vastness of their stocks. §REF§(Graff 2002, 100-101)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 325, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "'Chinese was the basis of government, both ideal and practical. A bureaucratic system carefully modeled after that of the T'ang and referred to by historians as the \"statutory\" (ritsuryo) regime had reached its apogee in the eighth century. By the beginning of the Heian era, the system had already begun to evolve in new directions; by the beginning of the tenth century, although the conception and rhetoric of Confucian government remained, as did its forms and usages, many of its functions were being carried out by other means. Aristocrats and their clients competed for office, empty or not, within its bureaucracy. Chinese provided the medium for the memorials, decrees, codes, administrative regulations, ordinances, commands, communications, and certificates by which the government functioned. §REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.342-343§REF§ :'At first, strong emperors used the established bureaucratic machinery to administer the country. This was a continuation of Nara-style administration and lasted until about 850. Subsequently there was a period of two centuries during which the Fujiwara family dominated the court and governed through puppet emperors. This meant that administration paid at least as much attention to narrow Fujiwara family concerns as to broad national interests. §REF§Mason, Richard Henry Pitt. 1997. A History of Japan: Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing.p.64§REF§<br>'Down through the administrative structure - from the heads of offices around the emperor to those in charge of local offices in distant regions - ran a hierarchy of office titles and ranks. Heads of the highest offices held the title of director (kami) who had assistants (suke), secretaries (jo), and clerks (sakan). (These four office titles were written with different characters but pronounced in the same way when held by officials serving in different ministries and agencies.) According to the Yoro adminstrative code of 718, the number of officials in the two councils and eight ministries totaled 331. If lower-ranking officials are added, the total was 6,487. Ranks provided a more precise indication of status than titles did, for officeholders with the same title had different ranks yielding different stipends and perquisites. The Taiho code set aside four imperial ranks (hon) for princes and near relatives of the emperor and thirty court ranks (kurai) for persons lower in the aristocratic order. The son or grandson of a nobleman holding the highest imperial rank was automatically awarded a junior fifth rank lower grade court rank when he reached the age of twenty-one. Special treatment for anyone with a fifth rank or above - apart from the rights that their sons had to a high rank when they turned twenty-one, irrespective of ability - is revealed by the generous stipends and retainers they received'§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.236§REF§ 'The structure of the imperial court was a complex affair. The following chart depicts the basic outline, but each division and ministry contained a hierarchy of officials. Some divisions also included subdivisions. Despite the formality of this structure, the operation and functionality of any particular ministry fluctuated depending on the particular time period. There were also aristocratic families who came to dominate a particular court function through the use of heredity.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.89§REF§<br><b>5.Emperor </b>'At the apex of the structure was the emperor, whose will was expressed in decrees (mikotonori) and edicts (semmyo). Important decisions, such as those pertaining to appointments and promotions of high-ranking officials, were recommended at meetings of the Council of State but were carried out only with imperial approval. The two codes placed no limitations on imperial authority, thus giving the emperor, legally at least, despotic control. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.232-233§REF§<br><b>4[a]. Council of Kami Affairs</b>'Under the emperor were two councils that had equal standing: the Council of State, generally overseeing secular affairs, and the Council of Kami Affairs, running affairs in the area of kami worship. Although the two councils were organizationally at the same level, the Council of State's highest minister (the chancellor) held a higher rank than did the highest official of the Council of Kami Affairs. But the chancellor also had some responsibilities that lay outside the bounds of secular administration: He served as the emperor's guide and teacher and was given the task of harmonizing movements of the world with Chinese principles of yin and yang.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>4[b]. Council of State</b>'Under the emperor were two councils that had equal standing: the Council of State, generally overseeing secular affairs, and the Council of Kami Affairs, running affairs in the area of kami worship. Although the two councils were organizationally at the same level, the Council of State's highest minister (the chancellor) held a higher rank than did the highest official of the Council of Kami Affairs. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>4[b].1. Chancellor</b>the chancellor also had some responsibilities that lay outside the bounds of secular administration: He served as the emperor's guide and teacher and was given the task of harmonizing movements of the world with Chinese principles of yin and yang.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>3[a] Minister of the Left</b><b>3.1[a] Central affairs</b>’The Ministry of Central Affairs (the Nakatsukasa-sho) ranked above all other ministries and was the main link between the emperor and the Council of State. Its minister gave advice on numerous court matters, supervised the court chamberlains, and drafted imperial edicts. Under him were ten secretariats, including the Secretariat for the Empress's Household (Chugushiki).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.2[a] The Ministry of Personnel</b>'The Ministry of Personnel(Shikibu-sho) supervised personnel affairs. Within it were two important bureaus: one for higher learning (Daigaku-ryo) and another for nobles who held a court rank but occupied no office (Sammi-ryo).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.3[a] Civil affairs</b>‘The Ministry of Civil Affairs (Jibu-sho) had two important bureaus: one for Buddhist priests and nuns and aliens (Gemba-ryo) and another for court music (Gagaku-ryo).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.4.[a] Popular affairs</b>‘The Ministry of Popular Affairs (Mimbu-sho) was responsible for administering household registers, taxes, irrigation, paddy fields, and the budget.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b] Minister of the Right </b><b>3[b].1 The Ministry of War</b>‘The Ministry of War (Hyobu-sho) took care of personnel matters pertaining to soldiers and other military affairs.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].2 The Ministry of Justice</b>‘The Ministry of Justice (Gyobu-sho) handled legal affairs.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].3 Treasury</b>‘The Ministry of the Treasury (Okura-sho) dealt with state property, weights and measures, prices, and related matters.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].4 Imperial household</b>‘The Ministry of the Imperial Household (Kunai-sho) managed food, clothing, and personnel problems of the imperial household. Inside each ministry were several, often several tens of, administrative organs of three types: secretariats (shiki), bureaus (ryo), and offices (tsukasa)’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>2.Four senior counselors</b>'Below the chancellor, the minister of the left, and the minister of the right were four senior counselors. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.233-234§REF§<br><b>1 Council of State's three departments</b>‘Under these six men were the heads of three administrative offices, referred to as the Council of State's three departments: the Department of Junior Counselors (Shonagonkan), the Department of the Controller of the Left (Sabenkan), and the Department of the Controller of the Right (Ubenkan). The first included three junior counselors authorized to serve as custodians of the imperial and Council of State seals, and the last two were responsible for transmitting imperial orders (senji), distributing orders issued by the Council of State (kampu), and handling communications between the council and its eight ministries.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>1.1 the Department of Junior Counselors (Shonagonkan)</b><br><b>1.2 the Department of the Controller of the Left (Sabenkan)</b><br><b>1.3 the Department of the Controller of the Right (Ubenkan)</b><br>_Other offices_<br>‘Outside the ministerial structure were a number of important boards and administrative units’§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>Censors</b><br>‘the Board of Censors (Danjodai) that was engaged in exposing the illegal activities of officials and upholding standards of correct bureaucratic behaviour.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>Guard units</b><br>‘there were the headquarters of the various guard units, beginning with the five that guarded the imperial palace: the gate guards (emon-fu), the left guards (saeji-fu), the right guards (neji-fu), the left military guards (sahyoe-fu), and the right military guards (uhyoe-fu). The central government had, in addition, a right and left bureau of cavalry and a right and left bureau of armories. Other offices outside the eight ministries included two that were responsible for the left and right sectors of the capital.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.235§REF§<br><b>Capital section Dazaifu</b><br>‘ Organs of government outside the capital included, first of all, the Dazai headquarters (Dazai-fu) located near the harbor of Na in Kyushu from which the nine provinces of Kyushu, as well as the islands of Iki and Tsushima, were administered. Each of the country's sixty or more provinces 16 was headed by a governor who usually had under him ten or more districts headed by district supervisors. Each district contained between two and twenty villages (sato) made up of fifty households each. A governor was appointed for a six-year term, but the district supervisors, usually selected from the local gentry, had no fixed term of office. The Taiho administrative code contained no<br>articles dealing with village heads, but it is assumed that they were influential farmers.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.235§REF§" }, { "id": 326, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>Had a retinue of military/legal assistants<br>2. Tribal chiefTribes<br>3. Clan chiefPagus (Clan) / Family group §REF§(Collis 2003, 195)§REF§<br>Galatians, who migrated to Asia minor 279 BCE, also provide a possible insight into Gaulish social structure as they were closely observed by the Greeks. Chieftains (called a tetrach by the Greeks) lead each of the tribes each of which were divided into clans. Supra-tribal level of cooperation: the clans of all the tribes together appointed 300 senators \"to attend an annual assembly at a shrine.\" However they were rarely unified and eventually the chieftains became kings. The chieftains \"were assisted by three military advisers and a judge.\"§REF§(Allen 2007, 79-80)§REF§<br>\"At its lowest level, Celtic society was made up of extended families or clans that were grouped together to form territorially based tribes.\" If Ireland is representative, 3 levels of hierarchy: 1. family unit = fine. 2. five family units = clan. A number of clans in the same region = 3. tuath (tribe) ruled by a king.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 62)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 327, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. Caliph (tribal Patriarch, head of the Umma)<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. \"in Mu'awiya's time, the caliph was surrounded by Arab chiefs.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M Lapidus. 2012. 'The Caliphate to 750.' <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§3. \"in Mu'awiya's time, the caliph was surrounded by Arab chiefs. Now [i.e. some time after Mu'awiya] a chamberlain kept visitors in order and regulated daily business.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M Lapidus. 2012. 'The Caliphate to 750.' <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§4. office of the Chancery staffed by professionals.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M Lapidus. 2012. 'The Caliphate to 750.' <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§5. ... ? ...<br>\"Under the Arab domination the East Roman civil servants continued to work for the government. The Byzantine theologian, John of Damascus, belonged to the well-known family of Mansur and under the first Umayyad Caliph Muawiya the financial administration of the Caliph had been controlled by Sarjun ibn Mansur. These Christians, formerly in the service of the East Roman exchequer, carried through vital financial reforms for the Caliphs. As the East Romans had done in the case of the great imperial army, they divided up the Arab tribes into separate katasters which registered all members of each particular tribe. ... They also had the idea of departing from Byzantine precedent which divided the land among the soldiers and settled them on it as military farmers. But they grouped them together in strongholds which were set up in districts which could supply their economic needs. Thus military establishments were placed in Kufa, Basra and Cairo (al-Fustat) because the troops garrisoned in these places could easily be provisioned from the fertile and highly developed countryside.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 210) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _<br>2. Amel (civilian governor) and Amir (military governor)\"In the early years after the Islamic conquest both “civil” governors (ʿāmels) and military governors (amīrs) were appointed over towns and districts as circumstances demanded.\" §REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>Regional military governors (members of Arab tribal coalition). Mu'awiya (661-680 CE) \"appointed regional governors over tribal army but did not create a \"centralized government apparatus\" §REF§(Lapidus 2013, 80-90)§REF§<br>Prefects sent from Damascus administered Egypt. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 17)§REF§<br>The Egyptian capital had a governor.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 17)§REF§<br>3?. Local rulers of Sasanid/Byzantine regionsfor example, the \"shahr\" district under Sasanids had a \"king\" appointed by the King of Kings.<br>In the Umayyad period did this official report directly to the caliph's regional governors or to the caliph himself?<br>4?. Head administrator of local governmentE.g. Sasanid local government was run by a shahrab and a mowbed and often an accountant.<br>5?. Official of a rustagReported to the local government bureaucracy?<br>6?. village headman<br>It is important to make a distinction between the central government line and provincial line in the administrative hierarchy of the Umayyad Caliphate.<br>The central government line was non-existent at the beginning and was in a developing stage in the mid-8th century, so there was low administrative hierarchy in the central government throughout this period. However, the provincial line of government was extremely well-developed from the start because the Muslim-Arabs retained the bureaucracies of the Sasanids and Byzantines, and in fact also kept their administrators.<br>According to Lapidus: the Muslim-Arabs: \"Reconstructed the governing apparatuses of the Byzantine and Sasanid empires.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2013, 55)§REF§<br>One could therefore speculate the Caliph replaced the Sasanid provincial governors (the Shahrabs) with his own military chiefs and kept the e.g. Sasanid bureaucracy below it intact. In Iraq this may have been a Sasanid district called a shahr, which had its own chief or king and a government (further levels of complexity). A division within a shahr was called a rustag. There was a further division below this called a \"deh\" run by a village headman. §REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135)§REF§<br>The Abbasids who followed the Umayyad's formalised a \"hierarchy of districts\" in Iraq, Iran and Egypt including the bottom unit called \"rustag.\" The Sasanids who preceded the Umayyads also had a \"rustag.\"<br>" }, { "id": 328, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 373§REF§.<br>_Central or court government_<br>2. Council of MinistersThe king also had a hierarchical central bureaucracy - he was assisted in the task of administration by a council of ministers, appointed by him, as well as by chief treasurer, custodians of the jewels, an officer who looked after the commercial interests of the State, the prefect of the police, the chief master of the horse etc§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 373-4§REF§.<br>2. Chief treasurerEach viceroy was required to submit regular accounts of the income and expenditure of his charge to the central government§REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 374§REF§<br>3.4.5.<br>2. Custodian of the jewels<br>2. Prefect of the police<br>2. Chief master of the horse<br>2. MahanayakacharyaThe King maintained a link with the village administration through his officer called the Mahanayakacharya, who exercised a general supervision over it. §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 375§REF§.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Viceroy, nayaka or naik - in each province §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 374§REF§.3. Civil (e.g. treasury), military, judicial officials at department head level <i>inferred</i>Each viceroy exercised civil, military and judicial power within his jurisdiction, but he was required to submit regular accounts of the income and expenditure of his charge to the central government and render it military aid in times of need §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 374§REF§<br>4. Accountant (income, expenditure, tax receipts etc) <i>inferred</i>5. Assistant/scribe <i>inferred</i><br>3. Village officers.Villages were the lowest unit of local administration. Each village was a self-sufficient unit. The village assembly conducted the administration of the area under its charge (executive, judicial and police) through its hereditary officers like the senateova or the village accountant, the talara or the village watchman or commandant, the begara or the superintendent of forced labor, and others. These village officers were paid either by grants of land or a portion of agricultural produce. The King maintained a link with the village administration through his officer called the Mahanayakacharya, who exercised a general supervision over it. §REF§R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 375§REF§.<br>4. Senateova<br>4. Village accountant<br>4. talara (village watchman or commandant)<br>4. begara (superintendent of forced labor)<br>" }, { "id": 329, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Inferred from previous polity.<br>1. Governor >>> King<br>\"Mummadi Singeya Nayaka, the governor of Kummata (Bellary District) was an important feudatory chief under Narashima.\"§REF§(Patel 2001, 27) Patel, Radha M. 2001. Life and times of Hoysala Narasimha III. University of Mysore. Prasaranga.§REF§ Narashima was a king of the Hoysala Kingdom.§REF§(Patel 2001) Patel, Radha M. 2001. Life and times of Hoysala Narasimha III. University of Mysore. Prasaranga.§REF§<br>Under the Hoysalas, the administration of the provinces was just the replica of the central administration. The governors charged both civil and military functions. They were made responsible not only for the peace, tranquility, law and order, but also for efficient administration§REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 124§REF§<br>_Central administration_<br>2.Under the Hoysalas, the king was assisted in administration by his ministers: <i>Sandhivigrahi</i> was the foreign minister, <i>Sarvadhikari</i> was an official with powers to supervise all departments, <i>Bahataaraniyogadhipati</i> was an official who headed 72 departments, <i>Mahabhandari</i> was the senior treasurer, and <i>Dharmadhikari</i> was the minister of justice. <i>Paramavishvasi</i> or personal secretary of the king and <i>Mahapasayita</i> or chief master of the robes were other senior officials. At times, these officials held their office hereditarily. The ministers also held military office§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 137§REF§<br>Under the Hoysalas, \"The Governors had a number of officers under their control. They were Pergades or heggades, Sunkaverggade, Manikya Bhandri Manneya Nadagavunda, Gaunda, Senabaova, etc. The Pergades were officers entrusted with the task of managing the revenues of the state and also of general administration.\"§REF§(Patel 2001, 42) Patel, Radha M. 2001. Life and times of Hoysala Narasimha III. University of Mysore. Prasaranga.§REF§<br>3.4.<br>_Regional administration_<br>2. Town leader? Town had a Nagara assembly.Within the Hoysala Kingdom \"Like the village, town also maintained an assembly know as Nagara\"§REF§(Patel 2001, 45) Patel, Radha M. 2001. Life and times of Hoysala Narasimha III. University of Mysore. Prasaranga.§REF§<br>3. Village leader? Village had a Nagara assembly<br>4. SenabovaWithin the Hoysala Kingdom \"The senabova also drafted the text of epigraphical records. We have many instances where senabova was the author of epigraphs. In short the presence of the senabova was essential in important activities of the village.\"§REF§(Patel 2001, 47) Patel, Radha M. 2001. Life and times of Hoysala Narasimha III. University of Mysore. Prasaranga.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 330, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>_Court_<br>2. <i>Yuvaraja</i> (Crown Prince)<br>\"The Yuvaraja usually stayed at the capital, helping the king in the discharge of administrative duties and occasionally accompanying the king in military expeditions\" §REF§S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 377§REF§.<br>2. Council of Ministers<br>\"[T]o judge from the contemporary evidence, it is clear that the ministry must have consisted of the prime minister, the foreign minister, the revenue minister, the treasurer, the chief justice, the commander-in-chief, and the Purohita or royal chaplain\" §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 358§REF§<br>_Provincial Government_<br>2. <i>Rashtrapatis</i>In charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of <i>rashtras</i>, made up of the equivalent of four or five modern-day Indian districts §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§.<br>3. <i>Vishayapatis</i>In charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of vishayas, the equivalent of modern-day Indian districts §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§.<br>3. <i>Nadgavundas</i> or <i>Desagramakutas</i>Hereditary revenue officers in charge of aiding the Vishayapatis and Bhogapatis with the fiscal administration of their territories §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§.<br>4. <i>Bohgapatis</i>In charge of the military, fiscal and civil administration of \"<i>tashils</i>\" §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§, presumably the equivalent of modern Indian <i>tehsils</i> or sub-districts.<br>5. Village headmenResponsible for maintaining law and order in villages and for the \"collection of the village revenues and their payment into the royal treasury and granaries §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 361§REF§.<br>6. Village accountantsAids to the village headmen §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§.<br>7. Sub-accountants §REF§S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 378§REF§.<br>6. Village assemblies20-30 elected persons divided into sub-committees, each sub-committee dedicated \"to a specific department like the village tank, the village temple, roads. The village assembly also received deposits on trust endowments from private individuals to be utilised for specific public works. Civil suits were decided by the village councils which had also jurisdiction over petty criminal cases\" §REF§S.N. Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (1999), p. 378§REF§.<br>" }, { "id": 331, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Elder<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§. High status burials known after 300 BCE§REF§(Iseminger 2010, 23-25) Iseminger, W R. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston.§REF§ would perhaps suggest some leadership, possibly kin group leaders.<br>" }, { "id": 332, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§(Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95)§REF§<br>1. Chief (?)<br>2. Elde. kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 333, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -999, "year_to": -600, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"At the smallest and least complex (in terms of population, geographic scale and decision-making arrangements) end of this continuum, chiefs with limited decision-making prerogatives probably presided over single settlements. In larger examples, more powerful leaders based in larger centers likely exerted varying degrees of control over multiple and varying numbers of settlements. Finally, at the most complex end of this continuum, paramount chiefs ruling from large regional centers with lesser chiefs as political subordinates dominated even larger polities containing numerous settlements and substantial populations. In the present context it seems most likely that chiefdoms of the first type were prevalent during the earlier phases of the Iron Age, with those of the latter two types developing with increasing frequency as time passed.\"§REF§R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61, pp. 253-302§REF§<br>_Early in period_<br>1. Chief<br>_Later in period_<br>1. Paramount chief<br>2. Lesser chief<br><br>\"The disparities of scale, design, and materials in megalithic mortuary preparation and associated grave goods demonstrate differential access to labor and a variety of goods and resources that strongly suggest significant differences in social rank within Iron Age settlement communities\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§. However, few sources offers an explicit description of the social and political hierarchy of the time, as \"the study of variation among megalithic cemeteries has been beset by low-sample sizes of well-documented excavated interments and by a remarkable paucity of radiometric dates\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§.<br>\"Among the material changes documented in the Iron Age archaeological record are more complex and labor-intensive settlement designs, new mortuary practices, the production and consumption of a range of new slipped and polished ceramic wares as well as iron tools, weapons, and hardware. Most notably, there was significant transformation in the organization of social relations during the Iron Age that produced tangible social differences and inequalities.\"§REF§(Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0).§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 334, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "Before the Roman Principate there was no formal bureaucracy. The state treasury of the Roman Republic was kept in the custody of the priesthood inside the temple of Saturn, and was managed by elected aristocratic officials called quaestors.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ In the period of the Roman Principate state revenues were stored in an imperial treasury (fiscus) under the direct control of an Emperor.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ The fiscus, created by Augustus, brought to power a new class of officials whom, like the Emperor's chief financial official the rationibus, were typically freedmen. The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed consilium (advisory councils) that were often made up of freedmen and personal slaves.<br>1. Emperor<br>\"... in 30 BC, Octavian was left in sole control of the Roman empire. As the first Roman emperor, he created a new system of government, taking the name Augustus ('Revered One').\"§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 34)§REF§<br>\"Augustus, like all wealthy Romans, employed procurators, agents of the freedman class, in the administration of his private fortune.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§ The “imperial” power under Augustus emerges as a sum of various offices from the tradition of the Republic combined in the hand of one man, who became the “princeps”§REF§(Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)§REF§<br>\"The rise of the freedman class is one of the most striking social phenomena of the first century of the Empire. higher degree of the freedmen of the Emperor.\" §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§2. Imperial Chamberlain<br>_ Central government_<br>2. Imperial Bureau (scrinia) e.g. financial chief (a rationibus)\"The power of the imperial freedmen centred in the first century round the great imperial bureaux (scrinia), the 'ab epistulis/' a libellis,' 'a studiis,' and the great financial post of 'a rationibus.'\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[6]</a>)§REF§<br>old State treasury (aerarium Saturni), new imperial treasury (fiscus). the fiscus created a \"new class of officials\" \"'a rationibus' down to Hadrian's time was normally a freedman\" §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[7]</a>)§REF§<br>3. Salaried officials and scribes (ab epistulis, a libellis, a studiis)\"The main items of expenditure were the maintenance of the army, the expenses of provincial government, the salaries of officials, the corn-supply and police of Rome, the maintenance of religion, the building of temples and other public works, and the public roads and aqueducts.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[8]</a>)§REF§<br>4. Financial officials 'praefecti classis,' 'procurators hereditatium,' 'patrimonii'\"Freedmen occur in the first century as 'praefecti classis,' 'procurators hereditatium,' 'patrimonii,' etc., whereas after Hadrian knights take their place.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[9]</a>)§REF§<br>5. lower administrators and assistants and servile workers\"The class on which the Emperors mainly depended for the supply of their financial officials was that of the knights ... \"after Hadrian, they practically monopolized all but those of subordinate importance\" however before Hadrian imperial freedman had a more influence and could aspire to the top posts.§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[10]</a>)§REF§<br>2. Official related to aerarium militarespecial military chest founded by Augustus (aerarium militare) §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[11]</a>)§REF§<br>2. Official related to patrimoniumthe Emperor's purse (patrimonium) §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[12]</a>)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Provincial governors§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 38)§REF§ of Senatorial provinces (quaestors)Senatorial and Imperial provinces. In 27 BCE provinces divided between Emperor and Senate. \"The old system of quaestors might be continued in the senatorial provinces; but in the imperial, the financial officer must be no magistrate, but a deputy, depending on the Emperor and on him alone.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[13]</a>)§REF§<br>\"Whilst in the senatorial provinces we still find quaestors, working under the supervision of the proconsuls, in the imperial there appear procurators of the Emperor, subordinate to, yet not directly dependent on, the legates.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[14]</a>)§REF§<br>2. Provincial governors§REF§(Pollard and Berry 2012, 38)§REF§ of Imperial provinces (procurator Augusti)\"Whilst in the senatorial provinces we still find quaestors, working under the supervision of the proconsuls, in the imperial there appear procurators of the Emperor, subordinate to, yet not directly dependent on, the legates.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[15]</a>)§REF§<br>Senatorial and Imperial provinces. In 27 BCE provinces divided between Emperor and Senate. \"The old system of quaestors might be continued in the senatorial provinces; but in the imperial, the financial officer must be no magistrate, but a deputy, depending on the Emperor and on him alone.\"§REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[16]</a>)§REF§<br>\"The procuratorships of provinces were posts of high trust and importance, and Augustus must have seen that they could not well be entrusted to freedmen. He therefore limited the latter to the subordinate positions, and entrusted the head posts to men of equestrian rank, whose superior position was reflected in the title of 'procurator Augusti,' in contrast to the purely private 'procurator.' The fact of this change is certain, but some details of its institution remain obscure.\" However, freedman \"occasionally\" attained the procuratorship of a province. §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[17]</a>)§REF§3.. Decurions, local magistratesin 1 CE Decurions were required to be at least 25 years old and meet a property qualification of 'HS 100,000'. There was also an entrance fee. §REF§(Donahue, 2004, 93 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yWhLOa-ZrYEC&dq=principate+local+magistrate&source=gbs_navlinks_s\" rel=\"nofollow\">[18]</a>)§REF§.<br>4. vici magistri (village headmen)<br>2. Client Kingdoms<br>_Egyptian government_<br>2. PrefectAppointed by Rome§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>3. ProcuratorsAppointed by Rome§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>Includes finance officer dioiketes (and other department heads)<br>4. EpistrategoiAppointed by Rome§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>Regional administrator, 4 in total<br>5. StrategosAppointed by Greco-Egyptians§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>30 in total<br>5. AccountantAppointed by Greco-Egyptians§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>auditor of the nome<br>6. District scribeAppointed by Greco-Egyptians§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>7. Village scribeAppointed by Greco-Egyptians§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>8. Village EldersElected or co-opted§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>9. LiturgistsCompulsory public service§REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King<br>The term \"Pharaoh\" as political title emerged in the New Kingdom. In earlier times \"Pharaoh\" means literally what the Egyptian phrase does i.e. \"great house.\"<br>\"head of state and the topmost administrator of Egypt\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§<br>\"royal centers like the Hwt-aAt, the towers swnw, and the agricultural domains of the crown nwt mAwt(literally “the new localities”) continued to dot the Egyptian landscape and helped to assert the presence of the king’s authority, in a formal way\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 196)§REF§<br>_ Central government (150 people + families) _ §REF§(EWA, Sept 2014)§REF§<br>2. Vizier\"Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, fewer members of the royal family remained in high managerial posts, and a consolidation of administrative power took place around Egypt's highest civilian bureaucrat, namely the vizier, beginning in the Fifth Dynasty.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§3. Department heads\"the vizier oversaw the entire state administrative system and his office maintained direct and unrestricted control over a range of entities, such as granaries and treasuries, until the appearance of specialized departments sometime in the Fifth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§<br>4. Sub-department heads\"Administrative units, such as granaries, and treasuries (which included commodity management sub-departments) §REF§(Papazian 2013, 58)§REF§<br>5. Granary complex§REF§(Papazian 2013, 60)§REF§ head (inferred)snw.t refers to an individual storage silo, or granary complex §REF§(Papazian 2013, 60)§REF§<br>6. Assistant-directors of the granary (hry-tp snw.t) §REF§(Papazian 2013, 66)§REF§<br>7. Scribes / Other employeesBaker (rth), brewer ('fty), miller (ndw.t), tallier (nht-hrw), foreman, \"inspector of custodians of granary property\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 66-67)§REF§<br>Scribal hierarchy§REF§(Papazian 2013, 78)§REF§<br>3. Overseers of controllers of the scribes4. Controllers (hrp)5 scribal overseers (imy-r3)6. scribal inspectors (shd)7. scribal under-supervisors (imy-h.t)<br><br>4. Kom el-Hisn cattle center §REF§(Papazian 2013, 48)§REF§(administrator in charge of this)5. State farmers<br>_Crew system used to organize labour_<br>1. Leader of the crew<br>\"In the Old Kingdom, a crew was made up of two gangs\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>2. Leader of a gang\"In the Old Kingdom... a gang was divided into four or five phyles\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>3. Leader of a phyle\"In the Old Kingdom... each phyle had four divisions of about 10 men each, although this number could vary (Roth, 1991). Hence, the total labour force in a crew could well reach 400 men, possibly even more.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>4. Foreman of a division\"In the Middle Kingdom, the most frequent sizes of a division (including one foreman) were 10, 14 and 20 (Gardiner et al., 1952, 1955; Mueller, 1975; Simpson, 1963, 1965, 1969, 1986). However, there were smaller division sizes of 9 and 4, with two supervisors combined into one larger division (Griffith, 1898).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>\"It would appear that prior to the Fifth Dynasty the existence of a cohesive multi-tiered administration for granaries is not borne out by the evidence, due perhaps to a paucity of the sources, but more likely to the fact that granary management, being carried out by the vizier's office, may have lacked distinguishable traits. A hierarchical bureaucracy sets in only during the latter parts of the Old Kingdom...\" \"towns were likely to have been in charge of the daily operations of their own granaries ... The overall responsibility of the state apparatus with respect to regional granary administration may lie exclusively in issuing instructions via royal communications, supplying accounting oversight, and if need be dispensing justice.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67-69)§REF§<br>\"I suggest putting King (pharaoh): the term Pharaoh was hardly used for kings until the time of Akhenaten, a millennium later; before that it meant the palace or royal estate as an institution; 2: the hierarchy looks too extended to me, because in principle all the administrators were qualified as scribes, so your levels 3 and 5 are basically the same, for example, while the ’overseer – inspector – under-supervisor’ hierarchy existed in various areas (even nail-clipping!); maybe remove level 5 and remove ‘scribal’ from levels 6 and 7.\"§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _ §REF§(EWA, Sept 2014)§REF§<br>3. Hwt - administrators of royal centers §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 190-192)§REF§\"Private inscriptions state that the HoA Hwt or “governor of a Hwt” was a state official appointed by the administration.\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198)§REF§<br>Early in the Old Kingdom \"territorial organization based more on a network of royal centers scattered all over the country than on a structure of provinces clearly marked out and controlled by local governors.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 190-192)§REF§<br>\"the so-called geographical processions, in which each province was depicted as formed not only by towns and their hinterland (w-“districts”) but also by marshy areas (pehu).\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 7)§REF§<br>4. Staff of nomarchThe nomarch had staff.§REF§(Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Van De Mieroop, Marc. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Backwell. Chichester.§REF§<br>4. Workshops within royal centers\"some of the institutions whose name is composed with the element Hwt were perhaps some kind of specialized royal workshop like the Hwt-mHa, Hwt-THnt, or Hwt-Smaw known from later inscriptions.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 191)§REF§<br>4. Village leaders (inferred from the existence of villages))\"The inscriptions in Metjen’s tomb, from the early Fourth Dynasty, reveal that a Hwt could control several villages, whereas the autobiography of Ibi of Der el-Gebrawi states that extensive fields of about 50 ha provided with workers and cattle were administered by a Hwt, a fact confirmed by the ritual texts where the Hwt appear as administrative centers asserting their control over several fields and domains (Moreno García 1999, 2001a).\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, 198 cite: Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/15127.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/15127.html</a>)§REF§<br>5. ScribesEnd 3rd millennium: \"contemporary priests and scribes proudly proclaim that they worked for simple village governors (hq3w), chiefs (hrjw-tp), and administrators (jmjw-r pr), they reveal the real importance of these authorities, usually hidden under the stereotypical iconography of the punished or bowing chief of a village.\"§REF§(Garcia 2013, 1055) Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno \"The 'Other' Administration: Patronage, Factions, and Informal Networks of Power in Ancient Egypt\" in Garcia, Juan Carlos Moreno ed. 2013. Ancient Egyptian Administration. BRILL.§REF§<br>_ Nubian line _<br>2. Governor?<br>3. ChiefdomsIn the 6th Dynasty Lower Nubia was organized into six small chiefdoms §REF§(Spalinger 2013, 463)§REF§<br>4. Village chiefs (inferred)<br>\"During the Old Kingdom, provincial districts were usually (though not always) run by a two-tiered administration. 'Overseers of priests' of the local cults were important because of the role played by their temples as nodes in the network of economic administration, but the leading office was that of 'great overlord of the nome' (often translated as 'nomarch').\"§REF§(Seidlmayer 2003, 117) Seidlmayer, Stephan. \"The First Intermediate Period\" in Shaw, I. ed. 2003. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>City State government<br>Documents from Susa and Dura Europus show \"the governments of these places preserved the pattern of the Hellenistic city state.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xli) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>\"Alexander had apparently hellenized Susa to the extent that the language of administration was Greek, the form of city-state government was Greek, and even the ethnic composition of the area was partially Greek.\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. Leader/Ruler (perhaps appointed by the council?)<br><br>1. Council<br>\"power was concentrated into the hands of a council made up of representatives of a few of the richest families.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>2. Finance chief <i>inferred</i>\"massive capital investments in dams, roads, and canals\" and a \"heavily monetized economy\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 314-315) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>3. Head of the Elymean mint <i>inferred</i>\"heavily monetized economy\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 314-315) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>4. Worker at the mint<br>3. Departments for tax and revenue etc. <i>inferred</i>4. Scribes<br>2. Chief of Public works <i>inferred</i>\"development of large, planned cities\", \"massive capital investments in dams, roads, and canals\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 314-315) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>--- 1037-1045 CE<br>\"Beyond a few cities which served as Seljuk bases, such as Rayy and Hamadhan, Tughril made little effort to assert direct rule. For many city dwellers, little changed immediately, and not just the descendants of Seljuk but also local princes continued fighting among each other, sometimes recruiting aid from various Turks, ranging from Tughril himself to Ibrahim Yinal to the 'Iraqiyya.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 46-47) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"for most of Seljuk history there was no one central bureaucracy. Multiple Seljuk courts required multiple bureaucracies, and multiple viziers. Indeed, the whole system of administration was characterised by its extreme fluidity and decentralisation.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 189) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"As well as overseeing the functioning of other departments, the vizier and the diwan-i a'la were tasked with making appointments in the name of the sultan to offices which were in his gift, such as the positions of qadi, muhtasib and shihna.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 193) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>--- 1045-1118 CE<br>1. Caliph <i>de jure</i><br>\"The Seljuq leader, Alp Arslan (1063-1072), behaved with more courtesy toward the caliph and provided him with greater financial and political leniency, but it was clear that the latter figure was still mainly a de jure ruler. Real power remained in the hands of Alp Arslan, who was granted the title of sultan, which up to that time had generally meant 'rule' or 'authority' but henceforth could be understood to mean the de facto ruler, ostensibly appointed by the caliph to rule in his name.\"§REF§(Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§<br>1. Sultan <i>de facto</i><br>The sultan was the head of secular power §REF§Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69.§REF§ his court, the dargah§REF§(Peacock 2015, 12§REF§ §REF§159) Peacock, A C S. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§2. nadims (boon companions)according to Nizam al-Mulk \"everything connected with pleasure and entertainment, parties of drinking and companionship, hunting, polo and gambling.\" However, Peacock (2015) reports he says that \"nadims should not be consulted on matters of high politics - a stricture which suggests that in fact they frequently were.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 159) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>2. hajib (chamberlain)<br>2. wakildar (messenger)<br>2. Treasury<br>2. wakil (steward)3. Kitchen<br>3. sharabkhana (winehouse)<br>3. Stables<br>3. Palaces of the elites (khass)4.5. Slaves and servantsAccording to Nizam al-Mulk's Book of Government \"Slaves and servants should stand at attention while on duty.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>_Central government_ (nb: Anne Lambton is a specialist on Seljuk administration).<br>\"for most of Seljuk history there was no one central bureaucracy. Multiple Seljuk courts required multiple bureaucracies, and multiple viziers. Indeed, the whole system of administration was characterised by its extreme fluidity and decentralisation.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 189) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>2. vizier of the diwan-i a'la (main government department with overall responsibility)§REF§(Peacock 2015, 333) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§\"As well as overseeing the functioning of other departments, the vizier and the diwan-i a'la were tasked with making appointments in the name of the sultan to offices which were in his gift, such as the positions of qadi, muhtasib and shihna.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 193) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. mustawfi of the diwan-i istifa (revenue)<br>4. sub-head in divan for taxation?<br>5?. ra'is (central government representative located in the regions)The ra'is \"was essentially the link between the government and the taxpayers ... cases involving taxation were referred to his dīvān.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. Clerks<br>3. mushrif of the diwan-i ishraf (accountancy)§REF§(Peacock 2015, 333-335) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. tughra'i or munshi of the diwan-i tughra wa insha (chancery) §REF§(Peacock 2015, 333-335) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. diwan-i 'ard (military pay)§REF§(Peacock 2015, 333-335) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. diwan-i awqaf (religious endowments)§REF§(Peacock 2015, 333-335) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. diwan-i istifa headed by the mustawfidepartment for revenue<br>_Provinces_<br>\"in the provinces an incredible variety of individuals were vested with authority in the name of the sultan(s).\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 189) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"the east ... has connotations of seniority in Turkic culture: with both the Gok turks and the Qarakhanids, the rulers of the eastern divisions of the empire, considering it to be superior.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>2. malik (prince) and atabeg (supervisor). wali (governor). amir.Seljuk princes assigned to provinces as iqta as nominal governor (maliks). Atabegs usually an amir. They looked after the princes.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 93-94) Peacock, A C S. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"de facto independent atabegates\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 75) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§ amir: \"(1) a military commander; (2) a prince, a ruler's title; (3) a Turkmen chief (in this sense equivalent to beg)\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 332) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>3. Vizier\"The bureaucracy of each court was probably quite small. ... Most probably, each department probably consisted of little more than its head - the vizier, mustawfi, tughrai and so on - and a handful of clerks.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 194-195) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>4. diwan-i iyalat (or diwan-i wilayat or diwan-i riyasat)department in the provinces concerned with taxation.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 193) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>5. Clerks<br>2. (provincal) 5. (central) ra'is\"the head of the community known as the ra'is might be charged with functions ranging from the collection of taxes to cooperating with the shihna in the maintenance of security.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 190) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§4?. Prefects of police§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§5.<br>2. Amir/muqta (Iqta holder)\"Some provinces, like Ganja, were assigned to maliks and their atabegs, while others, towns like Mosul, were allotted as iqta to an ever-changing succession of amirs.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 189) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"... in lieu of salary an amir would be granted the right to collect the taxes of a given area. An iqta could thus vary in size from a whole province to much smaller subdivision, to a single town or village. ... The system was greatly expanded under the Seljuks, and itqa's were now used to pay senior bureaucrats as well as amirs and were also granted to members of the Seljuk dynasty. However, iqta holders became much more than tax collectors, and often functioned effectively as the local ruler (particularly amirs: bureaucrats seem to have become less entrenched in their iqta's, perhaps because their duties required their presence at court).\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 79-80) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br><br>2. Ulama\"Some cities, such as Bayhaq, Nishapur and Bukhara, were controlled by religious elites - Bukhara, for instance, was subject to a dynasty of Hanafi 'ulama who bore the title of sadr (themselves, of course, subject to the Seljuks' Qarakhanid vassals.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 189-190) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br><br>2. Shihna\"Baghdad had several types of overlapping administration: most prominent were the sultan's shihna, and the caliphal diwan\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 190) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>_Vassals_<br>2. Vassal ruler\"Vassals could often rule their territories in their traditional ways provided they recognised the Seljuk sultans' suzerainty, remitted tribute and performed obligations of military service.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 8) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"Other branches of the Seljuk family also controlled territories on the peripheries of the empire\": \"Kirman in southern Iran (and Oman too)\" between 1048-1186 CE, Seljuks of Syria 1076-1117 CE, and the Anatolian Seljuks 1081-1308 CE.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 7) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"Bedouin Arab chiefs in Iraq\": Mazyadids and 'Uqaylids.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 8) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>\"Bawandids on the Caspian coast\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 8) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>Ismaili state in Quhistan did not recognise Seljuk suzerainty§REF§(Peacock 2015, 8) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>--- 1118-1157 CE<br>1118 CE: \"Seljuk sultans of Iraq recognised the suzerainty of the Great Seljuk ruler Sanjar, based in Khurasan, who was known by the title of al-sultan al- a'zam, 'the Greatest Sultan'. The sultans of Iraq are sometimes referred to as the 'Lesser Seljuks'.§REF§(Peacock 2015, 7) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -599, "year_to": -300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"At the smallest and least complex (in terms of population, geographic scale and decision-making arrangements) end of this continuum, chiefs with limited decision-making prerogatives probably presided over single settlements. In larger examples, more powerful leaders based in larger centers likely exerted varying degrees of control over multiple and varying numbers of settlements. Finally, at the most complex end of this continuum, paramount chiefs ruling from large regional centers with lesser chiefs as political subordinates dominated even larger polities containing numerous settlements and substantial populations. In the present context it seems most likely that chiefdoms of the first type were prevalent during the earlier phases of the Iron Age, with those of the latter two types developing with increasing frequency as time passed.\"§REF§R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61, pp. 253-302§REF§<br>_Early in period_<br>1. Chief<br>_Later in period_<br>1. Paramount chief<br>2. Lesser chief<br><br>\"The disparities of scale, design, and materials in megalithic mortuary preparation and associated grave goods demonstrate differential access to labor and a variety of goods and resources that strongly suggest significant differences in social rank within Iron Age settlement communities\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§. However, few sources offers an explicit description of the social and political hierarchy of the time, as \"the study of variation among megalithic cemeteries has been beset by low-sample sizes of well-documented excavated interments and by a remarkable paucity of radiometric dates\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§.<br>\"Among the material changes documented in the Iron Age archaeological record are more complex and labor-intensive settlement designs, new mortuary practices, the production and consumption of a range of new slipped and polished ceramic wares as well as iron tools, weapons, and hardware. Most notably, there was significant transformation in the organization of social relations during the Iron Age that produced tangible social differences and inequalities.\"§REF§(Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0).§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 6, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_1", "long_name": "Archaic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -2001 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 340, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " [2-3] territorial levels but sources do not suggest there is evidence that they corresponded to administrative levels. Monte Albán was a primary center (given the size and central location of the settlement), with a series of regional second-order centres at the beginning of the Monte Albán I phase. There may also have been tertiary centres, if the smaller villages and hamlets are included.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p96§REF§ The administrative levels have been coded as equivalent to the settlement hierarchy as there is little additional evidence for internal administration.<br>1. Monte Albán-primary centre, estimated at 324ha between 400-200 BCE, and with an 8km2 central complex.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p375§REF§ (Yeguih in the Tlacolula subregion and San Mart´ın Tilcajete (52.8 ha) in the Ocotl´an-Zimatl´an subregion were also primary centres of different polities within the valley during this period.)§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2004). \"Primary state formation in Mesoamerica.\" Annual Review of Anthropology: 173-199, p176-8§REF§<br>2. villages-<2ha§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1982). The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, Regents of the University of Michigan, the Museum of Anthropology.§REF§" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. There is no evidence for the administrative organization of Cretan communities. Members of local elite families might controlled the administrative sector of the large settlements that arose in Crete during the period. During the Archaic period (710-500 BCE), political, military and religious control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i>, a board of 3 to 10 nobles annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>, the body of free male citizens. It is very likely that some aspects of this organization existed since the 8th century BCE. §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 192-207.§REF§" }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. One might infer at the very least 1) the ruler, 2) city bureaucratic officials, 3) subordinate officials, and 4) village elders, but we have no hard data." }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " While we have some Biblical descriptions of royal bureaucracies which are paralleled by Ugaritic tablets,§REF§McMaster (2014:83-85).§REF§ they do not provide enough detail to infer the actual bureaucratic hierarchy with any certainty." }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. One might infer at the very least 1) the ruler, 2) city bureaucratic officials, 3) subordinate officials, and 4) village elders, but we have no hard data." }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§" }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The administrative levels could be coded as equivalent to the three higher levels of settlement hierarchy, as those settlements have some evidence of administrative buildings. However sources do not suggest there is evidence that the administrative structure paralleled settlement hierarchy.<br>1. Main administrative centre-Monte Albán was the capital of the Zapotec polity during this period.<br>2. Regional administrative centre, secondary centres-San José Mogote, San Martin Tilcajete, Yegüih-Lambityeco§REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362, p349§REF§3. Local administrative centres, tertiary centres-relatively small, civic-ceremonial places§REF§Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). \"Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362, p349§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Political and religious institutions are thought to be essentially identical for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, such that political power was inherently theocratic.§REF§Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). <i>Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico.</i> Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142.§REF§§REF§Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). \"Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological</i> 20(1): 1-51§REF§§REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215.§REF§ Beyond indirect, theoretical proxies like hierarchical levels of socioeconomic stratification, irrigation systems, monumental construction, and settlement patterns, there is no direct evidence for sociopolitical administrative levels." }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Political and religious institutions are thought to be essentially identical for the Central Mexican Highlands Late/Terminal Formative, such that political power was inherently theocratic.§REF§Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). <i>Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico.</i> Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142.§REF§§REF§Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). \"Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological</i> 20(1): 1-51§REF§§REF§Carballo, David M. (2016). <i>Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215.§REF§ Beyond indirect, theoretical proxies like hierarchical levels of socioeconomic stratification, irrigation systems, monumental construction, and settlement patterns, there is no direct evidence for sociopolitical administrative levels." }, { "id": 350, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": " levels. The administrative levels could be coded as equivalent to the three higher levels of settlement hierarchy, as those settlements have some evidence of administrative buildings. However sources do not suggest there is evidence that the administrative structure paralleled settlement hierarchy." } ] }