Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. p.504<br><br>Longest governmental chain in central bureaucracy? King directly appointed leaders down to the level of municipal government.<br><br>1. King§REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>“The king personally selected and appointed every official, be it a state, provincial, municipal, or temple official.”§REF§(Westbrook et al. 2003, 886-888)§REF§King's Court<br>_ Central government line _<br>2a. Central bureaucracy<br>2a. Top officials called Magnates, likened to a cabinet, Governors and Deputy-Governors, Provincial Governors. §REF§(Westbrook et al. 2003, 886-888)§REF§3a. Scribes4a. ... ? ...<br>_ Provincial government _<br>2b. Provinces §REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>Provincial governors§REF§(Chadwick 2005, 77)§REF§, appointed by king, lived in palaces§REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§ Position nepotistic until reign Shalmaneser III (r. 859-824 BC), thereafter governors were Eunuchs sent from the central government.§REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>Storage depots became nucleus of provincial capitals. §REF§(Davidson 2012, 27)§REF§<br>Shalmeneser III integrated conquered areas as provinces, or made them tribute paying vassals. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 27)§REF§Since routine decision-making was delegated to governors most letters from provinces concerned unforeseeable problems. §REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>2c. Smaller provinces within provinces §REF§(Radler 2014)§REF§<br>Reforms of Tiglath-pileser III. Previously: conquered land integrated into empire through a governorship. Governors became over-mighty, hereditary and independent. Tiglath abolished governorships and created many new smaller provinces. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 79)§REF§<br>These were governed by a district lord (be-pihati) or a governor (shakkanakku), who were responsible to the king. Overseers (qepu) placed in each province to report to king. §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 79)§REF§<br>2d. Municipal government<br>“The king personally selected and appointed every official, be it a state, provincial, municipal, or temple official.”§REF§(Westbrook et al. 2003, 886-888)§REF§<br>Town chiefs §REF§(Sayce 1899 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.archive.org/stream/ancientempirese06saycgoog#page/n8/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§; Mayor and Overseer (chosen by the residents); City leaders §REF§(Chadwick 2005, 77)§REF§<br>3d. Scribes<br>3c. Village heads<br>Inferred level<br>" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 492, "name": "ir_susa_1", "long_name": "Susa I", "start_year": -4300, "end_year": -3800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions developed in Uruk period so this period still very low administrative complexity.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Susa excavations have yielded no fewer than 261 stamp seals and sealings dating to the Susa I period (Amiet 1986e: 17), and the variety of sealing types would certainly suggest that the seals were being employed by persons in positions of administrative authority (see also Amiet 1988b: 8) to control the flow of goods in and out of one or more offices or centres of redistribution. Certainly some of the Susa I sealings came off doors which had been locked and sealed (Amiet 1994e: 56; 1994f: 88-9; for the principal of sealing doors see Fiandra 1982)\" §REF§(Potts 1999, 49-50)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 485, "name": "ir_susiana_pre_ceramic", "long_name": "Pre-Ceramic Period", "start_year": -7800, "end_year": -7200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Philip II (1180-1223 CE) had \"a small group of close counsellers who held offices with particular, if not always specialized, functions. Philip also employed royal agents in the demesne, and outside, to carry on the routine work of government and to enforce the changes which he introduced./ We speak of departments, and we know of the existence of a chancery and a chamber, but we should be mistaken to see these as entirely separated organizations. Household departments do not emerge until the reign of St Louis, but they were in the process of formation in Philip's time. The close counsellors and the clerks could still move from one area of the administration to another, and often did.../ Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates. Under Philip, one or two magnates held such titles ... But the trend was to pass office, and sometimes title, to more humble men and their professional staff, for example marshals assisting the constables.\"§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.§REF§<br>1. King<br>Robert II (reign 996-1031) stopped partitioning the realm, crowned his eldest son during his lifetime. this was done by all Capetian monarchs until Philip II §REF§(Suarez 1995, 97-98)§REF§<br>ruled by decree<br>_Court institution_<br>2. senechal was the senior royal official, and senior military commanderwhilst the king's household dominated government in the 11th and 12th centuries the senechal was the senior royal official, and senior military commander §REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§<br>3. Treasury. From Louis VII until the end of the 13th century, the royal treasury was housed in the Knights Templar Temple’s keep §REF§(Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317)§REF§<br>3. Other high officials. Under Philip I (reign 1060-1108 CE) \"obscure household officials emerged as important figures in the making and executing of royal policies ... the seneschal, butler, chamberlain, and constable — to whom we should add the chancellor, who supervised those who wrote and authenticated royal documents.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1558-1560)§REF§<br>3. Chancellor4. Scribes. \"those who wrote and authenticated royal documents.\"§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1558-1560)§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Rulers of ApanagesApanage: \"province or jurisdiction, or later for an office or annuity, granted (with the reservation that in the absence of direct heirs the land escheated to the crown)\" §REF§(Suarez 1995, 97-98)§REF§<br>Example: Acquitaine?<br>2. Feudal lords (dukes, barons and counts)Former territories of the Carolingian state \"became counties, duchies and other feudal lordships, each with its own court.\" §REF§(Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)§REF§<br>3. senechal. The senechal was also the senior official of households of dukes, barons and counts§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§4.Pagus?<br>2. Prevotsprevots reported to the senechal. used to administer \"scattered parts of the royal domain\" §REF§(Henneman 1995, 1427, 1645)§REF§ <i>ET - whose senechal did the prevots report to, the king's senechal or the senechal of the local lord? Coded on the assumption they report to the king's senechal</i><br>At a local level, they were responsible for justice, military defense, and collection of the king’s seigneurial revenues §REF§(Henneman 1995, 1427)§REF§<br>3. Castellans of the Île-de-France §REF§(Henneman 1995, 1558-1560)§REF§\"With the growth of the feudal system, however, the title gained in France a special significance which it never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction of which the castle became the centre\" - wikipedia<br>" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels. One administrative level is inferred, as sources do not suggest there is evidence that one village exerted influence on another, and storage pits were located nearby individual households.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p88§REF§ San José Mogote has evidence for subterranean storage facilities which could hold up to 1,000kg of maize per household, and ritual “Men’s Houses”§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§. The exact relationship between San José Mogote and the surrounding smaller villages in the Etla region is unknown.<br>1. Organisation was based at the village or household level in both the large and small villages.<br>Large village: San José Mogote (estimated at 7.8ha in size)§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390.§REF§. The site included: nuclear family houses; subterranean storage pits (collectively 1,000kg maize per household); ritual “men’s houses”; and a palisade defense along western periphery consisting of a double line of posts, dated to 1300 BCE (which could have extended further but archaeological remains have been destroyed in other areas)§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2003). \"The origin of war: New C-14 dates from ancient Mexico.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20): 11802§REF§<br>Small villages or hamlets: (most were between 0.1-1.5 ha in size). These sites did not have public buildings, with household storage pits.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p84§REF§§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p43§REF§" }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"An up-to-date study on the kingdom of Himyar does not exist. One may consult Hoyland [2001] 46-57.\"§REF§(Retso 2005, 344) Jan Retso. in Johann P Arnason. S N Eisenstady. Bjorn Wittrock. 2005. Axial Civilizations And World History. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.</i><br>1. King<br>Karibil Watar Yuhanim I \"combined dynastic titles from both the Sabaeans and the Himyarites.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>2. Court officialSaba-Himyarite Kingdom: the king had a royal court.§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 135) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>3. Head of Mint4. Mint worker<br>2. Court official3. Foreign Diplomat<br>3. Spies and agents<br>2. Court official3. Head of a supply depot4. Worker at a supply depot<br>2. Court official3. Taxation official\"Some of the myrrh offered at the port [Muza] was from an inland territory ruled by the Minaeans, so the Himyarite King must have permitted regional traders to sell their own product at Muza.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 134) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§ <i>Presumably traders from other kingdoms were permitted to trade in exchange for paying tax which would have been collected by officials.</i><br>2. GovernorSaba-Himyarite Kingdom: the city of Saue \"was under the authority of a Himyarite tyrannos (governor) named Cholaibos. The Periplus explains that Cholaibos administered the surrounding province called Mapharitis and kept a court residence at Saue.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 135) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>3. Court official of governor<br>2. Merchant official of East African colonyc50 CE. \"The Himyarite King Charibael had authority over distant sites in East Africa including the trading settlement at Rhapta in northern Tanzania. He leased this settlement to a merchant oligarchy from Muza who ran trade operations from the port and collected taxes on any incoming business. The Periplus explains: 'the region (Rhapta) is under the rule of the governor of Mapharitis, since by some ancient right it became subject to the Kingdom of Arabia when it was first established. The merchants of Muza hold it through a grant from the king and collect taxes from it.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>_Central Government_<br>2. Grand Chancellor§REF§(Elliot 1963, preview) Elliot, J.H. 1963. <i>Imperial Spain 1469-1716.</i> London: Edward Arnold.§REF§<br>2. Chief Secretaries of Councils§REF§(Elliot 1963, preview) Elliot, J.H. 1963. <i>Imperial Spain 1469-1716.</i> London: Edward Arnold.§REF§3. Consejo de la Cámara de Castilla: small advisory cabinet to the King§REF§(Elliot 1963, preview) Elliot, J.H. 1963. <i>Imperial Spain 1469-1716.</i> London: Edward Arnold.§REF§<br>3. Council of State (Consejo de Estado) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§: Archbishop of Toledo, Dukes of Alba and Bėjar, the royal confessor, and the Bishop of Jaén<br>3. Council of Castile (Consejo de Castilla) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of Finance (Consejo de Hacineda) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of Aragon (Consejo de Aragon) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of Portugal (Consejo de Portugal) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of Flanders (Consejo de Flandes) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>3. Council of the Indes (Consejo de Indias) §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§§REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§4. House of Trade (Casa de Contratación)§REF§(Payne 1973, 256) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1</i>, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP</a>§REF§<br>4. High Chancellor §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§5. Lawyers §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>5. Fiscal §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>5. Secretaries §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>5. Lieutenant Chancellor §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>5. Accountants §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§6. Auditors §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>6. Copyrights §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>6. Reporters §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>6. Clerks §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>3. Cortes Generales<br>_Aragon, Navarre, and Castile_<br>1. King<br>2. Council of Aragon, Castile<br>2. Cortes in Catalan: Aragon, Navarre and Castile: “Each of the three component states had its own Cortes (Corts in Catalan), but these bodies met together as a Cortes General to deal with matters involving the entire kingdom.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 38) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§3. Deputy of the Generalitat (Cortes subcommittee): “Each body elected a subcommittee of its Cortes known as the Generalitat or Disputacio that contained a deputy and an oidor or an auditor from each of the three estates.” §REF§(Maltby 2009, 38) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§4. Low Officials (inferred)<br>_Colonial Government_<br>1. Viceroy: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 16-17) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§ Responsible to the Council of the Indes. \"Although they governed from a royal court- situated permanently in Madrid after 1561- the Spanish Habsburgs relied on a decentralized power structure of viceroys, magistrates and royal officials who were stationed in a network of cities from Seville to Brussels and from Naples to Mexico City.” §REF§(Escobar 2016, 259) Escobar, Jesús. 2016. \"Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs.\" <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i> 75(3): 258-261. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82</a>§REF§ \"Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary.\" §REF§(Payne 1973, 256) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1</i>, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP</a>§REF§<br>1. Captain-general: \"Captain-general: “the title of captain-general was primarily of military significance, and it was exercised alike by viceroys and governors; the official designation of the former being ‘my viceroy and captain-general’ and that of the latter being ‘my governor and captain general.” Not all governors were captains-general.\" §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 16-17) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>1. Governor: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 16-17) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>1. Audiencia: tribunal of justice and administrative organs §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§ \"“The audiencias of the colonies were alike dependent on the Council of the Indes; common institutions and departments of government existed in Spain for the control and regulations of the tribunals of the colonies. All were of equal judicial rank before the Council of the Indes.” §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 14) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§2. President §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>2. Regent §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>2. Magistrate §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§3. Criminal alcade §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>3. Fiscal §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>3. Oidores §REF§(Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. <i>The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800)</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR</a>§REF§<br>_Provincial Government_<br>1. Military governors<br>1. Viceroy: \"Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary.\" §REF§(Payne 1973, 256) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. <i>A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1</i>, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm</a> <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP</a>§REF§<br>1. Dukes (inferred)2. Provincial Estate: “Each province had its provincial estate, a representative body that included members from the towns and the from the land-holding nobility.\" §REF§(Maltby 2009, 36) Maltby, William S. 2009. <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH</a>§REF§3. Local government<br>_Village_<br>1. Feudal Lord§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§2. Alcade Mayor§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§3. Regidor§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§<br>3. Justice§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§4. Market Inspector§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§<br>4. Constable§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§<br>4. Clerk of the Council§REF§(Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. <i>Early Modern Spain: A Social History.</i> New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 170, "name": "tr_cappadocia_2", "long_name": "Late Cappadocia", "start_year": -330, "end_year": 16 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>In the Cappadocian kingdom, the king was the head of all administrative affairs and he used provincial governors, or <i>strategos</i>, to maintain the kingdom as divided into <i>strategeiae</i> §REF§Højte, J. M. (2009) The Administrative Organisation of the Pontic Kingdom. In, Højte, J. M (ed.)Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom. Aarhus University Press. p105§REF§§REF§Ma, J. (2003). Kings. In, Erskine, A. (ed.) A companion to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp177-195. p183-184§REF§. It is likely that there were administrative levels beneath the <i>strategos</i>, but there is little evidence for them at present.<br>1. King<br>_Central government_<br>2. ?3. ?4. ?<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. <i>Strategos</i>3. ?4. ?<br>" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>In keeping with their tribal origins the Saljuqs of Rum did not have a bureaucratic apparatus to begin with. As they consolidated their power, they did develop one. A core of senior bureaucrats were based around the royal court, along with scribes. The rest of apparatus was organised regionally with regional officials overseeing local tax collectors.Land, and the right to collect revenue for it, was distributed to the senior officials. There positions and the land grants often became hereditary; certainly they were decided by the Sultan, rather than by an examination systems. §REF§Andrew Peacock SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>2. Court officials.A core of senior bureaucrats were based around the royal court, along with scribes. §REF§Andrew Peacock SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a>§REF§<br>3.4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amirs.Administered regions. They were granted land by the Sultan, often in return for military service. §REF§Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.197.§REF§<br>3. Governors - of cities and towns. §REF§Cahen, Claude. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman, 2001. P.114 .§REF§4. The ikdis or urban aristocracy who were like a police force or local militia. Later acting as tax collectors or sometime tax assessors. §REF§Cahen, Claude. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman, 2001. P.115 .§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "us_woodland_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§(Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95)§REF§<br>Collapse of the Hopewell system lead to the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships. §REF§(Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95)§REF§<br>1. Chief<br>2. Elder. kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1049, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>In the Emergent Mississippian period: \"perhaps the appearance of chiefs\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Early Sassanid period<br>administration in provinces and districts \"did not differ greatly from that under the Parthians.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 45) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>In the early period \"royal cities, almost equivalent to semi-independent kingdoms, were built\" administered by a shahrab.§REF§(Chegini 1996, 45) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>Centralization occurred in the later Sassanid period when the empire was split into four parts each ruled by a spahbad who had civil and military powers.§REF§(Chegini 1996, 45) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>1. King of Kings§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Grand VizierAdministration based in Ctesiphon<br>\"Sassanid administration was headed by a Grand Vizier, who was in charge of political and diplomatic affairs. On occasion he commanded the army in the field. He also headed the divans (ministries), which were directed by secretaries expert in their various fields.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>3. Secretaries of a divan (ministry)§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>4. Scribe in central administration <i>inferred</i><br>5. Manager of state-run granary <i>inferred</i>, silk workshops\"As with the Parthians, the economy was based on agriculture.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>\"State monopolies rivalled private concerns; in particular, raw silk from China was woven at workshops in Susa, Gundeshapur and Shustar.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>6. Worker in state-run granary <i>inferred</i> or silk workshop<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Shahrabs§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Semi-independent vassal kingdoms (Merv, Kerman, Sakastan, Adiabene, Iberia, Makran, Mesene, Kushanshahr and Armenia). They had:rulers called shahrabs, appointed by King of Kings§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"royal\" capital cities§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>military garrison§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>The ruler of Armenia had a special title: \"Great King of Armenia.\" It was the base for many new regents.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>3. Head of district level government§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br><br>4. Official of a division called rustag (number of villages)§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>This administrator reported to a local government official?<br>5. Deghan of a division called deh (village)§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>An exilarch was the civic cheiftain officer for the Jewish community. He collected taxes and represented the Jews at the imperial court.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 13) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. Sultan (Cairo)<br>During his absence Egypt/Cairo was governed by a viceroy (na'ib al-saltana)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 152)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br><br>2. Central administration\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks. High government officials were also recruited from their number.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§<br>\"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§<br>\"although mamluks could marry, their children could never become mamluks. Thus, the foreign elite had constantly to be replenished by fresh recruits from the northern borderlands o Islam, educated in the discipline of a military household, and dependent for their manumission and their subsequent promotion upon their professional patrons and superiors.\"§REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Oliver R and Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_ Cairo line _<br>2cairo Magistracies. \"The administration of Cairo and its inhabitants was in the hands of three traditional magistracies. The judges (qudah; sing. qadi) had a very broad jurisdiction that covered matters of civil law, and many urban problems were addressed in their courts.3cairo Chief of the Sergeants of the watch. Top police prefect.4cairo \"The police prefects (wulah; sing. wali) saw to public order and security. They were particularly responsible for making the rounds at night and therefore also of fighting fires.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 153)§REF§<br>Overseer of the market (muhtasib) §REF§(Raymond 2000, 154)§REF§<br>\"The quarter served as an important basis of communal association and as an essential administrative unit.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§<br>_ Egyptian line _<br>2egypt \"diwan (government bureau) of Salar\" §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>3egypt Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§<br>4egypt Governor of a small town<br>5egypt. Village head.<br>_ Syrian line _<br>2<small>syria</small> Syrian chief governor §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 176)§REF§Viceroy?<br>3<small>syria</small> Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§e.g. the bureaucracy niyaba of Safed contained:4. katib al-sirr/katib al-insha (chief secretary who wrote governor's letters, read mail) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§5. muwaqqi (who ratified the governor's letters) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§6. katib al-dast §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§7. katib al-darj (minor correspondent) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§<br>4. nazir (overseer who was responsible for financial management, expenditure, salaries) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180)§REF§<br>kashif (inspector of bridges, agricultural lands and irrigation canals) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>muhtasib (market inspector) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir diwan al-jaysh (superintendant of fiefs) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir al-mal (financial controller) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>4. governor also had a dawadar (personal assistant) often sent to the villages to represent the governor and an ustadar (private caretaker) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 172)§REF§<br>4<small>syria</small> wali al-wulat of a niyaba §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>often the wali al-wulat also doubled as the shadd or mushidd al-dawawin \"whose duty it was to check and observe the collection of the Sultans' dues and taxes from state estates.\"§REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>5<small>syria</small> Wali, officer of a small town\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>6<small>syria</small> Village head.<br>" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>After about 300 CE there was a \"trend toward household autonomy\" as the collapse of the Hopewell system lead to the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships. §REF§(Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95)§REF§<br>By inference, the level of hierarchy and complexity should be coded higher before 300 CE than for the period that directly follows.<br>1. Chief<br>However, chiefs are thought to have appeared after 700-800 CE.§REF§(Iseminger 2010, 26) Iseminger, W R. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston.§REF§<br>2. Elderkin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><br>1. King<br>Basic territorial divisions (622 CE onwards 2 divisions East / West)Neustria - centred on the Seine and Oise rivers.<br>Burgundy (ruled from Neustria, own laws)<br>Austrasia - based on the Rhine and Meuse<br>Acquitane - usually had unique status §REF§(Wood 1994, 146)§REF§<br>_Court institution_<br>It was a peripatetic institution §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§<br>2. Senior Palace official was known as \"Mayor of the Palace\" §REF§(Halsall 2003, 28)§REF§ maior domus §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§3. Treasurer §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§4. Notaries and scribes<br>640s CE and onwards Mayors of the Palace dominate the court. Kings lost control to mayors and magnates. §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 109-112)§REF§<br>Comes palatii §REF§(Wood 1994, 150-153)§REF§<br>Magnates known as Obtimates, consulted by king at annual gathering around March 1st. §REF§(Wood 1994, 104)§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br><br>2. Maior domus (Burgundy) / Mayor of the Palace (Autrasia)Under Chlothar II (584-629 CE, reign from 613 CE) Burgundy had a maior domus (regional official). this official was at level below the court in Paris and in later years was alternately removed, then reinstated. also dux / duchy / districts §REF§(Wood 1994, 144-145 and 236)§REF§<br>The region of Austrasia had its own Mayor of the Palace §REF§(Medieval France: An Encylopedia 1995, 157)§REF§<br>2. Dukes and Bishops (directly appointed by king)\"Many bishops owed their position to the king\" and \"were royal servants with no known connections with their sees.\" §REF§(Wood 1994, 78)§REF§<br>Aristocrats dependent on patronage from king. §REF§(Halsall in Wood ed. 1998, 149)§REF§<br>Group of cities and counts could be placed under a duke (for military and administrative purposes). §REF§(Bachrach 1972, 67)§REF§<br>Magnates (dux?) and Church (bishops)<br>Individuals in charge of multiple civitates? called dux (pl. duces). §REF§(Wood 1994, 61)§REF§<br>Alternative ruling structures had been innovated such as dukedom (higher scale) and the pagi (lower scale).§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Aquitaine - duchy, dux/duces. Merovingians claimed over-lordship in Southern England 550s CE. §REF§(Wood 1994, 176)§REF§<br>3. Comes (count) of the Civitas (city-district)4. local law-men called rachinburgi §REF§(Wood 1994, 107)§REF§Merovingians maintained existing Roman administrative systems where possible. Gregory of Tours (538-594 CE) writings show cities are the basic units of the administrative system. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>City archives: defensor, curator, magister, militum. Known from Formularies from a few civitates but no evidence uniform across polity. Senior official of civitas was the comes (pl. comites) or count (lit. \"companion). Heard law-suits, enforced justice, lead the military. In north graphiones instead of comes. §REF§(Wood 1994, 60)§REF§ Civitas administration \"provided dominant source of tax revenue\" and some of the manpower for the army. §REF§(Wood 1994, 64)§REF§<br>In sixth century the role of the Roman curiales had been taken over by a single official appointed by the Merovingian king, the \"count\" or the \"grafio\" in the Frankish homelands. This official - where present the most important city official - had its origins in the Roman imperial comes civitatis. The first such official in Gaul is known from 471 CE. They executed judicial and administrative functions and sent the king his tax revenue. Rule through these city officials gradually spread across Gaul in the post-Roman period.<br>Gregory of Tours refers to \"leading officials\" who could be members of a local council.§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Gregory of Tours' region in central Gaul likely had longest persisting continuity with Roman structures of city-based rule. These were the \"basic building-blocks of which the various Merovingian regna were composed.\" However, in Frankish regions the rule-through-city framework may have been less pervasive. §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>Internal administrative regions due to the city based taxation system. The \"guiding imperative behind the divisions would appear to be the sharing out of the profits from various forms of taxation\" on the civitas §REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>5. City archives two levels? e.g. manager and assistant <i>inferred level</i><br>4. PagiSub-division of the civitates. Replaces civitates in some parts of Gaul §REF§(Halsall 2003, 48)§REF§<br>Alternative ruling structures had been innovated such as dukedom (higher scale) and the pagi (lower scale).§REF§(Loseby in Wood ed. 1998, 245-249)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. Sultan (Cairo)<br>During his absence Egypt/Cairo was governed by a viceroy (na'ib al-saltana)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 152)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br>2a. Central administration\"Army officers came from the Mamluk ranks. High government officials were also recruited from their number.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 113)§REF§<br>\"In a traditional society that lacked the concept of public or municipal agencies, as individuals, the members of this ruling class assumed responsibility for what we would consider public concerns.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 152)§REF§<br>_ Cairo line _<br>2<small>cairo</small> Magistracies. \"The administration of Cairo and its inhabitants was in the hands of three traditional magistracies. The judges (qudah; sing. qadi) had a very broad jurisdiction that covered matters of civil law, and many urban problems were addressed in their courts.3<small>cairo</small> Chief of the Sergeants of the watch. Top police prefect.4<small>cairo</small> \"The police prefects (wulah; sing. wali) saw to public order and security. They were particularly responsible for making the rounds at night and therefore also of fighting fires.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 153)§REF§<br>Overseer of the market (muhtasib) §REF§(Raymond 2000, 154)§REF§<br>\"The quarter served as an important basis of communal association and as an essential administrative unit.\"§REF§(Dols 1977, 153)§REF§<br>_ Egyptian line _<br>2egypt \"diwan (government bureau) of Salar\" §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>3egypt Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§<br>4egypt Governor of a small town<br>5egypt. Village head.<br>_ Syrian line _<br>2<small>syria</small> Syrian chief governor §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 176)§REF§Viceroy?3<small>syria</small> Na'ib, governor of a mamlaka, an administrative district §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 169)§REF§e.g. the bureaucracy niyaba of Safed contained:4. katib al-sirr/katib al-insha (chief secretary who wrote governor's letters, read mail) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§5. muwaqqi (who ratified the governor's letters) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§6. katib al-dast §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§7. katib al-darj (minor correspondent) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180-181)§REF§<br>nazir (overseer who was responsible for financial management, expenditure, salaries) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 180)§REF§<br>kashif (inspector of bridges, agricultural lands and irrigation canals) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>muhtasib (market inspector) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir diwan al-jaysh (superintendant of fiefs) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>nazir al-mal (financial controller) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 181-182)§REF§<br>4. governor also had a dawadar (personal assistant) often sent to the villages to represent the governor and an ustadar (private caretaker) §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 172)§REF§<br>4<small>syria</small> wali al-wulat of a niyaba §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>often the wali al-wulat also doubled as the shadd or mushidd al-dawawin \"whose duty it was to check and observe the collection of the Sultans' dues and taxes from state estates.\"§REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>5<small>syria</small> Wali, officer of a small town\"The wali was a police officer in charge of keeping law and order in town. His rank: Amir of Ten. One should not confuse him with wali al-wulat, who was higher in authority and rank, being an Amir of Forty, and who was responsible for the minor sub-sections (wilaya) of the entire region (niyaba). §REF§(Joseph Drory in Winter and Levanoni 2004, 178)§REF§<br>6<small>syria</small> Village head.<br>" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Khagan<br>\"The Western Turks were composed of ten tribes; and their khagan had the dignitary name jabgu.\"§REF§(Hosszú 2012, 283) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation.§REF§<br>2. Head official of administration <i>inferred</i>3. Departments <i>inferred</i>4. Scribes/Assistants<br>3. Diplomatic service\"Present in large numbers in the administration, the army and the diplomatic service, the Sogdians were also present as simple merchants.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 204)§REF§<br><br>2. Vassal king e.g. of Samarkand or Bukhara<br>\"Subject populations retaining their own kings included the Sogdians, with their major centers at Bukhara and Samarkand and farflung merchant colonies, willing collaborators with a nomadic state that possessed the military power to force open the Chinese markets.76\" §REF§(Findley 2004, 43)§REF§3. Chief official/assistant of the king4. Head of Mint if coins were produced (present under Hephthalites)<br>\"In the kingdom of Gaochang (Turfan) during the first half of the 7th century, the Türks had functionaries responsible for the supervision and taxation of commerce.38\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 208)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Is central government separate from provincial? Probably not.<br><br>1. King<br><br>_Central government_<br>Foundations of administrative system laid by Philip II. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 67)§REF§<br>2. who replaced the senechal at this level?3. Department heads. Finance, Justice, Chancery, Treasury (from Philip IV - previously the treasury was kept by the Knights Templar at their Temple), auditors, law-courts (parlements), archives (muniments in tresor des chartres)Government departments within the Royal Palace, Ile de la City §REF§(Spufford 2006, 68)§REF§<br>4. Lesser officials<br>Law courts Parlement De Paris from 1250-1790 CE<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Leader of semi-autonomous city-state3.4.autonomous urban governments had independent judicial institutions, legal system, and administration and managed its own relations with the church and the monarchy.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)§REF§<br>Some cities were semi-autonomous city-states, e.g. Flanders §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 3)§REF§<br>2. Ruler of appanage3.4.\"Beginning with the sons of Blanche of Castile and Louis VIII (r. 1223-26), apanages became normal in France. By installing their sons as rulers, monarchs could control newly acquired outlying areas, as northern French nobles had long done.\" §REF§(Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 1995, 97)§REF§<br>Apanage: \"province or jurisdiction, or later for an office or annuity, granted (with the reservation that in the absence of direct heirs the land escheated to the crown)\" - often granted to sons of the Capetian king §REF§(Suarez 1995, 97-98)§REF§<br>2. Dukes/Barons/Counts who ruled principalities3. Principalities had capitals with their own mini-government system §REF§(Spufford 2006, 74-76)§REF§4.Example: the Dauphine of Vienne an independent principality (until 1349 CE). Territory from Rhone to The Alps. \"Capital\" city was Vienne. §REF§(Spufford 2006, 165)§REF§<br>Example: Burgundy. Duke of Burgundy had his administration based at Beaune, which moved to Dijon in the 14th century.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 154-155)§REF§<br>\"Between 1120 and 1481, no lord in France is known to have made any regular use of prince as a title of lordship\" §REF§(Boulton 1995, 1430)§REF§<br>3. District: Bailiff in a Bailliage (Northern France); seneschal in a Sénéchiaussée (Southern France)The basic provincial administrative unit of late-medieval France from late in the reign of Philip II§REF§(Henneman 1995, 147)§REF§<br>bailliage and sénéchiaussé were administrative subdivisions of France established by Philip II after 1190.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333)§REF§<br>seneschals of dukes, barons, counts became royal appointees, continued their role as chief administrative officers. the lands under their control became known as sénéchaussées.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§<br>baillis of royal provinces, particularly important under Philip II (1180-1222 CE) §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 10)§REF§<br>late Middle Ages 30-40 districts governed by a bailiff or a seneschal.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1645)§REF§<br>4. Prévôt in a Prévôté.The district for which a prévôt was responsible was called the prévôté, and there were half a dozen of these in each bailliage.§REF§(Henneman 1995, 1427-1428)§REF§<br>prévot farmed the revenues of the royal domain and rendered justice at a local level.<br>a \"prevote\" was a military region used in the raising of armed forces (end 12th century)§REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 6)§REF§<br>5. Leader of a parishCities could be divided into parishes §REF§(Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 4)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " [5-7] central government line + crew organization<br>1. King<br>The term \"Pharaoh\" as political title emerged in the New Kingdom. In earlier times \"Pharaoh\" means literally what the Egyptian phrase does i.e. \"great house.\"<br>JGM: Note the interesting royal portrait sculpture of Dyn, 12, \"veristic\" portraits of the King as a tired, worried ruler. Quite interesting, must be tied to Dyn. 12 royal ideology, king as human, and a \"manager\"<br>_ Central government line _ §REF§(EWA, Sept 2014)§REF§<br>2. Central elite (150 people + families). Vizier was the head of the bureaucracy.3. Controller of the 'h.Many Middle Kingdoms inscriptions for a head/controller of the 'h.§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 241-247) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. <i>Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence.</i> Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§ <i>Nb: \"The 'h-palace must be intended as a holy locality as well as the temples because the Horus-king is the holder of religious and magical power. The 'h would have been the place where all the ceremonies connected to the transition of the magical power of the sun-god to the king were performed: here the king took over the role of Horus and was legitimated as his successor.\"</i>§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 235) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. <i>Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence.</i> Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. Overseer of the chamber of the 'hMiddle Kingdom inscription for Overseer of the chamber of the 'h (Stele of Rn-sbf from Sinai).§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 552) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. Overseer of the place/position/seat of the 'h (Stele of S3[..]-ibt (?))§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 575) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§5. Attendent of the 'h (Stele of Sn-pw)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 574) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. pr-'34?. Overseer of the chamber of the pr-'3 (Stele of 'ihms-n-3ht-w3s-htp)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 570) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4?. Overseer of writing in the pr-'3 (Stele of Tit-nb-im3h)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 572) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§5?. majordomo/domestic servant of the pr-'3 (Stele of R'-nfr)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 565) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>5?. retainer of the pr-'3 (Stele of Nb-'nh)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 567) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>5?. Inspector of the Garden of the pr-'3.§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 569) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the pr-nswt (Stele of Wsir-sn-pw)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 569) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>_Crew system used to organize labour_<br>1. Leader of the crew<br>\"In the Old Kingdom, a crew was made up of two gangs\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>2. Leader of a gang\"In the Old Kingdom... a gang was divided into four or five phyles\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>3. Leader of a phyle\"In the Old Kingdom... each phyle had four divisions of about 10 men each, although this number could vary (Roth, 1991). Hence, the total labour force in a crew could well reach 400 men, possibly even more.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>4. Foreman of a division\"In the Middle Kingdom, the most frequent sizes of a division (including one foreman) were 10, 14 and 20 (Gardiner et al., 1952, 1955; Mueller, 1975; Simpson, 1963, 1965, 1969, 1986). However, there were smaller division sizes of 9 and 4, with two supervisors combined into one larger division (Griffith, 1898).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br><i>ET: More research needed on the central government line. If it's similar to the Old Kingdom there will be more levels than the provincial line.</i><br>_ Provincial line _ §REF§(EWA, Sept 2014)§REF§<br>2. Central elite North<br>2. Central elite South2. \"throughout the late Middle Kingdom, Thebes had been the second capital of Egypt, the Southern City (nwt rst) as counterpart to the Residence (hnw) of Lisht. Thebes had its own royal palace, vizieral bureau and an administrative apparatus that directly governed the \"Head of the South\" (w'rt tp rsj), a region extending from the First Cataract to Akhmim, located some 25 miles north of Abydos.\" §REF§(Maree 2010, 266)§REF§3.4.<br>3. Provincial governors - Before 1850 BCEProvincial administration: Nomarchs, above the \"big men\" §REF§(Willems 2013, 354)§REF§<br>3. District overseers - After 1850 BCEReference to a \"district-councillor\" in a Middle Kingdom letter to the king from Lahun (\"Letter of Sn-bwbw\").§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 435) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§4. Mayors\"mayors held a relatively minor position as compared to nomarchs\" §REF§(Willems 2013, 378)§REF§<br>the mayors of Menat Khufu were \"in charge of only a relatively minor part of the nome.\" §REF§(Willems 2013, 378)§REF§<br>\"Each town was governed by a provincial official (mayor).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 502) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>4. Village governorsVillage chiefs and mayors (heqa nwt, haty-a) enjoyed real local authority<br>\"a passage of papyrus Harris I evokes referring to the anarchy prevailing at the end of the 19th dynasty: “the land of Egypt was in the hands of chiefs (wrw) and of rulers of towns (heqa nwt)” (Grandet 1994: 335). The precedents might be traced back to late Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period inscriptions, when governors of villages (heqa nwt) and “chiefs” (hery-tep) are mentioned in enthusiastic terms, their role as mediators in the administration of temple land recorded in royal decrees, and priests and scribes proudly proclaimed that they worked for simple village governors (heqa), chiefs (hery-tep) and administrators. Middle and New Kingdom inscriptions confirm that they collected taxes for their superiors, provided royal agents with supplies and manpower and cultivated the fields of the pharaoh (Moreno García 2013b and 2013c: 88-91).\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 24)§REF§<br>5. Scribes<br>5. Big men\"Some of them may have been merely the heads of an isolated farmstead, others of a hamlet, a small village, or a smaller or larger town\" §REF§(Willems 2013, 354)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"In their influential paper, Frankenstein and Rowlands [propose] the existence of a four-tiered hierarchy of chieftains, consisting of a paramount chieftain, \"vassal chiefs,\" \"sub-chiefs,\" and \"village chiefs.\" Bintliff (1984) agreed with this suggesting \"the spacing of centres suggests large territories and even \"proto-state\" structures, to be linked perhaps to the emergence of paramount chiefs or princes from an aristocratic stratum scattered throughout the region. The paramounts associated with the major putative centres and their particularly impressive burials, seem to have dominated numerous district chiefs whose rich tumuli are found at various points around the suggested territory of each princedom.\"§REF§(Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7)§REF§<br>1. Paramount chieftain<br><br>2. Vassal chief<br>3. Sub-chief<br>4. Village chief<br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory.\"§REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>1. Aristocratic chief<br>2. Local chief<br>3. Village head<br>" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"An up-to-date study on the kingdom of Himyar does not exist. One may consult Hoyland [2001] 46-57.\"§REF§(Retso 2005, 344) Jan Retso. in Johann P Arnason. S N Eisenstady. Bjorn Wittrock. 2005. Axial Civilizations And World History. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London.</i><br>1. King<br>Karibil Watar Yuhanim I \"combined dynastic titles from both the Sabaeans and the Himyarites.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>2. Court officialSaba-Himyarite Kingdom: the king had a royal court.§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 135) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>3. Head of Mint4. Mint worker<br>2. Court official3. Foreign Diplomat<br>3. Spies and agents<br>2. Court official3. Head of a supply depot4. Worker at a supply depot<br>2. Court official3. Taxation official\"Some of the myrrh offered at the port [Muza] was from an inland territory ruled by the Minaeans, so the Himyarite King must have permitted regional traders to sell their own product at Muza.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 134) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§ <i>Presumably traders from other kingdoms were permitted to trade in exchange for paying tax which would have been collected by officials.</i><br>2. GovernorSaba-Himyarite Kingdom: the city of Saue \"was under the authority of a Himyarite tyrannos (governor) named Cholaibos. The Periplus explains that Cholaibos administered the surrounding province called Mapharitis and kept a court residence at Saue.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 135) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>3. Court official of governor<br>2. Merchant official of East African colonyc50 CE. \"The Himyarite King Charibael had authority over distant sites in East Africa including the trading settlement at Rhapta in northern Tanzania. He leased this settlement to a merchant oligarchy from Muza who ran trade operations from the port and collected taxes on any incoming business. The Periplus explains: 'the region (Rhapta) is under the rule of the governor of Mapharitis, since by some ancient right it became subject to the Kingdom of Arabia when it was first established. The merchants of Muza hold it through a grant from the king and collect taxes from it.\"§REF§(McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No data but any \"strong local state organization\" is likely to have at least two levels.<br>1.<br>2.3.<br>\"Reflecting the major social and political development of the region, this monumental architecture is evidence of a strong local state organization. The inner buildings of these courtyards are at present difficult to reconstruct. Although this question has still to be resolved, it would seem that the courtyards of Koktepe housed earlier religious and administrative institutions.\"§REF§(Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>\"The political picture that emerges as the Third Intermediate Period progresses is one of a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king.\" §REF§(Taylor 2000, 338)§REF§<br>_ King's own administration _<br>2. Vizier\"Officials of traditional centralised government, such as the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries ... now wielded only local influence.\" §REF§(Taylor 2000, 337)§REF§<br>3. Treasury / granary head official4. Treasury / granary sub official (inferred)5. Scribe within treasury / granary (inferred)6. Other workers (inferred)<br>_ Provincial government _<br>2. Commander and governor at Thebesat Thebes, highest offices (chief general and high priest of Amun) held by Herihor then passed to the family of General Piankh. They \"derived their executive powers from the oracles of Amun, Mut, Khons, by whom clerical appointments and major policy decisions of the rulers were sanctioned.\" §REF§(Taylor 2000, 327-328)§REF§<br>Upper Egypt \"retained greater territorial cohesion than the north\" with Thebes predominent §REF§(Taylor 2000, 337)§REF§<br>3. Vizier\"Officials of traditional centralised government, such as the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries ... now wielded only local influence.\" §REF§(Taylor 2000, 337)§REF§<br>4. Treasury / granary head official5. Treasury / granary sub official (inferred)6. Scribe within treasury / granary (inferred)7. Other workers (inferred)<br>2. Commander and governor elsewhereMost provincial governors were also army commanders. §REF§(Taylor 2000, 339)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>_Court_<br>2. MinistersIncluding chamberlain (<i>thane veryashka</i>), steward (<i>bhanasa vergade</i>), superintendent to the harem (<i>antharpuradhyaksha</i>), and the minister for war and peace (<i>sandhivigrahika</i>) §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 91§REF§.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. RashtrapathisIn charge of governing territorial units known as rashtras §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 96§REF§ (probably equivalent to four or five modern-day Indian districts §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§).<br>3. VishayapathisIn charge of governing territorial units known as vishayas §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 96§REF§ (probably equivalent to modern-day Indian districts §REF§A.S. Alterkar, State and Government in Ancient India (1958), p. 360§REF§).<br>4. Nadrasas or Nad-prabhusIn charge of governing nadus §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 96§REF§, \"larger territorial divisions with numbers attached to their names\" §REF§K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Chalukyas of Kalyani, in G. Yazdan (ed), The Early History of the Deccan (1960), pp. 399-400§REF§.<br>5. GramakutasVillage head men §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 96§REF§.<br>6.accountants and sub-accountants at village level in some or all regions, as under previous polity<br>" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 70§REF§.<br>_Court_<br>2. <i>Sandhivigrahika</i> (Minister of War and Peace)This is the only minister in the Emperor's council mentioned explicitly in Chalukya inscriptions, and there is much evidence that this was the most powerful of the ministers §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 211-212§REF§. Indeed, it seems that, on at least one occasion, the <i>sandhivigrahika</i> also held the post of \"chief of the secretariat\" (<i>divirapati</i>) and was in charge of revenue administration (<i>akshapataladhikaranadhipati</i>) §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 213-214§REF§.<br>3. Other ministersRecords here are a bit fuzzy. These \"ministers and other administrators\" may include the keeper of records, a guru, as well as the Crown Prince §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 70§REF§ and other loyal members of the royal family, including the Queen §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 208-210§REF§. And, presumably, the <i>divirapati</i> and the <i>akshapataladhikaranadhipati</i> §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 213-214§REF§, in those occasions where they were not titles held by the <i>sandhivigrahika</i>.<br>4. Administrative officialsThe long list of administrative officials includes: <i>diviras</i> (clerks) and <i>akshapatalikas</i> (revenue officers) §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 213-214§REF§; <i>baladhirkta</i> or <i>mahabaladhirtkas</i> (military officials with administrative duties); <i>dutakas</i> (in charge of conveyance of royal grants); <i>durgapatis</i> (fort administrators); <i>dandapasika</i> and <i>chauradhikarana</i> (in charge of crime and punishment); <i>chatas</i> and <i>batas</i> (possibly police-like officers); <i>vasavakas</i> (in charge of arranging the residences of touring officials and foreigners); <i>viniyuktakas</i> (unclear); <i>gamagamikas</i> (supervised egress and ingress of travellers, including inspecting \"passports\") §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 224-230§REF§<br>5.e.g. senior batas?<br>6.e.g. batas?<br>_Provincial Government_<br>2. \"Viceroys\"Members of the royal family who ruled over <i>vishayas</i>, or provinces §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 219§REF§.<br>2. Rajasamantas or \"Governors\"Defeated rulers whom the Emperor trusted to keep in charge of their territories, now made into <i>vishayas</i>, or provinces §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 220§REF§. It is not entirely clear, from the source, whether <i>rajasamanta</i> and \"governor\" are the same office.<br>3. SamantasFeudal subordinates of the <i>rajasamantas</i>, they provided troops and tribute to the Emperor when required §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), pp. 219-220§REF§.<br>4. Town assembliesMade up of elders (<i>mahajanas</i>), guild chiefs, <i>mahallakas</i>, and \"head of business communities\" §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 222§REF§.<br>5. Village administrationMade up of <i>mahajanas</i> (elders), <i>mahattaras</i>, <i>mahattaradhikarins</i> and <i>gavundas</i> (royal representatives) §REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 222§REF§. There also existed \"gramabhogikas\" or \"village leaders\" and <i>karanas</i> or \"village accountants\"§REF§D.P. Dikshit, Political History of the Chalukyas (1980), p. 228§REF§, but it is unclear what their position was in relation to other village administrators.<br>" }, { "id": 276, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Court and administration c.1081-1204 CE§REF§(Haldon 2008, 550) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Megas doux (Supreme Naval Commander)3. Imperial fleet<br>2. Megas domestikos (east and west)3. Provincial tagmata<br>2. Household units (Military)<br>2. doukes (provincial governors)3. Provincial tagmata<br>3. Provincial administration<br>4. Provincial fiscal administrators <i>- multiple levels</i><br>2. Mesazon (Prime Minister)3. mystikos (private secretary)<br>3. protasekretis<br>3. Master of the Inkwell<br>3. Privy purse<br>3. Master of Petitions<br>3. Imperial table<br>3. Imperial private wardrobe<br>3. Cellarer<br>3. logothete of the sekreta4. Megas logariastes of the charitable bureaux (imperial estates)5. orphanotrophos6. Head of a single orphanage <i>inferred</i>7. Worker in an orphanage <i>inferred</i><br>5. Curators and stewards of other charitable estatesAfter the theme organization introduced \"The curatores, the heads of the great estate zones, now paid this revenue [tax] direct to the imperial sacellum, the imperial treasury. Within the treasury, as in all financial departments of state, there were two departments, the sacellum for money payments and the vestiarium for payments in kind.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Megas logariastes of the sekreta5. vestiarion<br>5. oikeiaka (public fiscal lands)6. episkepseis (public fiscal estates)<br>6. Provincial fiscal administrators <i>- multiple levels</i><br>5. General treasury6. Provincial fiscal administrators <i>- multiple levels</i><br>3. protostrator4. Imperial stables<br>3. chartoularios of the stables4. chartoularata (stock-raising estates)<br>3. logothete of the dromos4. chartoularata (stock-raising estates)<br>3. dikaiodotes<br>3. Prefect of Constantinople4. demes<br>4. Prisons<br>3. quaestor<br>3. Megas droungarios (court of the velon)<br>3. parathalassites (waterways and maritime law)<br>\"This preponderance of civil officials became accentuated, and by the eleventh century the strategos had given way to the judge (krites) as the head of the thematic administration.\"§REF§(Cheynet 2008, 522) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 277, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": 909, "year_to": 969, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Nicolle 1996)§REF§§REF§(Oliver 1977)§REF§§REF§(Raymond 2000)§REF§<br>1. Vizier/Military chief (1073-1171 CE)<br>after 1073 CE (although transition may have begun under regency of al-Mustansir) position of vizier became de facto ruler, effectively a dictator with nominal caliph. in this period vizier lived in own palace. essentially after 1073 CE Badr al-Jamali the vizier is the chief executive.<br>1. Caliph<br>1073 to 1121: the military chiefs replaced the caliphs as the effective heads of government. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 243)§REF§<br>Highly stratified court §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 242)§REF§<br>court employed 30,000 people according to traveller Nasir-i Khusraw (c1048 CE?) §REF§(Raymond 2000, 52)§REF§<br>2. Harem\"A hierarchical corps of eunuchs controlled the harem and the personal life of the caliph.\"§REF§(Hamblin 2005, 749) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§<br>_Central government line_<br>2. Slave viziers (c970 - 1073 CE)Vizier did not exist for Tunisian period 909-969 CE<br>al-Badr who assumed the powers of a \"military dictator\": \"Henceforth, with minor exceptions, real power in the Fatimid state remained in the hands of viziers who possessed military bases of power and acted independently, while the caliphs remained the nominal heads of state and as Ismaili imams also functioned as supreme leaders of the ismalil da'wa or religious organization. A distinguishing feature of the Fatimid vizierate during its final century is that several viziers were Christians, notably Armenians.\"§REF§(Daftary 2005, 744) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§<br>of 11 Fatimid rulers 7 came to throne as minors; Egypt frequently ruled by the Vizier.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 40)§REF§ Late 11th century viziers became more powerful, called themselves malik (prince).§REF§(Raymond 2000, 73)§REF§<br>3. Heads of administration (e.g. military, treasury, religious, missionary, and judiciary) §REF§(Hamblin 2005, 748) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§\"The post of auditor (zimam) and the office of the audit (diwan al-zimdm) are well known features of the 'Abbasid administration. In the case of the Fatimid administration, the earliest reference to diwan al-zimam is from 402/1011-1012, and the holder of the post (ndzir diwan al-zimdm) was a person of Iraqi origin with previous experience in 'Abbasid administration.\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 353)§REF§<br>Chancery (diwan al-inshda)§REF§(Lev 1987, 353)§REF§<br>4. (inferred) head of state armory (khizdna al-bunud)\"Al-Zahir is credited with establishing the state's armory (khizdna al-bunud), which was an arsenal and a workshop employing 3,000 craftsmen for producing arms.\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 354)§REF§<br>5. (inferred) manager of section in state armory<br>6. Craftsman in state armory<br>4. Lesser bureaucrats??5. Scribes??<br>_Provincial line _<br>2. Subject cites/territoriesE.g. in Hejaz<br>For a brief period Egypt was run by Jawhar, a proconsul §REF§(Raymond 2000, 39)§REF§<br>2. Provincial governorsE.g. Zirids in Tunisia)<br>3. ... ? ...Fustat was governed by a wali (governor) who was effectively chief of police. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§4<small>fustat</small>. In Fustat the muhtasib \"supervised the activities of shopkeepers and artisans and saw to the observance of religious law.\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§5<small>fustat</small>. In Fustat some public services were provided e.g. rubbish collection, sewage system. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§ \"al-attalun (police force?)\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 341)§REF§<br>4. Village headmen<br>Abu Yaqub Sejestani (d c.971 CE), da'i of Khorasan, \"now endorsed the imamate of the Fatimids and propagated their cause in Knorasan, Sistan, and Makran, where numerous Ismailis rallied to the side of the Fatimid da'wa. The Fatimid da'is also succeeded around 347/958 in establishing a Fatimid vassal state centered in Moltan, in northern India, where the kotba was now read in the name of the Fatimid caliphs, instead of their Abbasid rivals.\".§REF§(Daftary 2009) Daftary, Farhad. 2009. FATIMIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IX, Fasc. 4, pp. 423-426. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids</a>§REF§ This Isma'ili state in Multan overthrown by Gaznavids 1005-1006 CE.§REF§(Daftary 2009) Daftary, Farhad. 2009. FATIMIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IX, Fasc. 4, pp. 423-426. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 278, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Roux 1998, 149§REF§<br>1. Ruler<br>_Palatial government_<br>2.3.4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Provincial/regional governors - <i>sukkalmah</i>3.4.<br>3. town mayors - <i>ensi</i>4. village heads - <i>hazannum</i>.§REF§Roux 1998, 149§REF§<br><br>\"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur. The bureaucratic management of these provinces was uniform and interchangeable, and could be applied throughout the land (although some some local variations remained in place).\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Under Ur III control, Susiana was governed by an ensi appointed by the king. The area was therefore included in the Mesopotamian nucleus of the empire and fully integrated both on a political and administrative level. However, in the surrounding areas, the rest of Elam remained independent. In fact, from an Elamite perspective Susa was only a marginal city bordering with Sumer. The kings of Ur interacted with the regions of Anshan (Fars), Shimashki and Zabshali (north of Susiana) through a series of peace treaties, containment policies and threats. At times this interaction was expressed through marriages between the daughters of the kings of Ur and the Elamite kings, or military expeditions.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 168-169) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Inscriptions from time of Ur (Shu-Sin) suggest unity within internal land. \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The Ur III rulers imposed their suzerainty over the Elamite princes of Anshan, who were probably semi-nomadic, in the southeast, and over others, including the princes of Shimashki, in an area that is likely to have extended to the north and southeast of Susiana.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 7) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"With the rise of Ur, cities lost their traditional autonomy (which is an entirely different concept from their fluctuating state of independence). They were still ruled by an ensi. Now, however, the title did not designate a local ruler governing on behalf of the local city-god. The ensi became a governor, appointed by Ur and acting on behalf of the king of Ur\".§REF§(Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The deified kings of Ur consequently replaced the city-gods as ultimate heads of the land. They therefore controlled the entire production and redistributive system, whose management was inevitably delegated to the local ensi.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The substitution of local rulers with functionaries appointed by Ur could not have been welcomed without opposition and conflict.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 157) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"The farming of sheep was mainly focused on the production of wool. When a herd was entrusted to a shepherd its composition was recorded and the parameters of births and deaths were established. Similarly the quantity of wool to be produced was calculated, keeping in mind the differences between sheep and rams, as well as their size. Wool was then rank according to its quality (there were at least six or more categories) and sent to manufacturing centres. Each operation had its own parameters. The administration took into account losses during manufacturing (carding, spinning and washing) and the working days it required. Consequently, a given amount of wool needed a certain number of working days to produce a certain quantity of thread (either warp thread or weaving thread). In order to produce a fabric of given dimensions, then, the administration knew the quantity of working days and warp and weaving thread required. It was then able to calculate the cost and raw materials needed before the whole operation even began.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 163) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 279, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "Governors of districts and divisions were appointed directly by the king, and were often closely related to the King, being close blood relatives such as brothers and close kin. There is no evidence to suggest this system of governance underwent any substantial change §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh p. 134§REF§<br>1. Jam (King)<br>2. Governor of region (Uch,Bakhar,Mansura)<br>3. Governor of district" }, { "id": 280, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " The Durrani empire was a loose confederation of tribes and principalities that evaded attempts to create or maintain central control. Military service was rewarded with the granting of autonomous land grants called Jegeirs that skimmed up to sixty percent of state revenues, with the remainder going to the maintenance of a large army. The local elites were mantained and largely autonomous if appropriate tribute was paid to the tribal elites. §REF§Brock, Lothar, Hans-Henrik Holm, Georg Sørensen, and Michael Stohl. <i>Fragile states</i>. polity, 2011 comments on the problems of governing such a loose confederation; for a brief look at the decline, see <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/21395/Nadir-Shah\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/21395/Nadir-Shah</a>§REF§<br>1. Shah<br>2. Immediate dynastic family and tribe<br>3. Tribal chieftains and holders of Jageirs (land grants)<br>4. Subjugated provincial elites<br>5. Local administrations of conquered territory<br>" }, { "id": 281, "polity": { "id": 167, "name": "tr_tabal_k", "long_name": "Tabal Kingdoms", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -730 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Assyrian annals refer to about 20 kings paying tribute following the invasion of 836 BCE and this number roughly corresponds to the number of early Iron Age sites found in the region. \"The large number of kings mentioned implies that the area was divided into city-states controlled by autonomous or semi-autonomous rulers. Since Tuatti is referred to by name and apparently held sway over several towns, one suspects that he was the most powerfulof these kings.\"§REF§(Melville 2010, 87-109) Melville, Sarah. \"Kings of Tabal: Politics§REF§ §REF§Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery.\" in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake.§REF§<br>1. King<br>Rulers of Northern Tabal claimed the ruling titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" §REF§(Bryce 2012, 142)§REF§<br>_Central administration_<br><br>2.Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: \"The focus of each state was an administrative centre where the royal seat was located.\" §REF§(Bryce 2012, 80)§REF§<br>3.<br>4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Sub-kingNorthern Tabal (Tabal 'Proper'): the largest of the kingdoms, probably contained sub-regions §REF§(Bryce 2012, 141-142)§REF§<br>Tuwana: \"Tuwana's importance in the 8th century, if not also earlier, is indicated by the fact that it contained at least one sub-kingdom, as attested in the inscription CHLI I: X.45. BULGARMADEN (521-5).\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 148)§REF§<br>3. Local leader" }, { "id": 282, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Two notable fragments exist which give some information about the administrative levels across the Neo-Babylonian empire. They are the Etemenanki cylinder and the Istanbul prism fragment, both dated to the reign of Nebuchadrezzar. Most debate concerns the heirarchy of officials; in particular, whether those appointed by Babylon have higher status that the regional kings. §REF§Vanderhooft, D.S. 1999. The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 59. p.94-99§REF§<br>Private ownership does not seem to have been prominent in the Neo-Babylonian period. Instead temples and palaces owned land. Private ownership was enabled by leasing large tenancies to individuals who could then lease out smaller plots. State administration, therefore, worked on multiple levels. §REF§Meyers, E. M. (ed.) 1997. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.259§REF§<br>Official administration levels §REF§Liverani, M. 2011. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.541§REF§<br>(1) King of Babylonia(2) Governors(3) City officers/ Officials in marginal cities(4) Village Headman<br>The Babylonian empire conquered an area with pre-existing structures, many of which continued alongside Babylonian administration, such as vassal Levantine kings and local nobles within Mesopotamia. The Levantine kings appear to owe allegiance to the Babylonian kings, for example they paid in material goods towards Nebuchadrezzar's building projects, but are largely self-controlled. §REF§Vanderhooft, D.S. 1999. The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 59. p.97§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 283, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br><br>2. Palatial staff.Royals had slaves.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"In the fourth century, Aksum became the first significant empire to accept Christianity when King Ezana (320-350) was converted by his slave-teacher, Frumentius (d. 383), a Greek Phoenician.\"§REF§(Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.§REF§<br>No information on the administrative system \"which appears to have been poorly developed. Near relatives of the king assumed an important part in the direction of affairs.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>\"Archaeological evidence indicates that by Aksumite times there had developed a partly urbanized stratified society consisting of monarchy, surrounding elite, 'middle class', and peasant/slave class.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 147) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes ...\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>2. Treasurer and Secretary\"The hellenized Syrians, Aedesius and Frumentius, who had been made royal slaves, were later promoted, one to the office of wine-pourer, the other to the position of secretary and treasurer to the Aksum king.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3.Vassal tribute was either sent or taken by the king who visited \"accompanied by a numerous retinue\".§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3. Lesser officialGovernment officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration. Levies and tributes were collected from the provinces.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br>4. ScribesGovernment officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>5.<br>3. Manager of a Mint <i>inferred</i><br>4. Mint workerCoiners.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Vassal king (negus)Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>\"Control was established over a number of vassal states that sent tributes to the king.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ <i>This control was presumably fully established in the subsequent Aksum period.</i><br>Challenge of the Aksum monarch e.g Ezana was to enforce the submission of the northern Ethiopian principalities.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ <i>i.e. control over principalities was lacking in this period.</i><br>\"The king exercised direct power in the capital territory, and he delegated power to regional leaders in the provincial areas.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ <i>This reference probably refers to the next Aksum periods.</i><br>\"The state was divided into Aksum proper and its vassal kingdoms the rulers of which were subjects of the Aksum king of kings, to whom they paid tribute.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3. Vassal of a vassalSome vassal kings had their own vassals e.g. those in southern Arabia and Upper Nubia.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>3. Negus of a cityAksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>4. Negus of a tribeThe neguses of the four tribes of Bega (Beja) ruled over about 1100 people, Agbo principality about 1000-1500.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 284, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>During the Empire period a supreme leader ruled over \"kings\", which suggest kings preceded the Empire period.§REF§(Rogers 2012, 220)§REF§<br>1. Kings<br>2. Chiefs3. Subordinate?<br>" }, { "id": 285, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King<br>The term \"Pharaoh\" as political title emerged in the New Kingdom. In earlier times \"Pharaoh\" means literally what the Egyptian phrase does i.e. \"great house.\"<br>\"head of state and the topmost administrator of Egypt\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§<br>\"royal centers like the Hwt-aAt, the towers swnw, and the agricultural domains of the crown nwt mAwt(literally “the new localities”) continued to dot the Egyptian landscape and helped to assert the presence of the king’s authority, in a formal way\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 196)§REF§<br>_ Central government before the 5th Dynasty (150 people + families) _<br>2. Vizier\"Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, fewer members of the royal family remained in high managerial posts, and a consolidation of administrative power took place around Egypt's highest civilian bureaucrat, namely the vizier, beginning in the Fifth Dynasty.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§<br>\"the vizier oversaw the entire state administrative system and his office maintained direct and unrestricted control over a range of entities, such as granaries and treasuries, until the appearance of specialized departments sometime in the Fifth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§3. Overseer of the national treasury (from Fourth Dynasty) (usually held by vizier) §REF§(Papazian 2013, 74)§REF§<br>3. Treasury assistant\"Titles of seemingly lower rank, such as hry-' pr-hd \"Treasury assistant\" appear already in the First Dynasty. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty the title imy-r3 pr-hd designated overseers of single treasuries until it disappeared in the Sixth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 74)§REF§<br>Pr-hry-wdb (donation management?) was a department of the treasury \"already in existence during the reign of Khasekhemwy in the Second Dynasty.\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 77)§REF§4 - principal officials of this department.§REF§(Papazian 2013, 78)§REF§<br>4. Overseers of single treasuries.<br>Scribal hierarchy§REF§(Papazian 2013, 78)§REF§<br>3. Overseers of controllers of the scribes4. Controllers (hrp)5 scribal overseers (imy-r3)6. scribal inspectors (shd)7. scribal under-supervisors (imy-h.t)<br>_ Central government from 5th Dynasty_<br>\"It would appear that prior to the Fifth Dynasty the existence of a cohesive multi-tiered administration for granaries is not borne out by the evidence, due perhaps to a paucity of the sources, but more likely to the fact that granary management, being carried out by the vizier's office, may have lacked distinguishable traits. A hierarchical bureaucracy sets in only during the latter parts of the Old Kingdom\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 67-68)§REF§<br><br>2. Vizier\"Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, fewer members of the royal family remained in high managerial posts, and a consolidation of administrative power took place around Egypt's highest civilian bureaucrat, namely the vizier, beginning in the Fifth Dynasty.\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§3. Department heads\"the vizier oversaw the entire state administrative system and his office maintained direct and unrestricted control over a range of entities, such as granaries and treasuries, until the appearance of specialized departments sometime in the Fifth Dynasty.\"§REF§(Papazian 2013, 46)§REF§<br>4. Sub-department heads\"Administrative units, such as granaries, and treasuries (which included commodity management sub-departments) §REF§(Papazian 2013, 58)§REF§<br>5. Granary complex§REF§(Papazian 2013, 60)§REF§ head (inferred)snw.t refers to an individual storage silo, or granary complex §REF§(Papazian 2013, 60)§REF§<br>6. Assistant-directors of the granary (hry-tp snw.t) §REF§(Papazian 2013, 66)§REF§<br>7. Scribes / Other employeesBaker (rth), brewer ('fty), miller (ndw.t), tallier (nht-hrw), foreman, \"inspector of custodians of granary property\" §REF§(Papazian 2013, 66-67)§REF§<br>Scribal hierarchy§REF§(Papazian 2013, 78)§REF§<br>3. Overseers of controllers of the scribes4. Controllers (hrp)5 scribal overseers (imy-r3)6. scribal inspectors (shd)7. scribal under-supervisors (imy-h.t)<br>\"I suggest putting King (pharaoh): the term Pharaoh was hardly used for kings until the time of Akhenaten, a millennium later; before that it meant the palace or royal estate as an institution; 2: the hierarchy looks too extended to me, because in principle all the administrators were qualified as scribes, so your levels 3 and 5 are basically the same, for example, while the ’overseer – inspector – under-supervisor’ hierarchy existed in various areas (even nail-clipping!); maybe remove level 5 and remove ‘scribal’ from levels 6 and 7.\"§REF§(Baines, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _ §REF§(EWA, Sept 2014)§REF§<br>3. Hwt - administrators of royal centers §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 190-192)§REF§\"Private inscriptions state that the HoA Hwt or “governor of a Hwt” was a state official appointed by the administration.\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 198)§REF§<br>Early in the Old Kingdom \"territorial organization based more on a network of royal centers scattered all over the country than on a structure of provinces clearly marked out and controlled by local governors.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 190-192)§REF§<br>\"the so-called geographical processions, in which each province was depicted as formed not only by towns and their hinterland (w-“districts”) but also by marshy areas (pehu).\" §REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García, Recent Developments in the Social and Economic History of Ancient Egypt, 7)§REF§<br>4. Staff of nomarchThe nomarch had staff.§REF§(Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Van De Mieroop, Marc. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Backwell. Chichester.§REF§<br>4. Workshops within royal centers\"some of the institutions whose name is composed with the element Hwt were perhaps some kind of specialized royal workshop like the Hwt-mHa, Hwt-THnt, or Hwt-Smaw known from later inscriptions.\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE, 191)§REF§<br>4. Village leaders (inferred from the existence of villages))\"The inscriptions in Metjen’s tomb, from the early Fourth Dynasty, reveal that a Hwt could control several villages, whereas the autobiography of Ibi of Der el-Gebrawi states that extensive fields of about 50 ha provided with workers and cattle were administered by a Hwt, a fact confirmed by the ritual texts where the Hwt appear as administrative centers asserting their control over several fields and domains (Moreno García 1999, 2001a).\"§REF§(Juan Carlos Moreno García 2013, 198 cite: Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/15127.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/15127.html</a>)§REF§<br>5. Scribes<br>_Crew system used to organize labour_<br>1. Leader of the crew<br>\"In the Old Kingdom, a crew was made up of two gangs\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>2. Leader of a gang\"In the Old Kingdom... a gang was divided into four or five phyles\" §REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>3. Leader of a phyle\"In the Old Kingdom... each phyle had four divisions of about 10 men each, although this number could vary (Roth, 1991). Hence, the total labour force in a crew could well reach 400 men, possibly even more.\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>4. Foreman of a division\"In the Middle Kingdom, the most frequent sizes of a division (including one foreman) were 10, 14 and 20 (Gardiner et al., 1952, 1955; Mueller, 1975; Simpson, 1963, 1965, 1969, 1986). However, there were smaller division sizes of 9 and 4, with two supervisors combined into one larger division (Griffith, 1898).\"§REF§(Ezzamel 2004, 507) Ezzamel, Mahmoud. July 2004. Organization. Vol. 11. No. 4. pp 497-537. Sage publications.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 286, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br><br>_Central government_<br>2. Conseil d'en haut. Dominated by influential figure such as Cardinal Richelieu, then Marazin.3. Officials of other councils of government. (The Conseil d'en haut being the \"supreme governing council of the state.\") §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 76)§REF§4.5.<br>2. Estates-General (until 1614 CE).3.Last session until 1789 CE §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 514)§REF§<br>2. Parlement of Paris3.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Superintendant<br>3. Intendant§REF§(Ladurie 1991, 73)§REF§ in a generalite§REF§(Briggs 1998, 120)§REF§4. Subdelegue\"the office of subdelegue quickly established itself as an essential aid to the overworked intendants, who desperately needed reliable subordinates with local knowledge. There were always some ambitious local officials who were prepared to accept these unpopular positions...\"§REF§(Briggs 1998, 120)§REF§<br>\"During the 1630s the presence of an intendant became the normal rule, where it had previously been sporadic; without an clear intention, the crown was establishing a parallel system of non-venal administrators, with tremendous potential as a tool for centralization.\" §REF§(Briggs 1998, 118)§REF§<br>Intendants were about 80 men §REF§(Briggs 1998, 119)§REF§ who \"could rely on the council to issue arrets in line with their recommendations.\"§REF§(Briggs 1998, 119)§REF§<br>4. City governorGovernor of Paris §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 119)§REF§<br>5.<br>4. Provincial governor §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 75)§REF§; Governors §REF§(Briggs 1998, 120)§REF§5. Lieutenant-governor §REF§(Briggs 1998, 120)§REF§<br>5. Prévôt §REF§(Ladurie 1991, 119)§REF§ in a Prévôté<br>6. Leader of a parish<br>" }, { "id": 287, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE so this period very low administrative complexity.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Hajji Muhammad ware: \"The proposed usage for formal eating and drinking made them a desirable item for display purposes in a society that was, perhaps, beginning to see the emergence of a social hierarchy.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 167) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 288, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>At this time, polities in the Niger Inland Delta may have been organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power.§REF§(McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system§REF§(Reader 1998, 219)§REF§ Jenne-jeno was \"a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement.\"§REF§(Reader 1998, 225)§REF§ \"the demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-jeno in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization.\"§REF§(Reader 1998, 228)§REF§<br>Clan<br>(General reference for West African states) \"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 53)§REF§<br>Kinship group<br>(General reference for West African states) \"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 53)§REF§<br>In West Africa \"Early states were simple in their government ... Some were ruled by a single chief or king and his counsellors. Others were governed by a council of chiefs or elders. Others again were formed by several neighbouring peoples whose chiefs were bound in loyalty to one another. Elsewhere, at the same time, there were people who found it better to get along without any chiefs.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Traditional groups such as clans ... or age-sets of people born at about the same time, had influence in these early states, as in later times, because they could underpin a system of law and order.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 289, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Chief<br><br>2. Headman<br><br>2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)<br>\"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§. \"The production of bronze objects has suggested to many scholars that, just as trade became more complex, sociopolitical organization may have become more complex as well. This idea seems to be reinforced by the presence of fortified towns, suggesting some degree of political integration, at least at a local level. Unfortunately, there is little formal data on sociopolitical organization for the Earlier Bronze Age. Scholars analyzing the contents of burials have suggested a two-tiered division was present in Earlier Bronze Age society, with one tier being \"elites\" buried with considerable wealth, the other being commoners buried with very few goods. Most scholars believe that such differences were probably achieved during the life of the individual, particularly since many of the \"elite\" burials contain goods associated with warriors. However, both women and men, and even some children, were buried in the \"elite\" style, suggesting that ascribed status differences may have been present.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2001, 413)§REF§" }, { "id": 290, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "\"many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, were incorporated into the Turkish administration in India.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>\"The insecurity that accompanied the throne resulted in frequent civil wars, military revolutions and large-scale massacres of royal families. In some cases, the sultan nominated his heir, or else the claimants to the throne were left to fight a war of succession.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Sultan \"was in charge of the state's administration and of the army.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>2. Advisory CouncilSultans \"took the opinion of an advisory council on all important matters dealing with the administration of the state. The advisory council was not a legally constituted body and the numbers of advisers varied according to the importance of the matters discussed and also according to the personal preferences of the monarch.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97-98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Wazir of the diwan-i-wizarat\"The wazir or prime minister was the most important officer, next only to the sultan. By the fourteenth century, the wazir, whose earlier duties were confined only to the military, had now become an expert on revenue affairs too, and was made responsible for the entire fiscal administration of the realm and all matters relating to income and expenditure. He was entrusted with powers to appoint revenue officials, organize and collect taxes, and largely control the state's expenditure.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Next to Sultan, the chief executive office belonged to the wazir. Primarily he was one of the four departmental heads, the \"four pillars of state\" but his rank was a little above the others for he was the chief minister. As the Sultan's chief counselor, he had access to him at all times. §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 194-196.§REF§<br>3. mustauf-i-mumalik (Auditor general)<br>3. Musharraf-I-mumalik (Accountant general)\"A separate auditor general was appointed for supervising expenditure and there was also an accountant general for inspecting the income. Both officers assisted the wazir in discharging his duties.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 978) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. sadr-us-sadar or qazi-i-mumalik of ?? diwan-i-risalat (department for religion) <i>what did the sadr-us-sadar lead if not the diwan-i-risalat?</i>\"religious affairs and provide scholarships to academics and men of piety.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>4. Khatib - u'l - khutaba of ?? diwan-i-risalat (department for religion) <i>what did the sadr-us-sadar lead if not the diwan-i-risalat?</i>\"junior qazis appointed to assist him\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 99) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>\"A preacher of exceptional eloquence .. as leader of the diwan - i - risalat, he appointed the religion preachers and imans to lead prayers and manage the mosques the realm.\" §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246.§REF§ He was officially presided over the ahl-i-qalam (men of pen). §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp.246.§REF§<br>3. munshi-i-mumalik of diwan-i-insha (department for post)\"dealt with the entire state's postal correspondence. Groups of horsemen or runners were used to carry the correspondence across the kingdom. Sultans planted spies, called barids, in different parts of the kingdom to obtain information on people, events and occurrences.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. Department for Revenue\"the sultan was assisted by a team of ministers who were individually responsible for various departments, such as revenue, public works, war, local and provincial governments, etc. The number, power and function of the ministers varied from time to time.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 97) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. Minister for Public Works\"There were a number of other departments like the public works department, the agricultural department, the audit department and the department of slaves - each under the charge of a minister.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>4. sub-official by type of public work <i>inferred</i>5. On-site manager of a public work <i>inferred</i>6. On-site worker on a public work <i>inferred</i><br>3. Minister for Audit<br>3. Minister for Agriculture<br>3. Minister for War<br>3. Minister for the Royal Household\"looked after the personal comforts of the sultan and the requirements of the harem.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. Wakil-i-dar of the department for slaves\"Firuz Shah Tughlaq had set up a separate department of slaves, many of whom were employed in royal workshops. The officer in charge of this was known as the wakil-i-dar, who other than being responsible for maintaining court decorum, also oversaw the seating arrangement of nobles at court.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>4. sub-administrators for different types of workshop? <i>inferred</i>5. Manager of royal workshop<br>3. Minister for Markets<br>\"and another who controlled the markets.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. Minister for Provincial Government\"a minister appointed as a link between the provincial and central governments\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 98) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"the Delhi Sultanate was more like a conglomeration of nearly-independent principalities, jagirs and provinces, each ruled by a hereditary chief or zamindar, with their subjects looking more to their immediate governors who had absolute power in the provinces than the sovereign who was far away.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>3. Iqtadar (or muqti or wali)\"The kingdoms of the various dynasties were categorized into a number of divisions called iqtas, each under an iqtadar, muqti or wali. Therefore, iqtas were territorial units allotted to nobles, performing civil and military duties, in lieu of salary.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 99) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Main functions of an Iqtadar: \"collection of land revenue, which was payable to the central treasury, and the maintenance of law and order. Out of the total land revenue collected, a fixed share was given to the state, while the rest went towards the expenditure of governing the iqtas and the personal expenses of the iqtadars.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 99) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>\"In principle, the Iqtadars could be transferred within the kingdom.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 99-100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>In all probability, the term \"wali\" was reserved for governors with extraordinary powers. The number of such governors was small and the major part of the sultanate was administered by governors with limited power. §REF§Qureshi, I. H. (1971). The administration of the Sultanate of Delhi (p. 93). Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 197.§REF§<br>The muqti (fief holder) was appointed by the Sultan, and could be transferred and dismissed at will. Usually he maintained a body of troops consisting of both infantry and horsemen, out of his provincial revenues, and was responsible not only for the defense of his province, but also for the maintenance of law and order. §REF§Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 209-210.§REF§<br>4. Provincial governor of a province\"Iqtas were divided into provinces that were further sub-divided into shiqs and parganas.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 109) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§ Some Hindus became provincial governors.§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 105) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>5. shiqdar of a shiq\"The provinces were again divided into shiqs and parganas.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>6. ? of a parganas <i>is there someone at this level or is it just a term for a sub-division</i>\"The provinces were again divided into shiqs and parganas.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>7. Amils of a sub-division (number of villages) of a parganas§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§8. muqqaddam of a village (village headman)\"The village headman was known as the muqqaddam and the landowners as khuts. The village accountant or patwari assisted the officials in the discharge of their functions at the village level.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§ \"The villages enjoyed a more-or-less autonomous status, with village republics managing their own affairs. The sultan did not usually interfere with the workings of local institutions.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>9. patwari (village accountant)<br>8. Khutd (land owner)<br>Khutd (village headmen). The headman of villages controlled the countryside and agricultural production. §REF§Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (1990). A History of India (Revised, Updated Edition) pp. 161.§REF§<br><br>3. Tribute paying (Hindu) states<br>4.<br>_Note for later polities_<br>\"This new administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate had a powerful impact on small states and principalities that were formed after its disintegration as well as on the Mughal administration that would come into existence in the sixteenth century.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 291, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Samanid state organization provided a model for the Saljuqs and later states.\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 145) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Book of Government by Nizam al-Mulk is therefore an essential source for this code and the codes for the Kara-Khanids and the Seljuks.<br>1. Amir<br>Head of state was the amir.§REF§(Negmatov 1997, 86) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>2. hajib of the dargah (royal court)\"division of political functions between the court (dargah) and the chancery (divan) mirrored similar conditions at Baghdad.\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"Theoretically the vizier was the head of the divan, the bureaucracy, and thus was the counterpart in the bureaucratic institution of the head of the court, the chamberlain (hajib).\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Officer in Turkish palace guardhajib had authority over the Turkish palace guard§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br><br>2. Vizier (head of divan).\"The Samanid rulers followed the ancient Persian custom, recently copied by the Abbasids in Baghdad, of entrusting the management of official life to competent and loyal chief ministers or viziers.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>Reporting to the viziers were some ten agencies that functioned like ministries, each with central offices situated around a single square in Bukhara, and each with local representatives in every province. Together these offices managed all aspects of civic life except religion.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>3. Prime Minister (vazir) (-- not the same as vizier)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. The treasurer (mustaufi)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Correspondence (amid al-mulk)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Captain of the guard (sahib shurat)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Postmaster (sahib barid)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§4. Postal station head <i>inferred</i>5. Courier <i>inferred</i><br>3. Inspector, fiscal as well as general (mushrif)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Private domains of the ruler§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Chief of Police (muhtasib)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Religious endowments (auqaf)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Justice (qada)§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Centralized control over \"the distribution of landed estates ... and the revenues of crown estates.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 228) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"The Samanid state, like all its predecessors in Central Asia, was in reality a conglomeration of great urban complexes, each with its own local dynasty, traditional elite, and economic and cultural particularities.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ \"the ruler appointed local governors, or loca ldynasts functioned as governors although they were actually vassals of the Samanid amir.\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Vassal princes e.g. Khwarazmian dynasty§REF§(Frye 1975, 138) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§, Khurasan and Tukharistan.§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 129) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§\"It is not known when the various parts of Transoxiana submitted to the Samanids, but some of them remained under the control of their local rulers, for example in Khwarazm where the country became a part of the Samanid state after Isma'il's defeat of 'Amr b. Laith, but the local Khwarazmian dynasty continued to flourish until 385/995 in the south of the country, while a governor of the Samanids ruled in the north with his capital at Gurganj.\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 138) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Governor of provinces e.g. at Gurganj§REF§(Frye 1975, 138) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§\"The primary duty of both governors and local potentates was to collect taxes and provide troops if needed.\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>3. Vizier equivalent in the provincesThe \"central bureaucracy was matched by a similar organization in the provincial capitals, but on a smaller scale\"§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Representative of the central government (Ten Agencies) in the provinces --- assumed to be different from Governor<br>4. Head of section under vizier equivalent in the provinces§REF§(Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§\"The local organs of all the diwans, apart from the postal administration, were responsible both to the central authority and to the local provincial rulers.\" §REF§(Negmatov 1997, 86) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>5. Staff of section e.g. scribe6. Staff of section e.g. doorkeeper, lesser scribe.<br>" }, { "id": 292, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Source 1: Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram \"Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram)<br>2. Northern Tchety3. Northern nomarchs4. Village chiefs5. Constables<br>4. Great Kenbet of the North5. Village Kenbets<br>2. Southern Tchety3. Southern nomarchs4. Village chiefs<br>4. Great Kenbet of the South5. Village Kenbets5. Constables<br>2. Overseer of the House of Gold (Treasury)3. Overseer of Granaries<br>3. Overseer of Cattle<br>2. Taxes ?<br>Source 2: \"Fig. 3.4. Schematic outline of the developed structure of government in the New Kingdom. The fragility of much of the evidence on which this diagram is based must be emphasized, as must its inability adequately to illustrate significant changes in the structure ... Nevertheless, the writer believes that the diagram gives a reasonable approximation of the divisions of functions and powers within New Kingdom government.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 208) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Chancellor of the Court3. Camberlain of the Court<br>2. Chief Steward of the Royal Estates3. Bureaucracy for the Royal Domain<br>2. Commander-in-Chief3. Chief Deputy of the Northern Corps<br>3. Chief Deputy of the Southern Corps4. General Officers<br>4. Bureaucracy5. Garrisons / Town and Village Levies / Military villages<br>2. Overseer Of Prophets Of (All The Gods) Of Upper and Lower Egypt -- \"held at various times by vizier, high priest of Amun.\"3. God's Wife of Amun4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>3. High Priest of Amen4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>3. High Priests of Other Gods4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>2. Northern Vizier<br>2. Southern Vizier3. Overseers (2) of the Treasury4. Bureaucracy5. Village Chiefs<br>5. Town Mayors6. for both mayors and kenbet-councils \"there was internal hierarchization and differences in function.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>5. Councils6. for both mayors and kenbet-councils \"there was internal hierarchization and differences in function.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4. Judiciary5. Village Chiefs<br>5. Town Mayors<br>5. Councils<br>4. Police5. Village Chiefs<br>5. Town Mayors<br>5. Councils<br>2. Overseer of the Granaries of Upper and Lower Egypt / Overseer of Cattle <i>not sure I understand the correct position of these titles</i><br>2. Governors of Northern Lands3. Vassel Kings<br>Battalion Commanders<br>2. Governor of Southern Lands. King's Son of Kush.3. Deputy of Wawat4. Mayors of Egyptian Centres<br>4. Chiefs of Indigenous Groups<br>3. Deputy of Kush4. Mayors of Egyptian Centres<br>4. Chiefs of Indigenous Groups<br>3. Battalion Commanders<br>van den Boorn (1988)<br>\"We note, that the interrogation of local urban officials takes place in the bureau of the vizier ... It is evident, that interrogations and hearings of urban authorities entailed their journeying to the seat of the vizier: for the vizier, a perfect means of exercising effective control over his urban officials. For the functionaries involved, the possibility of being called back to the residence-city meant a check on possibile irregularities, also support for their local politics in having the opportunity to consult the vizier and knowing that they were backed. On the practical side, it entailed a great deal of traveling. Moreover, it presupposes a local apparatus managing affairs in their absence.\"§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 115-116) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§<br>The knbty n w was the \"'councillor of the district' the official responsible for the rural district. As Luft aply remarks ... these officials are apparently treated as members of a collective of officials, as members of a knbt, instead of being treated as individual officials with an individual title. It would seem possible, therefore, to assume the existence of an overall 'council of the district(s)' in which these officials were group as a separate echelon of the local government (parallel to the 'urban authorities'?) or perhaps according to some geographical principle. At present, there seems to be no evidence for the existence of such a council. ... he has definite and direct ties to the vizier and his executive departments ... This would seem to contradict the viewpoint held by Helck to the effect that the councillor of the district was subordinate to the mayor ... He is known to have at his disposal a 'bodyguard' and a scribe ... they clearly operate on their own behalf, independent from the mayor, as representatives of their own administrative area.\"§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 175-177) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§ <i>knbty n w mainly Middle Kingdom but also early New Kingdom§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 177) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§</i><br><i>Alternative attempt (multiple sources):</i><br>1. Pharaoh<br>The term \"Pharaoh\" - Egyptian for \"great house\" - emerged as political title in the New Kingdom.<br>JGM: Note also use of term in the Old Testament.<br>\"One office that was more often that not held by foreigners was that of 'royal butler,' a senior executive position outside the normal bureaucratic hierarchy, the holder of which was often entrusted with special royal commissions.\" §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 292)§REF§<br>2. \"Scribe of the house of the Pharaoh.\" (Papyrus BM 10053 recto. Ram IX)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 675) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>_ Central government line _§REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Vizier §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 285)§REF§<br>3. Overseer of policemen(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\": \"It is he (the vizier) who appoints the overseer of policemen in the bureau of the pr-nswt.\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of Pharoah's treasury (Papyrus Chester Beatty III. Meren.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 662) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§ Overseer of the treasury§REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§4. \"Scribe of the overseer of the treasury of the Pharoah, I.p.h\" (Papyrus Anastai VI., Sety II.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 672) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. Deputy of Pharoah's treasury (Papyrus Chester Beatty III. Meren.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 662) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. \"The chief of the record keepers of the treasury of the Pharoah, I. p. h. (Papyrus Sallier I, Meren.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 669) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br><br>4. Overseers of gold and silver houses, royal stewards, overseers of the granary §REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§, Overseer of works §REF§(Bryan 2000, 236)§REF§<br>5. Royal scribe§REF§(Bryan 2000, 264)§REF§<br>3. Overseer of pr-'3 <i>inferred</i>4. \"Overseer of the workshop of the armory of the pr-'3, I. p. h.\" (Papyrus Bologna 1094, Meren.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 663) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§5. Scribe of the armory of the pr-'3 (Papyrus Bologna 1094, Meren.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 663) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. \"Overseer of the treasuries/enclosures in the mansion of the pr-'3\"(Wine jar sealing no. 47 from Malkata, Am.III)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 610) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§4. \"Chief archivist of the treasury of the pr-'3, I. p. h.\" (Inscription of Rameses III referring to the official Pn-p3-t3 at Tod)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 859) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the hnwty (Ostracon from the Tom of Sn-n-Mwt. Hatsh.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 737) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the hnw (Ostracon from the Tom of Sn-n-Mwt. Hatsh.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 737) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the pr-nswt (Ostracon from the Tom of Sn-n-Mwt. Hatsh.)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 737) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§ Overseer of the pr-nswt (Inscription from the tomb of the recruiting scribes Hr-m-hb. Thut. IV)§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 752) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>Are these public officials appointed by central or local government? Was there an \"Overseer of the market places\" at level 4.? Perhaps they appointed the public weighers.<br>5. Qabbaneh (public weighers in the market place) §REF§(Willard 2008, 2249)§REF§6. Notary assisted the Qabbaneh §REF§(Willard 2008, 2249)§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _§REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Vizier\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>2. Nomes §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§Nomes had capitals. Hebenu was the capital of the Oryx nome. §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§<br>3. Chiefs of towns\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Chiefs of villagesMayors e.g. mayor of Thinis (region of Abydos). §REF§(Bryan 2000, 241)§REF§<br>\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. Local bureaucrats<br>5. Scribes<br>_ Nubian line _ §REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Governor\"Viceroy and overseer of southern countries.\"§REF§(Bryan 2000, 234)§REF§<br>Provinces in Palestine and Syria §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 292)§REF§<br>3. Bureaucrats for the whole of Nubia4. Bureaucrats for both Nubian Provinces5. Scribes<br>(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\" mentions mayors and settlement-leaders.§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 726) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>EWA: Central line/capital: King, Central elites, bureaucrats<br>Provincial line: King, Central elites, chiefs of towns and chiefs of villages, local bureuacrats and scribes<br>Nubian line as an example of 'foreign' territory: King, Nubian Governor, bureaucrats for the whole of Nubia and for both Nubian provinces, scribes<br>O'Connor (1983)§REF§(O'Connor 1983) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The garrisons of Egyptian (and Kushite) troops in the 'Northlands' were small, scattered and under the direct control of several 'battalion-commanders' and not of the governors. ... The 'Southlands' (Wawat and Kush), with their Nubian population ... was ruled by a single governor, who shared no important administrative power with the local chieftains; its military forces were centralized under a single 'battalion-commander'\".§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 209) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The internal government of Egypt was divided for functional reasons, into four major units (fig. 3.4) and these were sometimes further divided geographically ... Centralized control was maintained by means of the small group of powerful officials who headed each department, who reported directly who the king, who were appointed and removed by him.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 209) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Dier-el-Medina worker village<br>1. Pharoah<br>2. Vizier3. Palace scribePalace scribe managed the community and was himself appointed by the Vizier.§REF§Ziskind, Bernard. Halioua. Occupational medicine in ancient Egypt. 2007. Medical Hypotheses. Volume 69. Issue 4. pp 942-945. Elsevier.§REF§ Two teams of workers worked ten days and then were replaced.§REF§Ziskind, Bernard. Halioua. Occupational medicine in ancient Egypt. 2007. Medical Hypotheses. Volume 69. Issue 4. pp 942-945. Elsevier.§REF§<br>4. Team on the left(or right) supervisor5. Team on the left(or right) worker (*5)<br>4. Team on the left(or right) doctor<br>4. Team on the left(or right) non-commissioned officer5. Team on the left(or right) guard<br>5. Team on the left(or right) gate-keeper" }, { "id": 293, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " \"The most important source for the study of Later Han institutions is the \"'Treatise on the hundred officials' ... in the Hou-Han shu or Later Han history. This text is systematic, detailed, and much superior to its counterpart in the Han shu. Additional information is found in surviving fragments of once comprehensive accounts on bureaucracy by Han authors. The institutions of Later Han are therefore more fully known than those of Former Han, even though there can be no doubt the basic pattern was the same.\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 491)§REF§ The number of levels, here, is equal to the number of levels comprising the central government, with the addition of the emperor, the inner/outer courts, and the grand tutor.<br>1. King/Emperor.<br>2. Inner and Outer Courts\"In 107 CE, Emperor An of the Eastern Han Dynasty (r. 106-25 CE) issued an edict that proclaimed, \"I summon the excellencies and ministers, the officials of the Inner and Outer Courts...\"\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 69) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>2. Grand tutor\"An aged and respected man was normally selected for the position shortly after the enthronement of an emperor, but the grand tutors usually died after a few years, and the office was then left vacant for the remainder of the reign.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§<br>\"With the appointment of the third grand tutor in A.D. 75, the character of the office changed. He and his successors were given supervisory duties over the secretariat, (shang-shu; masters of writing) and from that time onwards came to head sizable ministries.§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>Outer Court headed by Three Excellencies<br>3. Marshal of State to Supreme Commandersince 8 BCE \"the three highest regularly appointed career officials had the same rank. These were the so-called three excellencies (san kung)\". §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§ the Supreme Commander \"gradually became the most influential among the three.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§<br>4. Chief Clerk (chang-shih)\"All ministries of the three excellencies were organized in the same general way. Only that of the supreme commander is systematically described in the sources, but the organization undoubtedly varied little from one ministry to the other. Each of the three excellencies was assisted by one chief clerk (chang-shih).\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 493)§REF§<br>4. Head of BureauThe ministries of the excellencies and the chief clerks \"were divided into bureaus (ts'ao) and staffed with numerous clerks and attendants.\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 493)§REF§<br>5. Clerk<br>6. Assistant clerks (tso-shih)\"the status of Han officials was defined by a scale beginning with those entitled to stipends equivalent to 10,000 bushels (shih) of grain at the top, and ending with assistant clerks (tso-shih) at the bottom. From 23 B.C. onward, the number of ranks was eighteen. The grand tutor (t'ai-fu) was above the scale.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 491)§REF§<br>3. Grand Minister of Finance to Minister of Financesince 8 BCE \"the three highest regularly appointed career officials had the same rank. These were the so-called three excellencies (san kung)\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§4. Chief Clerk<br>4. Head of Bureau5. Clerk6. Assistant clerks<br>3. Grand Minister of Works to Minister of Workssince 8 BCE \"the three highest regularly appointed career officials had the same rank. These were the so-called three excellencies (san kung)\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 492)§REF§4. Chief Clerk<br>4. Head of Bureau (e.g. Directorate for imperial manufacturies§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 117) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§)5. Head of a sub-division within Bureau (e.g. type of manufacture e.g. paper-making)6. Worker in sub-division of Bureau e.g. researcher\"In 105, while serving in the directorate for imperial manufacturies ... [Cai Lun (d.121] devised a process of making paper from hemp, mulberry bark, and fishing nets.\"§REF§(Knechtges 2010, 117) Knechtges, David R. in Chang, Kang-i Sun. Ownen, Stephen. 2010. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>7. Assistant clerks<br>3. Superintendent of ceremonial (one of the Nine Ministers chiu-ch'ing)§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§\"They were not direct subordinates of the three excellencies, although these examined their performances.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 493)§REF§<br>4. Directors e.g. for astrologythe Superintendent of ceremonial \"had several senior aides\" such as the directors for prayer, astrology, music, butchery, offerings and for specific shrines and a memorial park. The directors had \"many attendants.\" Under the superintendent were also an Academician who was the head of the imperial academy and from 159 CE an inspector of the imperial library. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 493-494)§REF§<br>5. Specialist astrologer <i>inferred level</i>In 115 CE polymath Zhang Heng (78-139 CE) \"became a grand scribe responsible for observing astronomical phenomena, preparing calendars, and managing time devices.\"§REF§(Yan 2007, 117-118) Yan, Hong-Sen. 2007. Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Springer Science & Business Media.§REF§<br>6. Assistant/Apprentice to astrologer <i>inferred level</i>7. Clerk/Secretary <i>inferred level</i><br>3. Privy superintendent of the lesser treasury (one of the Nine Ministers chiu-ch'ing)§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§\"He headed the largest ministry, but was one of the least influential of the nine.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§ the privy superintendent of the lesser treasury was \"the nominal supervisor of certain attendants of the sovereign.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>4. Ministerial assistants (ch'eng)Number of ministerial assistants reduced from six to one during Later Han. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>4. Director of the secretariat and the supervisor of the secretariatDirector of the secretariat ran the secretariat. the supervisor of the secretariat is described as \"his substitute\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>5. Assistant of the left and Assistant of the rightassistants assisted the director and the supervisor of the secretariat§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>5. Member of the Secretariat head of bureauSecretariat was divided into bureaus. These came to number six in Later Han. A bureau for regular attendants, \"Two bureaus for senior officials ... were in charge of correspondence with provincial inspectors and grand administrators\", bureau for civil population, bureau for superintending guests of south and north §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>6. Lesser staff\"Each bureau was under one member of the Secretariat, who was aided by lesser staff, including government slaves.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of transport§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of the palace§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of the guard§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of trials§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of state visits§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of the imperial clan§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of agriculture§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 494-499)§REF§<br>3 Mayor of Luoyang (Lo-yang ling): Mayor controlled an imperial prison and oversaw candidates for office who had arrived in capital from the regions§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 506)§REF§§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 506)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Regions (chou) had Inspectors (or commissioners)35 CE number of regions (chou) reduced from 14 to 13. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 506)§REF§<br>Inspectorates of the bureaucracy became permanently based in their own \"provincial capitals\" and had their own bureaucracy and - by 180 CE - military. §REF§(Keay 2009, 177)§REF§<br>3. Attendant clerk head of bureau\"Their staffs were organized into bureaus, each under an attendant clerk (ts'ung-shih shih).\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§<br>3. Duty attendant clerk (pieh-chia ts'ung-shih shih)\"In addition, one attendant clerk was appointed to each commandery or kingdom of the region, and another acted as duty attendant clerk (pieh-chia ts'ung-shih shih). The latter had the responsibility of following the inspector (or commissioner) at public functions and of recording all matters, including conversations.\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§<br>3. Commanderies (chun) / Kingdom (wang-kuo) (under a governor / chancellor)\"Each region included a varying number of commanderies (chun).\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§ \"largely modelled on the centralised Ch'in system, with its north-western heartland divided into 'commanderies' under governors appointed by the court.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 6)§REF§ ::: In Former Han governor had a Commandant to organize the militia. This was position was rarely present in Later Han. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§<br>4. Head of BureauStaff of the governor organized into bureaus.§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§<br>5. Clerks<br>4. Magistrates of Counties (hsien)All commanderies divided into counties.§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§ Counties were \"personally inspected\" by the commandery governor. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§ Counties in militarily important regions known as Marches (tao).§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§<br>5. Head of Bureau\"The county staff was organized into bureaus which imitated the commandery administration and undoubtedly also varied according to local conditions.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§<br>6. Clerks<br>5. Districts (hsiang) under a moral elder (san-lao), a chief of police (yu-chiao), and a tax, law and labor official (yu-chih or se-fu if under 5,000 households)Territory of a county was divided into districts. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§<br>6. Commune (t'ing) under a chief (t'ing-chang)Districts were divided into communes. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§<br>7. Hamlet (li) under a headman (li-k'uei)Communes were divided into hamlets. §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§<br>Families grouped into units (of five and ten) \"which had collective responsibility on one another's conduct.\" §REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 509)§REF§<br>_Southern Xiongnu tributary_<br>Maintained at cost to central government which was around 91 CE about 100 million cash per annum. Other tributary non-Han client populations included Wuhan (from 49 CE§REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60)§REF§), Xianbei, and Qiang. Like the Southern Xiongnu, their allegiance had to be paid for by the central government. §REF§(Keay 2009, 171)§REF§ Other frontier tribes received 74,800,000 cash per year from 73 CE. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60)§REF§<br>_Princely kingdoms_<br>\"In 107 CE, Emperor An of the Eastern Han Dynasty (r. 106-25 CE) issued an edict that proclaimed, \"I summon the excellencies and ministers, the officials of the Inner and Outer Courts, the governors of commanderies, and chancellors of the princely kingdoms...\"\"§REF§(Zhao 2015, 69) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>\"If charge of territory was granted to an imperial son and his heirs as a fief, it was referred to as a kingdom (wang-kuo), but this did not affect the way in which it was administered.\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 507)§REF§<br>\"Whenever an area such as a county was granted as a fief to a marquis, it was referred to as a marquisate (huo-kuo).\"§REF§(Bielenstein 1986, 508)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 294, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King ?<br>Hypothesised level. Between 1050-1150 CE there may have been a king. However, a majority of scholars may disagree.<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14)§REF§<br>At Mound 72 \"Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come prom places other than Cahokia.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 82)§REF§<br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies\"§REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and<br>ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader.\"§REF§(Kelly 2014, 22)§REF§<br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 295, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 124) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§<br>\"The concept of territorial lordship appears in some earlier text like Jaya Samhita, but it is only around second century CE or a little later that it is linked to the king’s claims for taxes (Sharma 1991: 191). Thus a king was entitled to levy taxes because he protect people and was the lord of the earth i.e. Bhupati. The Vakatakas had possession over land and also had control over raw material and hidden treasures. This probably reflected contemporary ideology that the king was regarded as a lord of a land, i.e. Bhupati. Thus, the inference of gradual transformation in king’s role from Gopati to Bhupati in Vidarbha can be drawn on the basis of archaeological as well as literary data.\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>_Royal Court§REF§Bakker, Hans. October 2010. Royal Patronage and Religious Tolerance: The Formative Period of Gupta-Vakataka Culture. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. Vol. 20. No. 4. pp.461-475.§REF§_<br><br>2. sachiv (minister)<br>\"inscriptions revealed various names of administrative personals\" (see Mirashi 1957, 1963)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§2-3. kulaputras, rajuka (revenue officer)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§4. Scribes <i>inferred</i><br>2-3. rahasika (private secretary)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br> ?. dandanayak (???)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>\"The powerful alliance with the Guptas must have left some influence on Vakataka politics, administration, religion, art and architecture (see Sharma 1991: 339, Jamkhedkar 1983: 25-36).\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Touring official\"Normally the villagers were expected to provide all amenities to touring offcial in the form of grass for horses, hides for seat and charcoal for cooking, etc. Nevertheless, villages which were donated in grants were exempted from these tax collections.\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>2. Feudatories<br>2. rajyadhikruta (Governor).§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§ Province (Rajya)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§3. District (Ahara, Bhoga)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§4. Division (Marga, Patta)§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§5. Village officialsis this the level for the sarvadhyaksha (civic superintendent)?§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>\"The inscriptions revealed that the village officials were authorized to collect the taxes in the kinds.\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>5. Brahmans given villages in grant\"During the Satavahana time kings had only granted revenue of particular village to religious benefciaries. However, surprisingly, the Vakatakas had granted villages to religious benefciaries along with exemption of all sort of taxes, nullifying all royal authority over that granted village.\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br><br>\"Vakataka inscriptions also provide information about administrative divisions, as it appeared in Satavahana inscriptions. Some administrative divisions of Satavahanas and Vakatakas are same, viz. Rashtraka, Ahara, and Patha.\" §REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>\"the general imperial administrative structure of Kautilya was adaptable for smaller empires after the seventh century, of the Vakatakas, Pratiharas, and Paias and they were also borrowed by the Mughal Empire later. But they could not be sustained in their fullness in a gemeinshaft society, without the total commitment of the intellectual elite. They underwent serious erosion in several ways. The later empires, including even Harsha's empire were loose - and ultimately local power centers of a feudal tributary nature grew up. ... postseventh-century Hindu administration in North or South Indian empires was essentially a comibination of fuedalism, bureaucracy, and village self-government. This combination had the advantage of avoiding anarchy when central power weakened.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 60-61) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§<br>Decentralization trend through this period (still relatively centralized 300 CE) created Indian state of 400-1200 CE: \"The essence of the state structure, beginings of which are located with varying emphasis in both pre-Gupta and Gupta periods, may be understood by referring to two interrelated points which feature repeatedly in writings on the period under review: (i) decentralized administration and (ii) political hierarchy. Both points are posited as making a sharp contrast to the state structure of the Mauryas (Close of the fourth century BC to the beginning of the second century BC), the perceived contrast being expressed in such positive statements as: '... the Kusana political organization did not possess that rigid centralization which characterized the Mauryan administrative machinery.' Corrosion of centralization acquired a faster pace in the Gupta period. According to one opinion which envisages severage stages in the evolution of early Indian polity, 'the fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralized administration in which towns, feudatories and military elements came to the forefront in both the Deccan and the north. This was partly neutralized by the emphasis on the divinity of the king. The Kusana princes assumed the official title of devaputra and instituted the cult of the worship of the dead king, and the Satavahana princes came to be compared to deified epic heroes. The last age, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto-feudal polity.' The processes which worked towards administrative decentralization are essentially seen to have derived from: (i) the practice of making land grants along with administrative privileges, and (ii) the breakdown of the state's monopoly over the army. It is thus stressed that the beneficiaries who received grants of land from kings and their feudatories were given a wide range of fiscal and administrative immunities and the immunities were such that: 'In grants, from the time of Pravarasena II Vakataka onwards (fifth century AD) the ruler gave up his control over almost all sources of revenue, including pasturage, hides and charcoal, mines for the production of salt, forced labour, and all hidden treasures and deposits.' The administrative concomitant of these fiscal immunities was that the 'donor abandoned the right to govern the inhabitants of the village that were granted'. The image of a decentralized administrative apparatus, or, more appropriately, of the virtual absence of any administrative apparatus, comes through most vividly in the following statement: 'The function of the collection of taxs, levy of forced labour, regulation of mines, agriculture, etc., together with those of the maintenance of law and order, and defence, which were hitherto performed by the state officials, were now step by step abandoned, first to the priestly class, and later to the warrior class.' That the decay of state power was comprehensive is also suggested, it is believed, by the breakup of the army into 'small police garrisons' as also through the process of the emergence of virtually autonomous military officials. At the level of commerce, the departure from the Mauryan pattern of rigidly state-controlled commerce and industry is seen in the emergence of autonomous nigamas and srenis, both connoting corporate bodies which regulated their own affairs without interference from the state. The autonomy of the corporations is again believed to have crystallized by the late Gupta period. An example, often cited, is provided by a set of charters from western India dated to the close of the sixth century. The charters were addressed to a group of traders and granted them various immunities; they exempted them from various dues, 'left them free to deal with labourers, herdsmen, etc. and authorised them to impose forced labour on certain artisans. The traders were allowed immunity from the entry of royal officials in their area and from payment of dues and rations for supporting these officials. ... Administrative decentralization, manifest in different ways, was linked primarily with the emergence of political hierarchy, which again contrasts sharply with Mauryan bureaucratic centralization and the absence of intermediary layers in the Mauryan political system.\"§REF§(Chattopadhyaya 2003, 178) Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal. 2003. Studying Early India: Archaeology, Texts and Historical Issues. Anthem Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 296, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Ruler<br>\"Within each state, the king enjoyed only the status of “first among equals.”\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167)§REF§<br>2. Collective body/council? who claim equality with ruler3. Scribes<br>3. Administrator with specific role like treasurer or public works4. Assistant<br>3. Head of mint <i>inferred</i> <i>could be level 4 but collective body/council? could be level 1</i>4. Mint worker <i>inferred</i>\"The Sogdian coins were simple tokens of account issued by city-states with feeble political power and were intended solely for economic exchange in Sogdiana\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 173)§REF§<br>\"No text makes it possible for us to make a direct connection between the presence of a strong merchant class and the Sogdian political structure. While it cannot be proven, the hypothesis of this connection is nonetheless very tempting. Indeed, the summit of Sogdian society was occupied by an oligarchy whose exact social nature we must struggle to discern. One can suppose that it was formed by the union of the families of noble dihqans, with their possessions in the countryside, and the merchant families. At Bukhara, in any case, when the Arabs had seized the city, the merchant family of Kashkathan was at the head of the resistance to Islamization. Likewise, at Paykent, the “city of merchants” par excellence in the Arabic sources, no sovereign is ever named and the merchants seem to have acted collectively. The community (naf ) of Turfan is cited together with the Chinese king of Gaochang/Turfan.\" §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169)§REF§" }, { "id": 297, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Regional aristocratic chief<br><br>2. Local chief<br><br>3. Headman<br><br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory.\"§REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)<br>\"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal.\" §REF§(Brun 1995, 15)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 298, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The Western Emperor was advised by a proceres palati ('notables of the palace') in his court. These included the protectores et domestici ('corps of officer cadets').§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§ A former body called a consistorum that 'consisted of any individual ministers that the emperor wanted to consult about a specific topic' became 'a formal body with specific duties'. The Western Emperor did not control the army. 'In the West, as time passed the command of the army moved away from the emperor and devolved upon the newly created magister peditum ('master of the infantry') and magister equitum ('master of the cavalry'). In the course of time the magister peditum became the more senior of the two posts.'§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§ Laws came from imperial decree which 'were in form, with only the rarest of exceptions, letters, almost always addressed to officials, occasionally to the Senate. This is true of both western and eastern legislation'.§REF§(Millar 2006, 7) Millar, Fergus. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire. Power and Belief Under Theodosius II 408-450. University of California Press. Berkeley.§REF§ Below the Emperors were praetorian prefects who 'acted as the emperor's representatives, governing in his name with legal, administrative and financial powers.'§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§<br>The Roman bureaucracy was comparable in size to that of Constantinople. 'Viewed through the baroque rhetoric of a text like the Variae the bureaucracy appears hierarchically complex and numerous, and indeed gives the impression of being on par with the eastern civil service. The swelling of governmental apparatus and personnel was certainly one of the defining features of late antique society. By the end of the 4th century the state provided civil positions for an estimated 40,000 across the empire.'§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 49) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ The ministers of state included the magister officiorum ('master of offices'); the comes sacrarum largitionum ('count of the sacred largesses') who controlled finances, mines, mints, \"and all revenue and expenditure in coin\"; agents in rebus ('imperial couriers'), scholae ('imperial body guard'), officia dispositionum and admissionum (timetable and audiences for the emperor) under magister officiorum. These ministers also \"commanded a large number of men who served as rei privatae ('private secretaries').§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§<br>NB: based on Roman Empire-Dominate<br>1. Emperor<br>2. Pretorian Prefect3. Vicarii4. Governors/praesides5. Civitas6. Vici and Coloniae7. Municipia8. Pagi<br>\"The Tetrarchy had divided the empire in half, each half being ruled by an Augustus (emperor). Each Augustus had his own Caesar (deputy and successor) to help run his half of the empire. As part of the bureaucratic system, each of the four co-rulers had a Praefectus Praetorio (Praetorian Prefect) to help with the administration of his 'quarter' of the empire. Each Praefectus wielded great power and could readily influence military affairs, as he retained control of the main logistical system of the empire. Although abandoned on the death of Diocletian, the system of using four Praefecti was revived under Constantine. As time passed the position of prefect became more influential, especially that of the two prefects in charge of the two imperial capitals.\"§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 299, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "See C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br>1. Sultan<br>Mehmet II also took the title \"caesar\" and \"ruler of the two continents and the two seas\"§REF§(Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18)§REF§<br>The Ottoman Empire was a dynastic state. Rule was passed on to male heir.§REF§(Imber 2002, 87) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probaby in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>\"The sultans ruled the Empire through their court as much as through formal organs of government\" and sometimes by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations. \"There never, it seems, was a formal mechanism for policy making. All decisions in theory were the sultan’s own. What mattered, therefore, was the character of the sultan, and the individuals or factions who had his ear.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"At the center of the centralizing Ottoman state was an elaborate court, palace, and household government.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 437)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. Imperial Council (divan) under presidency of the grand vizier§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ \"These scattered references suggest that probably during the fourteenth and certainly during the fifteenth century, a small group of viziers advised the sultan on political and administrative affairs, and had the power to make appointments in his name.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Military judges (kadi'asker)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Treasurers (defterdar)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ of the Imperial Treasury of the Porte4. Pages of the treasuryPages of the treasury were responsible to a eunuch.§REF§(Imber 2002, 149) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Heads of treasury administration, chancery services etc. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 439)§REF§ Officials rotated.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 444)§REF§<br>3. Chancellor (nishanji)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"it was the chancellor who oversaw the clerks who drew up decrees and other documents\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Clerks under the ChancellorAfter 1520 CE all scribes were Muslim but before this time a diversity of languages were used and an anonymous contemporary source suggested there was \"a Chancellery for each language\".§REF§(Imber 2002, 170-171) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _<br>2. Provinces with governors (beylerbeyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 177-178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Governor-generals (beylerbeyi) were the Sultan's appointees and they could be moved or changed at his request. They were not hereditary positions and not held for life.§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship of a town or city judge (kadi)§REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020)§REF§\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjacks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>By 1500 CE the smallest fiefs were called timar (village or group of villages and their fields). Larger ones subashilik (or zeamet). Largest called a hass.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193-194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>§REF§(Palmer 1992)§REF§§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br>2. beylerbeyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or BeylerbikProvince run by a beylerbey.<br>1500 CE four central provinces: Rumelia, Anatolia, Rum and Karaman under direct rule. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>3. sanjak beyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or sanjakCounty run by a bey<br>4. timarliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§\"districts assigned to military officiers in lieu of salary\" 37,500 timar holders in 1527 CE §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§ timar holder was chief law enforcement officer on his lands.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ \"In the early seventeenth century, they replaced assignment of tax revenues to timar holders with direct taxation. Timars were sold to wealthy investors as tax farms.\" 1597 CE. in 1695 CE tax farms \"sold as life tenures (malikane). §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 473)§REF§<br>5. Council of Elders / Intermediaries of timar holders§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§run by headman or mayor §REF§(Shaw and Shaw 1977, 90)§REF§ \"timar holders themselves used intermediaries to oversee their domains. Local landowners, merchants, and village notables or headmen were important in tax collection and the administration of local affairs.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>2. Vassal provinces<br>\"In matters of provincial government, the empire was never truly centralized. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it was still common for newly conquered regions to remain vassal provinces, under the control of their former lords, often Christians, in return for tribute and military manpower.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 442)§REF§<br>Millet\"Christians and Jews were expected to have their own laws. Everyone was organised in the so-called 'millets', communities based on faith, and as long as the millet did not come into conflict with Islamic organisation and society, paid its taxes and kept the peace, its leaders were largely left to run their own affairs.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§" }, { "id": 300, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>According to oral tradition, the Cisse was the ruling clan of Wagadu. Ruler had the title \"maghan.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 25-27)§REF§<br>In earlier times there may have been \"matrilineal descent (power passed to the son of the king's sister)\" and \"There might even have been instances of female chieftains.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 28)§REF§<br>\"Ghana is a title given to their kings\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 14)§REF§<br>_Central court_<br>2. Head official of the General Council\"L’autorité du roi et de son gouvernement central s’exerçait de façon directe sur le berceau originel du royaume soninké.\" (The authority of the king and his central government was exercised directly from the original birthplace of the Soninke kingdom).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>The most powerful aristocratic clans were collectively known as wago. \"That term, and the name of the kingdom, Wagadu, are probably related. \"Wagadu\" is a contraction of wagadugu, which can be translated as \"land of the wago\".\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 27)§REF§<br>\"La société était organisée en clans. Le clan royal était celui des Tounkara qui formaient avec trois autres clans l’aristocratie:( les Souba ou Magasouba étaient les guerriers du roi, les Kagoro qui formaient une élite militaire, les Magassi étaient les cavaliers du roi qui composaient la garde royale.). Ces clans qui constituent la noblesse fournissaient au roi, les grands dignitaires et hauts fonctionnaires de sa cour. On trouvait à la cour du roi, le gouvernement et le grand conseil dont les membres se recrutaient aussi bien dans l’aristocratie locale que chez les arabes et les lettrés musulmans. On trouvait au sein de son gouvernement, les fils des rois vassaux, otages à la cour. La succession sur le trône se faisait d’oncle à neveu.\" (The society was organized in clans. The royal clan was that of Tounkara who formed with three other aristocratic clans: (the Souba or Magasouba were the warriors of the king, the Kagoro who formed a military elite, the riders were Magassi king composing the royal guard). These clans that make up the nobility provided the king, the great dignitaries and senior officials of his court. It was at the king's court, the government and the general council whose members were recruited in both the local aristocracy among Arab and Muslim scholars. It was within his government, son of the vassal kings, hostages to the court. The succession to the throne was uncle to nephew.<i>§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§</i><br>3. Treasury official\"The king has a palace and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall. ... The king's interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 15)§REF§<br>4. Scribes\"For the sake of administrative support, legitimization, and commercial contacts, the rulers of Kawkaw, Takrur, Ghana, and Bornu adopted Islam in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. Islam became an imperial cult and the religion of state and trading elites, while the agricultural populations maintained their traditional beliefs.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>\"A Sudanic empire commonly had a core territory integrated by ethnic, linguistic, or similar ties and a larger sphere of power defined by the rule of a particular person or lineage over numerous subordinate families, castes, lineages, and village communities. The key political factor was not the control of territory but the relations that enabled the ruler to garner religious prestige, draw military support, and extract taxes or tributes. The kings were considered sacred persons and were believed to have divine powers. They did not appear in public and were not to be seen carrying out ordinary bodily functions such as eating. Around the kings were numerous officeholders who helped govern the realm and provincial and district chiefs often recruited from junior members of the noble families.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br><br>2. Princes (governors called fado) of a province\"L’empire était subdivisé en royaumes et en provinces eux-mêmes morcelés en villages et cantons.\" (The empire was divided into kingdoms and provinces themselves broken up into villages and townships).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>\"Les princes avaient en charge la gestion des provinces tandis que les royaumes vassaux tels que Sosso, Diara et le Tékrour conservaient leur organisation initiale et se contentaient de verser un tribut annuel et d’apporter leur contribution sur le plan militaire en fournissant à l’empereur un contingent.\" (The princes had control over the management of the provinces while the vassal kingdoms such as Sosso, Diara and Tekrour retained their initial organization and were happy to pay an annual tribute and to contribute militarily by providing the Emperor a quota).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>According to oral tradition there were four provinces, whose governors/commanders (dual military and administrative powers implied) were known as fado. Ruler had the title \"maghan.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 25-27)§REF§<br>Al-Bakri 1068 CE: king's city had a governor §REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 16)§REF§<br>\"Among the provinces of Ghana is a region called Sama, the inhabitants of which are known as the Bukum. From that region to Ghana is four day's travel.\"§REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 19)§REF§<br>3. Village chief\"L’empire était subdivisé en royaumes et en provinces eux-mêmes morcelés en villages et cantons.\" (The empire was divided into kingdoms and provinces themselves broken up into villages and townships).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>4. Townships\"L’empire était subdivisé en royaumes et en provinces eux-mêmes morcelés en villages et cantons.\" (The empire was divided into kingdoms and provinces themselves broken up into villages and townships).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br><br>_Vassal Kingdoms_<br>2. KingAhmad al-Yaqubi (d. 897) said Ghana's king had \"lesser kings under his authority.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 15)§REF§<br>Al-Bakri 1068 CE: king of Ghana had vassal kings §REF§(Al-Bakri 1068 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 16)§REF§<br>\"Les princes avaient en charge la gestion des provinces tandis que les royaumes vassaux tels que Sosso, Diara et le Tékrour conservaient leur organisation initiale et se contentaient de verser un tribut annuel et d’apporter leur contribution sur le plan militaire en fournissant à l’empereur un contingent.\" (The princes had control over the management of the provinces while the vassal kingdoms such as Sosso, Diara and Tekrour retained their initial organization and were happy to pay an annual tribute and to contribute militarily by providing the Emperor a quota).§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>\"On peut distinguer deux groupes composant le peuplement de l’empire: un au Nord et l’autre au Sud. Les gens du Nord se composent des tribus nomades berbères ou Touaregs (Les berbères Macmouda au sud du Maroc, les Zenâta), les Sanhadja ( les Goddala, les Messoufa, les Lemtouma spécialistes du désert.). Le groupe Sud comporte deux fractions: les Mazzara composés de Lebou, Wolof, Toucouleur, Sérères) et les Bafours (Soninké ou Ouakaré, les Marka, les Bambaras, les Malinké, les Songhaï.).\" <i>There can be distinguished two peoples within the empire ... Northerners consist of Berber Tuareg nomads (Berber Macmouda in southern Morocco, the Zenâta) and Sanhadja (the Goddala the Messoufa the Lemtouma specialists of the desert). The southern group included two fractions: the Mazzara composed of Lebu, Wolof, Toucouleur, Serere) and Bafour (Soninké or Ouakaré, Marka, Bambara, Malinke, Songhai ).</i>§REF§(Kabore, P. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>" } ] }