Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"Ranks and titles were conferred on the bureaucratic and military nobility until the end of the absolute monarchy in 1932, a rank and title usually being associated with an office. The <i>chaophraya</i> were highest on the list, the equivalents of cabinet ministers, generals, and the governors of the most important provincial cities. On a descending scale came <i>phraya</i>, <i>phra</i>, <i>luang</i>, and <i>khun</i>.\" §REF§(Wyatt 1984, p. xviii)§REF§ Presumably the king should be added to this hierarchy--RA's guess.<br>1. King<br>2. Chaophraya<br>3. Phraya<br>4. Phra<br>5. Luang<br>6. Khun" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "During the Early Bronze Age in Anatolia, many societies developed into more sophisticated urban communities. This is a time when proto-city-states emerged, and the density of population was growing.<br>1. Ruler of proto-city state<br>The development of metallurgy and the long distance trade networks generated a new elites culture.<br>2.3." }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 163, "name": "tr_konya_lba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The Old Kingdom was a feudal and agrarian society.<br>1. The King<br>judge and a military leader.<br>2. The assembly (panku/tuliya)had a greater role in the Old Kingdom. It comprised of non-nobility, formed the bureaucracy and was subservient to the king§REF§Burney C. 2004 Historical Dictionary of the Hittites, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 35§REF§.<br>To the panku (assembly) Telipinu (c.1460 BCE) \"assigned extensive executive and disciplinary powers, even over members of the royal familiy.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 23)§REF§<br>2. Governors§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 38-39§REF§ Provincial administrators§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 33§REF§appointed directly by the king?<br>3. \"Council of Elders\"Locally administered justice.§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 38§REF§ . Local council lowest identifiable judicial authority. §REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 41§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Based on imperial administration c.700-1050 CE§REF§(Haldon 2008, 549) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Note: Provinces still existed contemporaneous with the first themes. Last European themes set up about 900 CE: \"Strymon theme to protect the passes over the Rhodope mountains; the theme of Nicopolis to secure the coastal region on the gulf of Patras; and the Dalmatian theme to secure Byzantine access to the Dalmatian islands.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"In official titulature the older terms augoustos, autokrator, and despotes remained in use, but from the time of Herakleios the emperor was generally called basileus, whereas the Latinate augousta was preferred to basilissa for the empress.\" §REF§(Featherstone 2008, 505) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"wished to be regarded as the emanation of the sun-god and claimed the same veneration as the Apostles of Christ\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ from \"the point of view of the ceremonial\" the Christian Emperor \"was still a god\" in the pagan tradition. \"His arrival was heralded by the raising of several curtains, like the appearance of the deity in the oriental mystery religions. Hence the meetings of the Emperor's council held in this sacred setting were able to announce only decisions which had been discussed and settled outside this body (gremium).\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 55) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. sakellarios (general fiscal supervisor)\"In Constantinople, new offices and new actors emerged out of the old structures. For example, the sakellarios, at the head of the Sakellion, formerly a department of the Sacrum Cubiculum, became the chief officer of finance (Brandes 2002: 427-79; Haldon 1990:376-402).\"§REF§(Cheynet 2008, 519) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Military finance4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration) <i>- see below for additional levels</i><br>4. Prisons (Constantinople)5. Noumera<br>5. Walls<br>5. Praitorion<br>5. demes of Blues and Greens<br>5. scholai, exkoubita, etc.<br>3. General treasurysacellum (imperial treasury)§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. department for money payments in the sacellum§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. department for payments in kind in the sacellum§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration) <i>- see below for additional levels</i><br>3. Special treasury<br>3. Public wardrobe<br>3. Grand curatorAfter the theme organization introduced \"The curatores, the heads of the great estate zones, now paid this revenue [tax] direct to the imperial sacellum, the imperial treasury. Within the treasury, as in all financial departments of state, there were two departments, the sacellum for money payments and the vestiarium for payments in kind.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Curator of the Mangana<br>3. Orphanotrophos\"There was an imperial administrative department for orphanages and for old peoples' homes. Both these had their own special officials.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. logothete of the dromos\"In order to exercise some effective control over the themes, and particularly to safeguard the general interests of the state against the particularism of individual provinces, the office of logothete tou dromou was created. This high imperial official had the position of a commissioner with extraordinary powers. One of his most important duties was to provide for an army on the march. ... His competence included the supervision of imperial roads and post, and he also had the right to impose on any theme economic measures considered necessary to secure provisioning, maintenance and movement of troops on all routes within the Empire. With such authority this office attained so great an importance that the logothete tou dromou soon became the first minister of the Empire.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 180) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Transport4. Public post<br>2. Provincial military and navy3. Thematic generals (strategos)Themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE.§REF§(Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Commanders of theme called strategi §REF§(Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Military commander \"dux\" (highest rank) of a castella or \"theme\". Once castella set up in Asia Minor \"The military zones took the place of the provinces and the military commanders became the provincial governors.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 95) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Clerks (copyists and secretaries) of strategos\"The strategi of the themes, whose rank was similar to that of a present-day commander-in-chief, received salaries ranging from 5 to 40 gold pounds according to the strategic importance of the theme. ... higher ranking officers were themselves responsible for certain outgoings, such as the payment of their clerks - copyists and secretaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration)\"The protonotarius was in charge of financial administration. In regional administration there was a division between departments for receipts and disbursement. The taxes collected by the tax-collectors (dioketai) in the various tax zones were paid into the chartularius' office, entered and checked and then handed over to the protonotarius' office. From these receipts the protonotarius had to cover the expenses of the theme.\" These outgoings included the soldiers' pay, the salaries of officers and officials as well as expenditure for the upkeep of public welfare services, such as geriatric homes, orphanages and infirmaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. Department for receipts<br>5. Department for disbursement<br>\"These outgoings included the soldiers' pay, the salaries of officers and officials as well as expenditure for the upkeep of public welfare services, such as geriatric homes, orphanages and infirmaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§6. Official who paid the salaries of soldiers and/or government workers <i>inferred</i>7. Assistant/scribe of official who paid the salaries of soldiers and government workers <i>inferred</i><br>7. Public welfare manager e.g. head of orphanage8. Worker in public welfare service e.g. nurse<br>4. kritai (justice)<br>4. chartoularioi (military administration)\"The chartularius was the head of the taxation offices and his subordinates were in charge of the kataster of the peasants as well as the soldier-farmers.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 174-175) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. dioketai (tax-collectors)\"The taxes collected by the tax-collectors (dioketai) in the various tax zones were paid into the chartularius' office, entered and checked and then handed over to the protonotarius' office.\"<br>5. Book-keepers\"Some officials came from banking circles (argyropratai). They were entrusted with book-keeping and accounts, and had to spend many years as money-changers or transacting loans before they ventured to jump into state service. They mostly got posts in the taxation department, first in provincial administration, and then, if they were successful, they would be recalled to the central offices in Constantinople.\" §REF§(Haussig 1971, 179) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. anagrapheus (surveyor)\"The chartularius was the head of the taxation offices and his subordinates were in charge of the kataster of the peasants as well as the soldier-farmers.\" \"The Byzantine surveyor, the anagrapheus, the official responsible for the precise valuation of land for purposes of taxation\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 175) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>6. Assistant/scribe <i>inferred</i><br>2. Independent commands3. doukes katepans4. tagamata seconded to thematic duty<br>3. kleisourarchs<br>2. logothete of the herds3. optimatoi (logistics unit)<br>2. Prefect of Constantinople3. Judges of tribunals<br>2. quaestor (justice)quaestor sacri palatii (minster of justice) \"had among his duties the preparation of the imperial laws and documents, for which he took over part of the responsibility with the authorization legi ('I have read').\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. judges of tribunals<br>3. kritai (thematic justice officals)<br>2. Minister of petitions<br>2. Master of ceremonies<br>2. Imperial household\"The department for imperial possessions had a number of functions: there was the office responsible for the private wardrobe of the Emperor, the office for the care of the imperial table silver, the imperial art room, and finally even the imperial library.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Imperial table<br>3. Butler<br>3. Private wardrobe<br>3. Privy purse<br>3. Chancerypraepostius sacri cubiculi was the head of the imperial cabinet in the cubiculum (Imperial private chancery)§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Minister of the inkwell<br>3. Chamberlaincubicularri (chamberlains) and secreti (private secretaries). \"The imperial eunuchs, the cubicularii (koubikoularioi), also paid for their office. They formed the emperor's escort and were a very influential body in the Palace.\"§REF§(Featherstone 2008, 506) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. diaitarioi\"At the lower end of the scale, there were scores of minor employees of the Palace: diaitarioi, or servants attached to the various buildings, doorkeepers, lamplighters, etc., and there were certainly a great many slaves about whom we have little information. The employees of the Hippodrome and the circus factions were also on the rolls of the Palace.\"§REF§(Featherstone 2008, 506) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Imperial bedchamber<br>3. Head of the Imperial Library4. Imperial Librarian <i>inferred</i>5. Assistant to an Imperial Librarian <i>inferred</i>6. Doorkeepers, lamplighters etc. <i>inferred</i><br>3. Concierge of the Great Palace<br>3. Concierge of the Daphne Palace<br>3. Concierge of the Magnaura<br>3. Elite and household units (military)<br>2. droungarios of the imperial fleet<br>2. domestikoi of the Scholoi3. scholai, exkoubita, etc.<br>3. tagamata seconded to thematic duty<br>2. Imperial private entourage<br>2. Imperial stables3. protostrator<br>Where is the logothete tou stratiotkou? In central administration and in the regions?<br>\"In the seventh century the office of praefectus praetorio completely disappeared and its place was taken by the departments of the logothete tou stratiotikou. This office combined the departments of tax collection and the valuation lists with that concerned with the army pay roll, but even here well-qualified personnel was essential and it was already becoming difficult to find this. Thus the more important responsibilities of the logothete tou stratiotikou fell to the chartularius of the theme who also received the title of logothete.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 180) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>In the central administration \"the fusion of taxation and military administrative arrangements took place about 680. What had applied to individual provinces in Justinian's day was now extended to the central administration, and thence to the whole Empire. The inauguration of the new régime coincided with the introduction of the office of logothete tou stratiotikou. Holders of this office are first found in the second half of the seventh century, that is, at the same time as the appearance of the first five themes. In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary.\" §REF§(Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>logothete tou stratiotikou equivalent of central administration. From Justinian certain military governors gained powers of tax collection to make system more responsible to local realities. \"Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ In the central administration \"the fusion of taxation and military administrative arrangements took place about 680. What had applied to individual provinces in Justinian's day was now extended to the central administration, and thence to the whole Empire.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ \"The logothete of each individual theme corresponded to the logothete tou stratiotikou.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Based on imperial administration c.700-1050 CE§REF§(Haldon 2008, 549) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ Note: Provinces still existed contemporaneous with the first themes. Last European themes set up about 900 CE: \"Strymon theme to protect the passes over the Rhodope mountains; the theme of Nicopolis to secure the coastal region on the gulf of Patras; and the Dalmatian theme to secure Byzantine access to the Dalmatian islands.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br>\"In official titulature the older terms augoustos, autokrator, and despotes remained in use, but from the time of Herakleios the emperor was generally called basileus, whereas the Latinate augousta was preferred to basilissa for the empress.\" §REF§(Featherstone 2008, 505) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"wished to be regarded as the emanation of the sun-god and claimed the same veneration as the Apostles of Christ\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ from \"the point of view of the ceremonial\" the Christian Emperor \"was still a god\" in the pagan tradition. \"His arrival was heralded by the raising of several curtains, like the appearance of the deity in the oriental mystery religions. Hence the meetings of the Emperor's council held in this sacred setting were able to announce only decisions which had been discussed and settled outside this body (gremium).\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 55) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. sakellarios (general fiscal supervisor)\"In Constantinople, new offices and new actors emerged out of the old structures. For example, the sakellarios, at the head of the Sakellion, formerly a department of the Sacrum Cubiculum, became the chief officer of finance (Brandes 2002: 427-79; Haldon 1990:376-402).\"§REF§(Cheynet 2008, 519) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Military finance4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration) <i>- see below for additional levels</i><br>4. Prisons (Constantinople)5. Noumera<br>5. Walls<br>5. Praitorion<br>5. demes of Blues and Greens<br>5. scholai, exkoubita, etc.<br>3. General treasurysacellum (imperial treasury)§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. department for money payments in the sacellum§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. department for payments in kind in the sacellum§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration) <i>- see below for additional levels</i><br>3. Special treasury<br>3. Public wardrobe<br>3. Grand curatorAfter the theme organization introduced \"The curatores, the heads of the great estate zones, now paid this revenue [tax] direct to the imperial sacellum, the imperial treasury. Within the treasury, as in all financial departments of state, there were two departments, the sacellum for money payments and the vestiarium for payments in kind.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Curator of the Mangana<br>3. Orphanotrophos\"There was an imperial administrative department for orphanages and for old peoples' homes. Both these had their own special officials.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>2. logothete of the dromos\"In order to exercise some effective control over the themes, and particularly to safeguard the general interests of the state against the particularism of individual provinces, the office of logothete tou dromou was created. This high imperial official had the position of a commissioner with extraordinary powers. One of his most important duties was to provide for an army on the march. ... His competence included the supervision of imperial roads and post, and he also had the right to impose on any theme economic measures considered necessary to secure provisioning, maintenance and movement of troops on all routes within the Empire. With such authority this office attained so great an importance that the logothete tou dromou soon became the first minister of the Empire.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 180) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Transport4. Public post<br>2. Provincial military and navy3. Thematic generals (strategos)Themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE.§REF§(Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Commanders of theme called strategi §REF§(Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§ Military commander \"dux\" (highest rank) of a castella or \"theme\". Once castella set up in Asia Minor \"The military zones took the place of the provinces and the military commanders became the provincial governors.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 95) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Clerks (copyists and secretaries) of strategos\"The strategi of the themes, whose rank was similar to that of a present-day commander-in-chief, received salaries ranging from 5 to 40 gold pounds according to the strategic importance of the theme. ... higher ranking officers were themselves responsible for certain outgoings, such as the payment of their clerks - copyists and secretaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. protonotarioi (thematic fiscal administration)\"The protonotarius was in charge of financial administration. In regional administration there was a division between departments for receipts and disbursement. The taxes collected by the tax-collectors (dioketai) in the various tax zones were paid into the chartularius' office, entered and checked and then handed over to the protonotarius' office. From these receipts the protonotarius had to cover the expenses of the theme.\" These outgoings included the soldiers' pay, the salaries of officers and officials as well as expenditure for the upkeep of public welfare services, such as geriatric homes, orphanages and infirmaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. Department for receipts<br>5. Department for disbursement<br>\"These outgoings included the soldiers' pay, the salaries of officers and officials as well as expenditure for the upkeep of public welfare services, such as geriatric homes, orphanages and infirmaries.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 171) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§6. Official who paid the salaries of soldiers and/or government workers <i>inferred</i>7. Assistant/scribe of official who paid the salaries of soldiers and government workers <i>inferred</i><br>7. Public welfare manager e.g. head of orphanage8. Worker in public welfare service e.g. nurse<br>4. kritai (justice)<br>4. chartoularioi (military administration)\"The chartularius was the head of the taxation offices and his subordinates were in charge of the kataster of the peasants as well as the soldier-farmers.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 174-175) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. dioketai (tax-collectors)\"The taxes collected by the tax-collectors (dioketai) in the various tax zones were paid into the chartularius' office, entered and checked and then handed over to the protonotarius' office.\"<br>5. Book-keepers\"Some officials came from banking circles (argyropratai). They were entrusted with book-keeping and accounts, and had to spend many years as money-changers or transacting loans before they ventured to jump into state service. They mostly got posts in the taxation department, first in provincial administration, and then, if they were successful, they would be recalled to the central offices in Constantinople.\" §REF§(Haussig 1971, 179) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>5. anagrapheus (surveyor)\"The chartularius was the head of the taxation offices and his subordinates were in charge of the kataster of the peasants as well as the soldier-farmers.\" \"The Byzantine surveyor, the anagrapheus, the official responsible for the precise valuation of land for purposes of taxation\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 175) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>6. Assistant/scribe <i>inferred</i><br>2. Independent commands3. doukes katepans4. tagamata seconded to thematic duty<br>3. kleisourarchs<br>2. logothete of the herds3. optimatoi (logistics unit)<br>2. Prefect of Constantinople3. Judges of tribunals<br>2. quaestor (justice)quaestor sacri palatii (minster of justice) \"had among his duties the preparation of the imperial laws and documents, for which he took over part of the responsibility with the authorization legi ('I have read').\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 53) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. judges of tribunals<br>3. kritai (thematic justice officals)<br>2. Minister of petitions<br>2. Master of ceremonies<br>2. Imperial household\"The department for imperial possessions had a number of functions: there was the office responsible for the private wardrobe of the Emperor, the office for the care of the imperial table silver, the imperial art room, and finally even the imperial library.\"§REF§(Haussig 1971, 181) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>3. Imperial table<br>3. Butler<br>3. Private wardrobe<br>3. Privy purse<br>3. Chancerypraepostius sacri cubiculi was the head of the imperial cabinet in the cubiculum (Imperial private chancery)§REF§(Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>4. Minister of the inkwell<br>3. Chamberlaincubicularri (chamberlains) and secreti (private secretaries). \"The imperial eunuchs, the cubicularii (koubikoularioi), also paid for their office. They formed the emperor's escort and were a very influential body in the Palace.\"§REF§(Featherstone 2008, 506) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. diaitarioi\"At the lower end of the scale, there were scores of minor employees of the Palace: diaitarioi, or servants attached to the various buildings, doorkeepers, lamplighters, etc., and there were certainly a great many slaves about whom we have little information. The employees of the Hippodrome and the circus factions were also on the rolls of the Palace.\"§REF§(Featherstone 2008, 506) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Imperial bedchamber<br>3. Head of the Imperial Library4. Imperial Librarian <i>inferred</i>5. Assistant to an Imperial Librarian <i>inferred</i>6. Doorkeepers, lamplighters etc. <i>inferred</i><br>3. Concierge of the Great Palace<br>3. Concierge of the Daphne Palace<br>3. Concierge of the Magnaura<br>3. Elite and household units (military)<br>2. droungarios of the imperial fleet<br>2. domestikoi of the Scholoi3. scholai, exkoubita, etc.<br>3. tagamata seconded to thematic duty<br>2. Imperial private entourage<br>2. Imperial stables3. protostrator<br>\"The reign of Basil II marked a real turning point in the transformation of the Byzantine administrative system and ruling classes, for it confirmed earlier developments and served as an obligatory point of reference for his successors.\" §REF§(Cheynet 2008, 521) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"This preponderance of civil officials became accentuated, and by the eleventh century the strategos had given way to the judge (krites) as the head of the thematic administration.\"§REF§(Cheynet 2008, 522) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " For the social complexity variables, we do not have a lot of data. The site of Canhasan should be mentioned here - while territorially it is not the largest settlement for this period (about 3 hectares less than Yümüktepe / Mersin), it is possible that Canhasan could have served as the capital, which would provide smaller villages with raw materials. For the category of 'Specialized Buildings', it was not easy to determine types of buildings, because buildings for this period are characterized by compact clusters of buildings, which often serve residential, ceremonial or storage functions, as they did in the previous period. PF: However, the presence of finds such as a large copper mace head from Can Hasan I, the removal and caching of plastered human skulls from Kösk Höyük suggest a socially competitive environment§REF§Arbuckle, B. S. \"Animals and inequality in Chalcolithic central Anatolia.\" Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31.3 (2012): 303§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "1. Elite<br>2.3.<br>The houses were used for a time period of 10 years up to a few decades, and after that time they were demolished to build new ones in their place (sometimes, the houses were burned down as a part of a ritual). Thus, the tallow settlement had risen - through the constant material accumulation. The settlement consisted of many different types of buildings. It was possible to distinguish the ones that belonged to the elite by their size and complexity.<br>" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The Hittite Empire was more centralized than the Old Kingdom and the general assembly is no longer apparent.<br>1. The King<br>judge and a military leader.<br>\"He held his appointment by divine right. But he ruled merely as the steward of the Storm God, for 'the land belongs only to the Storm God...\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 18)§REF§<br>\"By the New Kingdom, the panku had become all but defunct as more formal bureaucratic structures developed.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 23)§REF§<br>Imperial civil service.§REF§(Bryce 2002, 57)§REF§<br>2. \"Chief of the Scribes\" head of the Hittite chancellery §REF§(Bryce 2002, 66)§REF§\"We can hardly overestimate the power and influence which the Chief of the Scribes and indeed other high-ranking members of the scribal hierarchy must have exercised within the kingdom. These men were amongst the king's closest confidants and advisers.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 67)§REF§<br>3. Scribe to take dictation\"We do know that scribes who reached the more elevated levels of their profession employed others to take dictation for them.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 69)§REF§<br>3. Scribe of the Wooden Tabletshad their own bureaucratic category in the Hittite chancellery. §REF§(Bryce 2002, 69-70)§REF§<br>3. Scribes§REF§Burney C. (2004) <i>Historical Dictionary of the Hittites</i>, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 242§REF§§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11§REF§ Tablet archivists §REF§(Bryce 2002, 24)§REF§<br>2. Chief administrator of Hattusa (the hazannu) §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16)§REF§<br>3. ???<br>2. Keepers of the royal storehouses §REF§(Bryce 2002, 18)§REF§\"located in various parts of the kingdom (a hundred or more are attested), were directly appointed by the king and dealt with him on a one-to-one basis.\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 18)§REF§<br>3. Royal storehouse worker (inferred)<br>4? Gatekeepers §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16)§REF§ Couriers (inferred) §REF§(Bryce 2002, 17)§REF§ \"cooks, domestic servants, doorkeepers, pages, heralds, prayer-reciters, barbers, cleaners, craftsmen, and grooms.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 24)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Viceroy\"After the conquest of the region of Syria in ca. 1340 B.C. the Hittite king, Suppiluliuma I, placed a viceroy in what may be considered the most important urban centre, Karkamis.\" §REF§(Thuesen 2002, 45)§REF§<br>\"all power was centralised in Hattusa under the Hittite Great King. Under him were viceroys, in the case of Karkamis a direct descendent of the Great King. This viceroy governed the urban centres of the province, each probably being administered by a governor or vassal king.\" §REF§(Thuesen 2002, 45)§REF§<br>2. District governors \"BEL MADGALTI (Hittite auriya ishas) (literallly 'lord of the watchtower')\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16)§REF§\"In Hatti's outlying regions they were responsible for the security of the frontier and had charge of garrisons stationed in the area. They were strictly required in the instructions issued to them to ensure that fortresses and towns under their control were securely locked in the evenings. They had to keep an adequate supply of timber on hand in case of siege. They were warned to keep particularly on the alert against one of the Hittites' greatest fears - the outbreak of fire. They had to ensure that all who left the fortified community in the morning .... returned in the evening ... were carefully scrutinized, to ensure there was no enemy presence among them. They were responsible for the maintenance of buildings, roads, and irrigation canals. They managed the king's lands and collected his taxes. They were responsible for the upkeep and restoration of temples. They had judicial functions which entailed travelling around their district to preside at local assizes. And they were obliged to submit reports on all these activities to the king himself.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 16-17)§REF§<br><i>\"obliged to submit reports on all these activities to the king himself\" §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16-17)§REF§ suggest post was directly responsible to the king and thus the same level as the viceroy</i><br>3. Sub-official (Finance Officer? / Chief scribe?)The wide-ranging responsibilities of the district governor §REF§(Bryce 2002, 16-17)§REF§ - security, fire watch, town entry and exit, infrastructure, taxes, building upkeep - imply that tasks must have been delegated to sub-officials as he couldn't have done all of this on his own. Since the district governor collected taxes and had to pay for the upkeep of temples and infrastructure one of these persons in the local government might have been a finance officer. The district governor might also have employed a chief scribe to write the reports to the king.<br>4. Scribe / Tax-collector / GatekeeperThe sub-official would have had a scribe.<br>5? Couriers (inferred)<br>3. \"Council of Elders\"Locally administered justice.§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 38§REF§ . Local council lowest identifiable judicial authority. §REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 41§REF§<br>_Vassal states/Viceregal kingdoms_<br>\"Beyond the core territory of its homeland in central Anatolia, the Hittite empire consisted largely of a network of vassal states, whose rulers enjoyed considerable local autonomy but were bound by a number of obligations to their Hittite overlord, formalized in the personal treaties he drew up with them. In the latter half of the fourteenth century, direct Hittite rule was extended to parts of northern Syria with the establishment of viceregal kingdoms at Aleppo and Carchemish.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 9)§REF§<br>2.<br>" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>The Old Kingdom was a feudal and agrarian society.<br>1. The King<br>judge and a military leader.<br>_Court government_<br>2. \"Chief of the Scribes\"a powerful figure§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 67§REF§ - a professional official.<br>3. Scribes§REF§Burney C. (2004) <i>Historical Dictionary of the Hittites</i>, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 242§REF§§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11§REF§ ???<br>2. The assembly (panku/tuliya)had a greater role in the Old Kingdom. It comprised of non-nobility, formed the bureaucracy and was subservient to the king§REF§Burney C. 2004 Historical Dictionary of the Hittites, Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pp. 35§REF§.<br>_Regional government_<br>1. Governors§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 38-39§REF§ Provincial administrators§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 33§REF§appointed directly by the king?<br>2. \"Council of Elders\"Locally administered justice.§REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 38§REF§ . Local council lowest identifiable judicial authority. §REF§Bryce T. (2002) <i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 41§REF§<br>_Vassal states_<br>\"Beyond the core territory of its homeland in central Anatolia, the Hittite empire consisted largely of a network of vassal states, whose rulers enjoyed considerable local autonomy but were bound by a number of obligations to their Hittite overlord, formalized in the personal treaties he drew up with them. In the latter half of the fourteenth century, direct Hittite rule was extended to parts of northern Syria with the establishment of viceregal kingdoms at Aleppo and Carchemish.\"§REF§(Bryce 2002, 9)§REF§<br>3." }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Was a neo-Hittite polity. Hittite New Kingdom had [4-5] levels and it is reasonable to suppose that the Lydian Empire had at least as many as this.<br>The tributary Greek city states may have had a number of government levels.<br>1. King<br>rulers ruled from a Palace/citadel above Sardis.<br> ? Manager of a government mint ? Mint worker<br>" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At least four.<br>“The state of Lysimachos was a typical Hellenistic “personal monarchy” (generally: Burnstein 1980; 1986; Lund 1992: 107-183; Делев 2004: 170-171; 329-353). It was ruled by a Macedonian ruler and aristocracy with the participation of some locals such as Bytis and Paris, citizens of Lysimacheia, supposed to be of Thracian or Thracian-Phrygian origin. The royal domains and the subjected poleis were governed by strategoi or epistat appointed by the King.” §REF§Dimitrov, K. (2011) Economic, Social and Political Structures on the Territory of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace (5th - first half of the 3rd century BC). ORPHEUS. Journal of IndoEuropean and Thracian Studies. 18, p. 4-24. p14§REF§<br>“In Asia Minor, the Hellespont and Thrace, from the 280s BC, at least, the <i>strategos’</i> authority extended to the Greek cities lying within the satrapy; his intervention might take various forms and is often beneficent in effect.” §REF§Lund, H. S. (1992) Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. p141§REF§ Lysimachus’ <i>strategos</i> of the Ionians: “Until recently, only one incumbent of the post was known to us, the Milesian Hippostratus, philos of the king and recipient in 289-8 BC of conspicuous honours awarded by the cities of the Ionian koinon. Now, another strategos, Hippodamus, also from Miletus, has stepped out of the shadows, courtesy of a recently published inscription from Chios.” §REF§Lund, H. S. (1992) Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. p142§REF§<br>It is likely that there were administrative levels beneath the <i>strategos</i>, but evidence from this time is sparse.<br>(2) King<br>(1) <i>Strategos</i><br>Under Macedonian Empire may have had -<br>1. Diadochi<br>Military general2. Provinces ruled by Macedonian Satraps or Strategoi3. Local districtsInferred. Within the Achaemenid Empire, a \"five-level hierarchical structure,\" there was at least one administrative level below the provincial, possibly two (\"provincial sub-satraps and local districts\").<br>4. Village headmen<br>" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 156, "name": "tr_konya_mnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " village management by council and / or chiefs §REF§Yakar Y. 2011. Anatolian Chronology and Terminolog [in]: Steadman S, R., G. McMahon (eds.) \"The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia 10,000- 323 B.C.E.\" Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 155, "name": "tr_konya_enl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic", "start_year": -9600, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " unknown" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 157, "name": "tr_konya_lnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Neolithic", "start_year": -6600, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " unknown" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "1. King<br>many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\".<br>\"There are inscriptions that identify Kuzi-Teshub as Great King of Carchemish and son of Talmi-Teshub, the last-known Hittite viceroy at Carchemish. They indicate that at least one branch of the royal dynasty survived the fall of the empire and continued to exert authority through the early decades of the Iron Age. Since Hattusa was abandoned c.1185, Kuzi-Teshub's rule at Carchemish must date to the first half of the 12th century. His title 'Great King' is a significant one. No subordinate ruler within the Hittite kingdom, even a viceroy, would have used such a title while there was still a central regime at Hattusa.\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 53)§REF§<br>2. Head bureaucratic official (inferred)\"The focus of each state was an administrative centre where the royal seat was located.\" §REF§(Bryce 2012, 80)§REF§<br>central bureaucracy in Carchemish with scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§(Bryce 2012, 54)§REF§ and note that \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption.\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 63)§REF§<br>3. Assistant scribe (inferred)4. Lesser scribes (inferred)<br>_Sub-Kingdom administration_<br>2. Sub-king\"Peripheral areas within the kingdom's frontiers typically contained a number of communities called 'cities' in the texts, the majority of which could have been no more than small villages. But the larger kingdoms must have contained, in addition to the capital, one or more relatively large settlements or cities, the centres probably of regional sub-kingdoms, over each of which a local ruler presided. Regional administrations under local rulers appear to be attested within the kingdoms of Carchemish and Adanawa, for example. at certain periods in their history. The local man was subordinate and directly answerable to the occupant of the royal seat in the kingdom's capital.\"§REF§(Bryce 2012, 81)§REF§<br>3. Village leader (inferred)<br>" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": 1299, "year_to": 1328, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "For the administrative history, I would recommend C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br><b>1290-1326 CE</b><br>1. Chief<br>Chief was first among equals in the Council of Elders<br>2. Council of Elders<br>\"The Ottoman Empire lived for war. Every governor in this empire was a general and every policeman was a Janissary. Every mountain pass had its guards and every road had a military destination.\"§REF§(Turnball 2003, 17) Turnball, S. 2003. The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br><b>1326-1360 CE</b><br>1. Sulan<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Minister for central administration (from Orhan) §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§3.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. appanagesOsman and Orhan divided territory into appanages for sons, family members and followers.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>by 1350s CE, however, Suleyman's son was \"in effect\" a governor of the western \"province\" of Thrace.§REF§(Imber 2002, 178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br><b>1360-1413 CE</b><br>1. Sultan<br>title from 1383 CE under Murat I (1362-1389 CE)<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probably in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Imperial Council (divan)§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ \"These scattered references suggest that probably during the fourteenth and certainly during the fifteenth century, a small group of viziers advised the sultan on political and administrative affairs, and had the power to make appointments in his name.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Grand Vizier became chief executive officer of state c1360 CE.§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§ However this date is disputed. According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. ChancellorPost dates to earliest days of empire.§REF§(Imber 2002, 60) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3.Military judges (kadi'asker) were the \"chief judges of the Empire, who were responsible for judicial matters that came before the council.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ First one dated to Murad I.§REF§(Imber 2002, 159) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Provinces with governors c1380 CEProvinces with governors probably did not exist until last two decades of fourteenth century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship [kadi] of a town or city judge§REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020)§REF§\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjaks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Millet \"Christians and Jews were expected to have their own laws. Everyone was organised in the so-called 'millets', communities based on faith, and as long as the millet did not come into conflict with Islamic organisation and society, paid its taxes and kept the peace, its leaders were largely left to run their own affairs.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": 1329, "year_to": 1359, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "For the administrative history, I would recommend C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br><b>1290-1326 CE</b><br>1. Chief<br>Chief was first among equals in the Council of Elders<br>2. Council of Elders<br>\"The Ottoman Empire lived for war. Every governor in this empire was a general and every policeman was a Janissary. Every mountain pass had its guards and every road had a military destination.\"§REF§(Turnball 2003, 17) Turnball, S. 2003. The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br><b>1326-1360 CE</b><br>1. Sulan<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Minister for central administration (from Orhan) §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§3.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. appanagesOsman and Orhan divided territory into appanages for sons, family members and followers.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>by 1350s CE, however, Suleyman's son was \"in effect\" a governor of the western \"province\" of Thrace.§REF§(Imber 2002, 178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br><b>1360-1413 CE</b><br>1. Sultan<br>title from 1383 CE under Murat I (1362-1389 CE)<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probably in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Imperial Council (divan)§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ \"These scattered references suggest that probably during the fourteenth and certainly during the fifteenth century, a small group of viziers advised the sultan on political and administrative affairs, and had the power to make appointments in his name.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Grand Vizier became chief executive officer of state c1360 CE.§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§ However this date is disputed. According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. ChancellorPost dates to earliest days of empire.§REF§(Imber 2002, 60) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3.Military judges (kadi'asker) were the \"chief judges of the Empire, who were responsible for judicial matters that came before the council.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ First one dated to Murad I.§REF§(Imber 2002, 159) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Provinces with governors c1380 CEProvinces with governors probably did not exist until last two decades of fourteenth century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship [kadi] of a town or city judge§REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020)§REF§\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjaks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Millet \"Christians and Jews were expected to have their own laws. Everyone was organised in the so-called 'millets', communities based on faith, and as long as the millet did not come into conflict with Islamic organisation and society, paid its taxes and kept the peace, its leaders were largely left to run their own affairs.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": 1360, "year_to": 1402, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "For the administrative history, I would recommend C. IMBER, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke. 2009.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§<br><b>1290-1326 CE</b><br>1. Chief<br>Chief was first among equals in the Council of Elders<br>2. Council of Elders<br>\"The Ottoman Empire lived for war. Every governor in this empire was a general and every policeman was a Janissary. Every mountain pass had its guards and every road had a military destination.\"§REF§(Turnball 2003, 17) Turnball, S. 2003. The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br><b>1326-1360 CE</b><br>1. Sulan<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Minister for central administration (from Orhan) §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§3.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. appanagesOsman and Orhan divided territory into appanages for sons, family members and followers.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>by 1350s CE, however, Suleyman's son was \"in effect\" a governor of the western \"province\" of Thrace.§REF§(Imber 2002, 178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br><b>1360-1413 CE</b><br>1. Sultan<br>title from 1383 CE under Murat I (1362-1389 CE)<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probably in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_Central government_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Imperial Council (divan)§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ \"These scattered references suggest that probably during the fourteenth and certainly during the fifteenth century, a small group of viziers advised the sultan on political and administrative affairs, and had the power to make appointments in his name.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Grand Vizier became chief executive officer of state c1360 CE.§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§ However this date is disputed. According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. ChancellorPost dates to earliest days of empire.§REF§(Imber 2002, 60) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3.Military judges (kadi'asker) were the \"chief judges of the Empire, who were responsible for judicial matters that came before the council.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ First one dated to Murad I.§REF§(Imber 2002, 159) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4.<br>_Provincial line_§REF§(Shaw 1976, 22)§REF§<br>2. Provinces with governors c1380 CEProvinces with governors probably did not exist until last two decades of fourteenth century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 177) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship [kadi] of a town or city judge§REF§(Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020)§REF§\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjaks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Millet \"Christians and Jews were expected to have their own laws. Everyone was organised in the so-called 'millets', communities based on faith, and as long as the millet did not come into conflict with Islamic organisation and society, paid its taxes and kept the peace, its leaders were largely left to run their own affairs.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 10, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Sultan<br>Mehmet II also took the title \"caesar\" and \"ruler of the two continents and the two seas\"§REF§(Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction' in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire. Volume One: 1300-1600</i> edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>The Ottoman Empire was a dynastic state. Rule was passed on to male heir.§REF§(Imber 2002, 87) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probaby in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>\"The sultans ruled the Empire through their court as much as through formal organs of government\" and sometimes by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations. \"There never, it seems, was a formal mechanism for policy making. All decisions in theory were the sultan’s own. What mattered, therefore, was the character of the sultan, and the individuals or factions who had his ear.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"At the center of the centralizing Ottoman state was an elaborate court, palace, and household government.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 437)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. Imperial Council (divan) under presidency of the grand vizier§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Military judges (kadi'asker)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Treasurers (defterdar)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ of the Imperial Treasury of the Porte4. Clerks under the TreasurerPages of the treasury were responsible to a eunuch.§REF§(Imber 2002, 149) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Heads of treasury administration, chancery services etc. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 439)§REF§ Officials rotated.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 444)§REF§<br>5. Clerks under the Treasurer6. Clerks under the TreasurerAccording to a register the suites of the Treasurers and Chancellor had a total of 18 clerks in 1527-1535 CE; 23 in 1531 CE; 34 in 1561 CE; 50 in 1605 CE; 64 by 1609 CE; 115 in 1627-1628 CE.§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ <i>These numbers suggest more levels within these departments compared to previous periods.</i><br>7. Apprentice in the TreasuryTreasury documents in Persian not Turkish and used form of numbers \"incomprehensible to the uninitiated.\" Clerks required apprenticeship.§REF§(Imber 2002, 170) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Chancellor (nishanji)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"it was the chancellor who oversaw the clerks who drew up decrees and other documents\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Clerks under the Chancellor5. Clerks under the Chancellor6. Clerks under the Chancellor<br>3. Controller of Registers headed the land registry §REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§4. Clerks of the land registry <i>inferred</i><br>3. Head Clerk (reisu'l-kuttab)§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Head clerk was in charge of the clerks. Office dates from early 16th century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. memorandum writer (tezkereji) under the Head Clerk§REF§(Imber 2002, 169-170) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _<br>2. Provinces with governors (beylerbeyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 177-178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§32 provinces by 1609 CE according to list of Ayn Ali.§REF§(Imber 2002, 178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ Governor-generals (beylerbeyi) were the Sultan's appointees and they could be moved or changed at his request. They were not hereditary positions and not held for life.§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship of a town or city judge\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ <i>-- system declined late 16th century, reassigned as tax farms or to non-military nominees of Palace§REF§(Imber 2002, 209, 215) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§</i>\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjacks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>By 1500 CE the smallest fiefs were called timar (village or group of villages and their fields). Larger ones subashilik (or zeamet). Largest called a hass.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193-194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br><b>Egypt: 1517-1608 CE</b>§REF§(Shaw 1962, 338-348)§REF§<br>3. Imperial Treasury of the Portelocated at Ottoman central government<br>4. beylerbey (governor) Vali/Pasha in Egyptin 1527 Ottoman Grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha \"issued an edict which, legally at least, was to regulate the civil and military administration of the province until the end of Ottoman rule in 1798. ... Henceforward, the governor was to be a wali, and his council a diwan\" §REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 28) Oliver R, Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>beylerbey also held the title Pasha and was a minister in the Ottoman government §REF§(Raymond 2000)§REF§<br>5. diwan council membersa diwan al-Ali (High Council) and Ordinary Council contained the establishment (officers, ulama, others of high status) and could advise and obstruct the beylerbey in the event of \"arbitrary or tyrannical actions.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>6. Scribe in the council <i>inferred</i><br>4. Nazir-i Emval, or Defterdar \"Keeper of the Books\" (Chief Treasurer)position \"held by men sent from the Imperial Treasury of the Porte to represent the interest of the Sultan in Egypt.\" Initially appointed by Ottoman central government)<br>authority of the beylerbey was limited by the daftardar (treasury official appointed from Istanbul), the qadi (judge who had \"direct links to Istanbul\"), and the agha (appointed from Istanbul) of the janissary militia (odjaq)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>5. Principal executive officer for the Defterdar (Emin-i Sehir, or \"Emin of the City\" of Cairo)<br>6. Mamluk Mutahaddis, Emin or Efendieach province had an inspector<br>7. Ruznameji department head (before 1608 CE the Ruznameji was the lowliest of the Efendis)<br>8. Scribe in Ruznameji <i>inferred</i><br>7? beys (provincial governor) of a mamlakaRun by Mamluks. Following the Ottoman conquest mamluks had \"kept control of administration in the provinces\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 195-196)§REF§ In Egypt \"beneath the top level of Ottoman administration the old institutional structure remained intact.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 294)§REF§<br>\"The title \"bey\" (bak or bayk), which originally denoted a rank and not specific function, was equivalent to the Mamluk title \"emir of one hundred\" (amir mi'a). There were in principle twent-four beys, just as there had been twenty-four first-class emirs. The title kashif for the governors of the provinces was also an inheritance from the Mamluk sultanate.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 203)§REF§<br>In Cairo there were \"no specialized municipal administration or public institutions.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>8? timar holders §REF§(Shaw 1962)§REF§<br>9? Wali, governor of a small town<br>10? Village leader / tribal leader <i>inferred'</i><br><b>Egypt: 1608-1718 CE</b>§REF§(Shaw 1962, 338-348)§REF§<br>3. Imperial Treasury of the Portelocated at Ottoman central government<br>4. beylerbey (governor) Vali/Pasha in Egyptin 1527 Ottoman Grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha \"issued an edict which, legally at least, was to regulate the civil and military administration of the province until the end of Ottoman rule in 1798. ... Henceforward, the governor was to be a wali, and his council a diwan\" §REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 28) Oliver R, Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>beylerbey also held the title Pasha and was a minister in the Ottoman government §REF§(Raymond 2000)§REF§<br>5. diwan council membersa diwan al-Ali (High Council) and Ordinary Council contained the establishment (officers, ulama, others of high status) and could advise and obstruct the beylerbey in the event of \"arbitrary or tyrannical actions.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>6. Scribe in council <i>inferred</i><br>4. Nazir-i Emval, or Defterdar \"Keeper of the Books\" (Chief Treasurer)position \"held by men sent from the Imperial Treasury of the Porte to represent the interest of the Sultan in Egypt.\" Initially appointed by Ottoman central government)<br>authority of the beylerbey was limited by the daftardar (treasury official appointed from Istanbul), the qadi (judge who had \"direct links to Istanbul\"), and the agha (appointed from Istanbul) of the janissary militia (odjaq)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§6. Ruznameji department head \"the director of the Efendis and scribes of the Treasury\"previously the lowliest of the Efendis, now at the top<br>7. Ruznameji Chief Clerk (Bas Halife)8. Ruznameji Three Halife (Clerks)<br>7. Efendis who headed other departments8. Specialised assistants of the Efendis (Halife or Mubasir).<br>9. Apprentices (Sakird, plural Sakirdan) who did menial scribal work in departments.<br>7? beys (provincial governor) of a mamlakaRun by Mamluks. Following the Ottoman conquest mamluks had \"kept control of administration in the provinces\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 195-196)§REF§ In Egypt \"beneath the top level of Ottoman administration the old institutional structure remained intact.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 294)§REF§<br>\"The title \"bey\" (bak or bayk), which originally denoted a rank and not specific function, was equivalent to the Mamluk title \"emir of one hundred\" (amir mi'a). There were in principle twent-four beys, just as there had been twenty-four first-class emirs. The title kashif for the governors of the provinces was also an inheritance from the Mamluk sultanate.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 203)§REF§<br>In Cairo there were \"no specialized municipal administration or public institutions.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>8. Millet?\"Christians and Jews were expected to have their own laws. Everyone was organised in the so-called 'millets', communities based on faith, and as long as the millet did not come into conflict with Islamic organisation and society, paid its taxes and kept the peace, its leaders were largely left to run their own affairs.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>8? timar holders §REF§(Shaw 1962)§REF§<br>9? Wali, governor of a small town<br>10? Village leader / tribal leader <i>inferred'</i><br><b>Other provinces</b>§REF§(Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire.</i>§REF§§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br>2. beylerbeyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or BeylerbikProvince run by a beylerbey.<br>1500 CE four central provinces: Rumelia, Anatolia, Rum and Karaman under direct rule. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>3. sanjak beyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or sanjakCounty run by a bey<br>4. timarliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§\"districts assigned to military officiers in lieu of salary\" 37,500 timar holders in 1527 CE §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§ timar holder was chief law enforcement officer on his lands.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ \"In the early seventeenth century, they replaced assignment of tax revenues to timar holders with direct taxation. Timars were sold to wealthy investors as tax farms.\" 1597 CE. in 1695 CE tax farms \"sold as life tenures (malikane). §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 473)§REF§<br>5. Council of Elders / Intermediaries of timar holders§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§run by headman or mayor §REF§(Shaw and Shaw 1977, 90)§REF§ \"timar holders themselves used intermediaries to oversee their domains. Local landowners, merchants, and village notables or headmen were important in tax collection and the administration of local affairs.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>3. Vassal provinces\"In matters of provincial government, the empire was never truly centralized. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it was still common for newly conquered regions to remain vassal provinces, under the control of their former lords, often Christians, in return for tribute and military manpower.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 442)§REF§<br>\"The experience of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik is a good illustration of the accommodating method operating on both sides. Its citizens had petitioned the Pope for permission to trade with infidels right after the Turks' first serious victory in Europe. By the 15th century the Ottomans had turned Ragusa into their own Venice, to every successive doge's fury and despair! The Ragusans' behaviour was so mild and noble that by 1347 they had erected an old people's home. By the mid-15th century they had abolished slave trading, forbidden torture, organised a dole, a public health service, a town planning institute and several schools.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>\"Less compliant Ottoman vassal rulers were subjected to a number of requirements. They were forced to send their sons to the Ottoman court as hostages, had to pay tribute and to take part in the Ottoman wars either in person or represented by their sons. <b>Control over their compliance was exercised by the watchful beys of the marches.</b>\"§REF§(Turnbull 2003, 77)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 10, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Sultan<br>Mehmet II also took the title \"caesar\" and \"ruler of the two continents and the two seas\"§REF§(Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18)§REF§<br>The Ottoman Empire was a dynastic state. Rule was passed on to male heir.§REF§(Imber 2002, 87) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Sultans \"ruled the Empire through members of their own household, whom they had appointed to government office. This was a tendency which began probaby in the late fourteenth century, and had become very pronounced by the late fifteenth.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 148) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>\"The sultans ruled the Empire through their court as much as through formal organs of government\" and sometimes by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations. \"There never, it seems, was a formal mechanism for policy making. All decisions in theory were the sultan’s own. What mattered, therefore, was the character of the sultan, and the individuals or factions who had his ear.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"At the center of the centralizing Ottoman state was an elaborate court, palace, and household government.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 437)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. Imperial Council (divan) under presidency of the grand vizier§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Issued decrees of Sultan and made less important and administrative policy decisions.§REF§(Imber 2002, 154) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ According to Ottoman tradition, grand vizirate may have come about after Mehmed II stopped attending meetings.§REF§(Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Military judges (kadi'asker)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Treasurers (defterdar)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ of the Imperial Treasury of the Porte5. Clerks under the Treasurer6. Clerks under the TreasurerAccording to a register the suites of the Treasurers and Chancellor had a total of 18 clerks in 1527-1535 CE; 23 in 1531 CE; 34 in 1561 CE; 50 in 1605 CE; 64 by 1609 CE; 115 in 1627-1628 CE.§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ <i>These numbers suggest more levels within these departments compared to previous periods.</i><br>3. Chancellor (nishanji)§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§\"it was the chancellor who oversaw the clerks who drew up decrees and other documents\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 157) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Clerks under the Chancellor5. Clerks under the Chancellor6. Clerks under the Chancellor<br>3. Controller of Registers headed the land registry §REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§4. Clerks of the land registry <i>inferred</i><br>3. Head Clerk (reisu'l-kuttab)§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Head clerk was in charge of the clerks. Office dates from early 16th century.§REF§(Imber 2002, 169) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. memorandum writer (tezkereji) under the Head Clerk§REF§(Imber 2002, 169-170) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _<br>2. Provinces with governors (beylerbeyi) §REF§(Imber 2002, 177-178) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Governor-generals (beylerbeyi) were the Sultan's appointees and they could be moved or changed at his request. They were not hereditary positions and not held for life.§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Judgeship of a town or city judge\"The judge, unlike the sanjak governor, had authority throughout his area, with judgeships forming what has been called 'a parallel system' of administration§REF§(Imber 2002, 191) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>3. Districts (Sanjaks) under district governor (Sanjak beyi)§REF§(Imber 2002, 184) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ who was also a military commander§REF§(Imber 2002, 189) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§Role of sanjak included law and order (with fief holder), pursuing bandits, investigating heresy, supplying army, materials for shipbuilding, and those on the frontier special military duties.§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>4. Fief-holding soldiers responsible for local law and order§REF§(Imber 2002, 194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§ <i>-- system declined late 16th century, reassigned as tax farms or to non-military nominees of Palace§REF§(Imber 2002, 209, 215) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§</i>\"The troops of each sanjak, under the command of their governor, would then assemble as an army and fight under the banner of the governor-general of the province. In this way, the structure of command on the battlefield resembled the hierarchy of provincial government.\"§REF§(Imber 2002, 182) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§§REF§(Imber 2002, 190) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>Fiefs were only one form of land-holder in Sanjacks. Other land was privately owned, formed part of a trust, or controlled by the Sultan. Beglik or miri land was given out by Sultan as fiefs.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br>By 1500 CE the smallest fiefs were called timar (village or group of villages and their fields). Larger ones subashilik (or zeamet). Largest called a hass.§REF§(Imber 2002, 193-194) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br><b>Egypt: 1608-1718 CE</b>§REF§(Shaw 1962, 338-348)§REF§<br>3. Imperial Treasury of the Portelocated at Ottoman central government<br>4. beylerbey (governor) Vali/Pasha in Egyptin 1527 Ottoman Grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha \"issued an edict which, legally at least, was to regulate the civil and military administration of the province until the end of Ottoman rule in 1798. ... Henceforward, the governor was to be a wali, and his council a diwan\" §REF§(Oliver and Atmore 2001, 28) Oliver R, Atmore A. 2001. Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>beylerbey also held the title Pasha and was a minister in the Ottoman government §REF§(Raymond 2000)§REF§<br>5. diwan council membersa diwan al-Ali (High Council) and Ordinary Council contained the establishment (officers, ulama, others of high status) and could advise and obstruct the beylerbey in the event of \"arbitrary or tyrannical actions.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>6. Scribe in council <i>inferred</i><br>4. Nazir-i Emval, or Defterdar \"Keeper of the Books\" (Chief Treasurer)position \"held by men sent from the Imperial Treasury of the Porte to represent the interest of the Sultan in Egypt.\" Initially appointed by Ottoman central government)<br>authority of the beylerbey was limited by the daftardar (treasury official appointed from Istanbul), the qadi (judge who had \"direct links to Istanbul\"), and the agha (appointed from Istanbul) of the janissary militia (odjaq)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§6. Ruznameji department head \"the director of the Efendis and scribes of the Treasury\"previously the lowliest of the Efendis, now at the top<br>7. Ruznameji Chief Clerk (Bas Halife)8. Ruznameji Three Halife (Clerks)<br>7. Efendis who headed other departments8. Specialised assistants of the Efendis (Halife or Mubasir).<br>9. Apprentices (Sakird, plural Sakirdan) who did menial scribal work in departments.<br>7? beys (provincial governor) of a mamlakaRun by Mamluks. Following the Ottoman conquest mamluks had \"kept control of administration in the provinces\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 195-196)§REF§ In Egypt \"beneath the top level of Ottoman administration the old institutional structure remained intact.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2002, 294)§REF§<br>\"The title \"bey\" (bak or bayk), which originally denoted a rank and not specific function, was equivalent to the Mamluk title \"emir of one hundred\" (amir mi'a). There were in principle twent-four beys, just as there had been twenty-four first-class emirs. The title kashif for the governors of the provinces was also an inheritance from the Mamluk sultanate.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 203)§REF§<br>In Cairo there were \"no specialized municipal administration or public institutions.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 238)§REF§<br>8? timar holders §REF§(Shaw 1962)§REF§<br>9? Wali, governor of a small town<br>10? Village leader / tribal leader <i>inferred'</i><br><b>Other provinces</b>§REF§(Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire.</i>§REF§§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 135-181)§REF§<br>2. beylerbeyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or BeylerbikProvince run by a beylerbey.<br>1500 CE four central provinces: Rumelia, Anatolia, Rum and Karaman under direct rule. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>3. sanjak beyliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ or sanjakCounty run by a bey<br>4. timarliks§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§\"districts assigned to military officiers in lieu of salary\" 37,500 timar holders in 1527 CE §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 440)§REF§ timar holder was chief law enforcement officer on his lands.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§ \"In the early seventeenth century, they replaced assignment of tax revenues to timar holders with direct taxation. Timars were sold to wealthy investors as tax farms.\" 1597 CE. in 1695 CE tax farms \"sold as life tenures (malikane). §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 473)§REF§<br>5. Council of Elders / Intermediaries of timar holders§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§run by headman or mayor §REF§(Shaw and Shaw 1977, 90)§REF§ \"timar holders themselves used intermediaries to oversee their domains. Local landowners, merchants, and village notables or headmen were important in tax collection and the administration of local affairs.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 443)§REF§<br>2. Vassal provinces<br>\"In matters of provincial government, the empire was never truly centralized. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it was still common for newly conquered regions to remain vassal provinces, under the control of their former lords, often Christians, in return for tribute and military manpower.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 442)§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 166, "name": "tr_phrygian_k", "long_name": "Phrygian Kingdom", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -695 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "1. King<br>2. Central administration?3.4.<br>2. Governors of biggest cities §REF§Atasoy, E., S. Buluç, 1982, \"Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects\", <i>Anatolian Studies</i>, Vol. 32, pg:158§REF§.3. Local governmentThere was a king in Gordion, and the other cities had local authorities and governments§REF§Atasoy, E., S. Buluç, 1982, \"Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects\", <i>Anatolian Studies</i>, Vol. 32, pg:158§REF§<br>4.5." }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": " This number equal to the number of levels in the Egyptian line, plus the Emperor.<br>The vast Empire, creaking under its 4.5 million km2 extent and up to 70 million people, was reformed by Diocletian (284-305 CE), and his co-Emperor Maximian (286-305 CE), to enable the highest Roman authority to be in more places at once. Already split into East and West under two 'Augusti', now referred to as dominus (lord) rather than princeps (first citizen)§REF§(Cameron 2013, 2)§REF§, they added two 'Caesares', who were to be the deputy and successor for the Emperors.§REF§(Black 2008, 181)§REF§§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§ The four men ruled from prefectures with capitals at Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium and Trier, assisted by a powerful Praefectus Praetorio who 'influence military affairs, as he retained control of the main logistical system of the empire.'§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§ The system of Tetrarchy ended in farce with four Emperors and one Caesar and the elite conflict ended only in 325 CE after Constantine ensured by force there would be only one Roman Emperor.§REF§(Black 2008, 181)§REF§<br>Constantine revived the system of four Praetorian Prefects and four prefectures that was developed for the Tetrarchy§REF§(Hughes 2012) Hughes, Iran. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Casemate Publishers.§REF§ which became the keystones of provincial government. Prefectures were split into dioceses (of which there were 13 in the Empire, each run by a Vicarii), which contained provinces (run by a governor, 100 existed under Diocletian), which were sub-divided into Decuriones (managed by ordo, or a curia and civitas council).§REF§(Black 2008, 181)§REF§§REF§(Bury 1889, 27)§REF§ Town councils governed vici (military settlements) and coloniae (retirement villages), and settlements were often divided into sections called Municipia.§REF§(Parker 1994, 88)§REF§ Rural settlements were known as pagi. The Roman provincial system also granted limited powers of self-rule to some regions (e.g. Massilla, Messana and Malta).<br>1. Emperor<br>2 Emperors (except during the years of Tetrarchy, 293-313ce, there were 2 emperors and 2 caesars)<br>286 CE co-regent: Casear (West) and Augusti (East). 293 CE tetrarchy. Two emperors \"Augusti\", with two vice-emperors \"Caesares\". Tetrarchy ended c313 CE, Constantine reinstated single Emperor 325 CE.<br>Two Emperors with the title Augustus, and a junior with the title Casear §REF§(Black 2008, 181)§REF§<br>Emperor referred to as dominus (lord) rather than princeps (first citizen). §REF§(Cameron 2013, 2 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3VrXZWqUzmMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=late+roman+empire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ikjpUaCfKqaR4ASjp4C4Ag&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=late%20roman%20empire&f=false\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>)§REF§<br>_Central government line_<br>2. praefectus praetorio\"the most powerful man, after the Emperor, was the praefectus praetorio. He stood at the head of all authorities and military units belonging to the praetorium, the headquarters of the Emperor. Of these functions it was particularly his control of the imperial bodyguard that gave him political prominence. Besides these military duties, he had to assist the Emperor in the performance of his administrative work, and also to act as his representative.\" §REF§(Haussing 1971, 52) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Pretorian Prefect4 Pretorian Prefects<br>Under Diocletian (284-305 CE) Empire's administration reformed into a \"tetrarchy\" (rule by four): created 4 Prefectures and 12 dioceses (run by a Vicar) which had provinces, and a two Emperor system at the top §REF§(Davidson 2011, 47-50)§REF§.<br>Governor of province under control of governor of diocese who was under control of praetorian prefect. §REF§(Bury 1889, 27 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/ahistorylaterro02burygoog#page/n68/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[2]</a>)§REF§<br>Praetorian prefects second in power only to emperor since they gained control over provincial administrative system. §REF§(Cameron 2013, 6-9 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3VrXZWqUzmMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=late+roman+empire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ikjpUaCfKqaR4ASjp4C4Ag&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=late%20roman%20empire&f=false\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§<br>Praefectus Praetorio Galliarum: Britanniae; Galliae; Viennensis; Hispaniae. Praefectus Praetorio per Orientem: Thracia; Asiana; Pontica; Oriens. Praefectus Praetorio per Illyrium: Moessiae. Praefectus Praetorio Illyrici, Italiae, Africae: Pannoniae; Italia; Africa. §REF§(Parker 1994, 89)§REF§<br>3. Vicarii13 Vicarii (in charge of dioceses)<br>Governor of province under control of governor of diocese who was under control of praetorian prefect. §REF§(Bury 1889, 27 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/ahistorylaterro02burygoog#page/n68/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[4]</a>)§REF§<br>4. Governors/praesides100 Governors/praesides (provinces)<br>Under Diocletian provinces divided into 100 units.§REF§(Black 2008, 181)§REF§.<br>Governor of province under control of governor of diocese who was under control of praetorian prefect. §REF§(Bury 1889, 27 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/ahistorylaterro02burygoog#page/n68/mode/2up\" rel=\"nofollow\">[5]</a>)§REF§<br>5. Decurionesgovernmental divisions within provinces, managed by ordo or curia and civitas council. Also vici (military settlements), coloniae (retirement villages), and municipia (political entities within a settlement). Some regions granted limited powers of self-rule e.g. Massilla, Messana and Malta.Town councils §REF§(Cameron 2013, 6-9 <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3VrXZWqUzmMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=late+roman+empire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ikjpUaCfKqaR4ASjp4C4Ag&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=late%20roman%20empire&f=false\" rel=\"nofollow\">[6]</a>)§REF§<br>6. SettlementsVici (military settlements) - government by town councils<br>coloniae (retirement villages) - government by town councils<br>7. Municipia §REF§(Parker 1994, 88)§REF§.political entities within a settlement<br>Emperors. Prefectures. Dioceses. Provinces. Civitas. Municipia. At lower levels there were village/vici and pagi (rural settlements).<br>8. PagiRural settlement<br>_Egyptian line_ §REF§(Peacock 2000, 416)§REF§<br>2. PrefectAppointed by Rome<br>3. ProcuratorsAppointed by Rome<br>Includes finance officer dioiketes (and other department heads)<br>4. EpistrategoiAppointed by Rome<br>Regional administrator, 4 in total<br>5. StrategosAppointed by Greco-Egyptians<br>30 in total<br>5. AccountantAppointed by Greco-Egyptians<br>auditor of the nome<br>6. District scribeAppointed by Greco-Egyptians<br>7. Village scribeAppointed by Greco-Egyptians<br>8. Village EldersElected or co-opted<br>9. LiturgistsCompulsory public service<br>" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King ?<br>Hypothesised level. Between 1050-1150 CE there may have been a king. However, a majority of scholars may disagree.<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14)§REF§<br>At Mound 72 \"Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come from places other than Cahokia.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 82)§REF§ <i>New analysis of the skeletons in the burial suggest they were of a man and a woman. \"'Now we realize we don’t have a system in which males are these dominant figures and females are playing bit parts,' Emerson said. He explained that this interpretation of the beaded burial is more in line with what is known about the fertility and agricultural symbolism found in the rest of the ancient city.\"</i>§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.archaeology.org/news/4708-160805-cahokia-beaded-burial\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.archaeology.org/news/4708-160805-cahokia-beaded-burial</a>§REF§<i></i><br><br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies\"§REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and<br>ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader.\"§REF§(Kelly 2014, 22)§REF§<br><br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Peace chief\"Political leadership was provided by peace chiefs, who were highly respected by tribal members and who were responsible for directing communal hunting expeditions and for interacting with the leaders or representatives of other ethnic groups. [...] Peace chiefs had relatively little power and authority; they presided over the tribe using persuasion rather than force\" §REF§Illinois State Museum, The Illinois: Society: Leaders (2000), <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/te_houses.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/te_houses.html</a>§REF§.<br>2. Village chiefSuggested by the following quote: \"The role of [peace] chief was generally reserved for men, although women of influence sometimes became village chiefs\" §REF§Illinois State Museum, The Illinois: Society: Leaders (2000), <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/te_houses.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/te_houses.html</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) the central League Council; (2) Tribal Chiefs (Sachems) and associated Tribal Councils; (1) Village Elders and Village Councils<br>The political organization distinguished between villages, tribes, and the common confederate level: 'THE POLITICAL ORGANIZATION of the Iroquois--the system by which decisions were made about problems affecting village, tribe, or confederacy --had three levels. The town or village itself decided local issues like the use of nearby hunting lands, the relocation of houses and cornfields, movement to another site, the acceptance or rejection of visitors, and the raising of war parties. There was a village chiefs' council, numbering up to twenty men, formally organized with a chairman and one or more representatives for each clan. These chiefs were influential men and women, who might be League sachems, warcaptains, warriors, or simply old men who were looked up to and consulted. The council generally met in the presence of the warriors and the women, and rarely diverged in its decisions from the popular consensus, or at least the majority view. This council met in the village's ceremonial longhouse, which usually was merely a large dwelling.' §REF§Wallace, Anthony F. C., and Sheila K. Steen 1969. “Death And Rebirth Of The Seneca”, 39§REF§ Female lineage elders played an important role on the local level: 'The primary local groups of Iroquois society were the extended household and the village. Each extended family lived in a long bark structure, some of which were from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet in length by sixty in breadth, known as longhouses. Throughout its length was a central passageway in which were located hearths at intervals of ten to twelve feet with each hearth being used by two conjugal families. On both sides of this central passageway were apartments each occupied by a simple family. The composition of the group inhabiting the longhouse appears to have been controlled by the matriarch of a lineage. Influential matriarchs who held a chiefly title tended to group their female relatives around them in the same longhouse.' §REF§Noon, John A. 1949. “Law And Government Of The Grand River Iroquois”, 29§REF§ Various political levels were validated by wampum beads: 'The longhouse owns “wampums” which validate its position as a ritual center but which are rarely brought out. Wampum occasionally figures in the ritual, such as the string of wampum used in the rite of confession. But the significance of wampum generally is that because it is a valuable object, it is used to indicate the significance of the event, either by giving it as a commemoration of the event or as being shown in remembrance of the event. Wampum belts, for example, were given at treaties to indicate good faith in the making of the treaty, and might be brought out to remind others of the treaty. In and of itself, wampum is not sacred.' §REF§Tooker, Elisabeth 1970. “Iroquois Ceremonial Of Midwinter”, 30§REF§ The central League Council dealt with commonn affairs, with tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupying an intermediary position: 'The Iroquois confederacy operated under a council of 50 sachems representing the five original tribes. When the Tuscarora joined the League in 1722, no new sachem positions were created for it. The council was a legislative, executive and judicial body that deliberated only on the external affairs of the confederacy, such as peace and war, and on matters common to the five constituent tribes. The council had no voice in the internal affairs of the separate tribes. Tribal representation on the council was unequally distributed among the 5 tribes although abuse of power was limited by the requirement of unanimity in all council decisions. Below the level of the League council were separate tribal councils concerned with the internal affairs of each tribe and each tribe's relations with external groups. The tribal council was composed of the sachems who represented the tribe on the League council. Sachem positions were hereditary within each tribe and belonged to particular matrisibs. The women of the matrisib nominated each new sachem, who was always a male, and had the power to recall or \"dehorn\" a chief who failed to represent the interests of his people. Theoretically, each sachem was equal to the others in power, but in practice those with better oratorial skills wielded greater influence. After the confederacy had been functioning for a period of time a new, nonhereditary office of Pine Tree Chief was created to provide local leadership and to act as advisors to the council sachems, although later they actually sat on the League council and equaled the sachems in power. Pine Tree Chiefs held their position for life and were chosen by the women of a matrisib on the basis of skill in warfare. Iroquois involvement in the fur trade and war with the French increased the importance and solidarity of the League council and thereby strengthened the confederacy. The strength of the confederacy continued to grow until the time of the American Revolution when Iroquois interests divided between alliances to the British and the American colonists.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ 'A Chief was appointed by the oldest woman of the maternal family in which the title descended. Her descendants and those who were related clanwise were his constituents. The matron and the chief tended to reside in the same settlement, for when the Chief removed, the clan had no one to regard with confidence unless he returned for village councils. If the matron removed, local succession was in jeopardy. The results of deliberations by the clan were taken from village councils to the council of the tribe. The ranking clan chiefs residing at a place were the cochiefs of that settlement. All eight of the Seneca chiefs are now concentrated at Tonawanda, but formerly the Seneca had at least four villages, and all the rest save the Oneida had each two or three principal towns with satellite settlements. The tribe thus spoke a common language, it comprised two or more settlements, it was governed by a common council of village chiefs who also represented constituent clans, and they governed a common territory adjacent to the towns. In time all clans were present in all villages, probably about in the same proportions as they are now. As any clan predominated in a settlement, members had to seek mates in the next village, or divide their own house in twain, thus distributing the clans again.' §REF§Fenton, William N. 1951. “Locality As A Basic Factor In The Development Of Iroquois Social Structure”, 50§REF§ Tribes were composed of matrilineages: 'Matrilineages were organized into 15 matrisibs. Among the Cayuga, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora the matrisibs were further organized into moieties. Among the Mohawk and the Oneida no moiety division was recognized. Descent was matrilineal.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ The League Council initially met at Onondaga, but the council fire was extinguished and rekindled in various places during the tribulations of the colonial period: 'The council continued to be composed of hereditary chiefs, who together with the “war chiefs” from 1812 andthe Pine Tree chiefs numbered over 50. The Crown madeno attempt to interfere with the appointment or dismissalof chiefs (Weaver 1975). The chiefs met in the Onondagacouncil house, a log structure near Middleport, two orthree times a year to deliberate in traditional fashionmatters of community interest (Weaver 1963-1974). The Onondagas, known collectively as the firekeepers, actedas mediators in the proceedings according to traditionalcustom. However, the tribal seating plan differed fromthe traditional one in that the Mohawks and Senecasoccupied the positions east of the council fire, while theOneidas and Cayugas sat on the west, together with thedependent nations: Tuscaroras, Nanticokes, Delawares,and Tutelos. Although the dependent nations were tospeak through “their voice,” the Cayugas, in fact theyoften directly addressed the assembly of chiefs, andoperated quite independently, though not equaling theoriginal five nations in power or status.' §REF§Weaver, Sally M. 1978. “Six Nations Of The Grand River, Ontario”, 528§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to the Ethnographic Atlas' variable 33 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' was ‘3’ or 'Two levels (e.g., larger chiefdoms) (.2)'.<br>(3) the central League Council; (2) Tribal Chiefs (Sachems) and associated Tribal Councils; (1) Village Elders and Village Councils<br>'THE POLITICAL ORGANIZATION of the Iroquois--the system by which decisions were made about problems affecting village, tribe, or confederacy --had three levels. The town or village itself decided local issues like the use of nearby hunting lands, the relocation of houses and cornfields, movement to another site, the acceptance or rejection of visitors, and the raising of war parties. There was a village chiefs' council, numbering up to twenty men, formally organized with a chairman and one or more representatives for each clan. These chiefs were influential men and women, who might be League sachems, warcaptains, warriors, or simply old men who were looked up to and consulted. The council generally met in the presence of the warriors and the women, and rarely diverged in its decisions from the popular consensus, or at least the majority view. This council met in the village's ceremonial longhouse, which usually was merely a large dwelling.' §REF§Wallace, Anthony F. C., and Sheila K. Steen 1969. “Death And Rebirth Of The Seneca”, 39§REF§ Female lineage elders played an important role on the local level: 'The primary local groups of Iroquois society were the extended household and the village. Each extended family lived in a long bark structure, some of which were from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet in length by sixty in breadth, known as longhouses. Throughout its length was a central passageway in which were located hearths at intervals of ten to twelve feet with each hearth being used by two conjugal families. On both sides of this central passageway were apartments each occupied by a simple family. The composition of the group inhabiting the longhouse appears to have been controlled by the matriarch of a lineage. Influential matriarchs who held a chiefly title tended to group their female relatives around them in the same longhouse.' §REF§Noon, John A. 1949. “Law And Government Of The Grand River Iroquois”, 29§REF§ Various political levels were validated by wampum beads: 'The longhouse owns “wampums” which validate its position as a ritual center but which are rarely brought out. Wampum occasionally figures in the ritual, such as the string of wampum used in the rite of confession. But the significance of wampum generally is that because it is a valuable object, it is used to indicate the significance of the event, either by giving it as a commemoration of the event or as being shown in remembrance of the event. Wampum belts, for example, were given at treaties to indicate good faith in the making of the treaty, and might be brought out to remind others of the treaty. In and of itself, wampum is not sacred.' §REF§Tooker, Elisabeth 1970. “Iroquois Ceremonial Of Midwinter”, 30§REF§ The central League Council dealt with commonn affairs, with tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupying an intermediary position: 'The Iroquois confederacy operated under a council of 50 sachems representing the five original tribes. When the Tuscarora joined the League in 1722, no new sachem positions were created for it. The council was a legislative, executive and judicial body that deliberated only on the external affairs of the confederacy, such as peace and war, and on matters common to the five constituent tribes. The council had no voice in the internal affairs of the separate tribes. Tribal representation on the council was unequally distributed among the 5 tribes although abuse of power was limited by the requirement of unanimity in all council decisions. Below the level of the League council were separate tribal councils concerned with the internal affairs of each tribe and each tribe's relations with external groups. The tribal council was composed of the sachems who represented the tribe on the League council. Sachem positions were hereditary within each tribe and belonged to particular matrisibs. The women of the matrisib nominated each new sachem, who was always a male, and had the power to recall or \"dehorn\" a chief who failed to represent the interests of his people. Theoretically, each sachem was equal to the others in power, but in practice those with better oratorial skills wielded greater influence. After the confederacy had been functioning for a period of time a new, nonhereditary office of Pine Tree Chief was created to provide local leadership and to act as advisors to the council sachems, although later they actually sat on the League council and equaled the sachems in power. Pine Tree Chiefs held their position for life and were chosen by the women of a matrisib on the basis of skill in warfare. Iroquois involvement in the fur trade and war with the French increased the importance and solidarity of the League council and thereby strengthened the confederacy. The strength of the confederacy continued to grow until the time of the American Revolution when Iroquois interests divided between alliances to the British and the American colonists.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ 'A Chief was appointed by the oldest woman of the maternal family in which the title descended. Her descendants and those who were related clanwise were his constituents. The matron and the chief tended to reside in the same settlement, for when the Chief removed, the clan had no one to regard with confidence unless he returned for village councils. If the matron removed, local succession was in jeopardy. The results of deliberations by the clan were taken from village councils to the council of the tribe. The ranking clan chiefs residing at a place were the cochiefs of that settlement. All eight of the Seneca chiefs are now concentrated at Tonawanda, but formerly the Seneca had at least four villages, and all the rest save the Oneida had each two or three principal towns with satellite settlements. The tribe thus spoke a common language, it comprised two or more settlements, it was governed by a common council of village chiefs who also represented constituent clans, and they governed a common territory adjacent to the towns. In time all clans were present in all villages, probably about in the same proportions as they are now. As any clan predominated in a settlement, members had to seek mates in the next village, or divide their own house in twain, thus distributing the clans again.' §REF§Fenton, William N. 1951. “Locality As A Basic Factor In The Development Of Iroquois Social Structure”, 50§REF§ Tribes were composed of matrilineages: 'Matrilineages were organized into 15 matrisibs. Among the Cayuga, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora the matrisibs were further organized into moieties. Among the Mohawk and the Oneida no moiety division was recognized. Descent was matrilineal.' §REF§Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois§REF§ The League Council initially met at Onondaga, but the council fire was extinguished and rekindled in various places during the tribulations of the colonial period: 'The council continued to be composed of hereditary chiefs, who together with the “war chiefs” from 1812 andthe Pine Tree chiefs numbered over 50. The Crown madeno attempt to interfere with the appointment or dismissalof chiefs (Weaver 1975). The chiefs met in the Onondagacouncil house, a log structure near Middleport, two orthree times a year to deliberate in traditional fashionmatters of community interest (Weaver 1963-1974). The Onondagas, known collectively as the firekeepers, actedas mediators in the proceedings according to traditionalcustom. However, the tribal seating plan differed fromthe traditional one in that the Mohawks and Senecasoccupied the positions east of the council fire, while theOneidas and Cayugas sat on the west, together with thedependent nations: Tuscaroras, Nanticokes, Delawares,and Tutelos. Although the dependent nations were tospeak through “their voice,” the Cayugas, in fact theyoften directly addressed the assembly of chiefs, andoperated quite independently, though not equaling theoriginal five nations in power or status.' §REF§Weaver, Sally M. 1978. “Six Nations Of The Grand River, Ontario”, 528§REF§ 'Despite the efforts of the Onondagas at Onondaga tohave them returned to Onondaga, the council fire of theConfederacy and its wampum records remained at BuffaloCreek until after that reservation had been sold andCaptain Cold (“The League of the Iroquois: Its History,Politics, and Ritual,” fig. 11, this vol.), keeper of thecouncil fire and the wampum, had died. In 1847 bothwere moved back to Onondaga (Clark 1849, 1:109, 124).However, a number of Onondagas (approximately 150)continued to live on the Seneca and Tuscarora Reservationsin western New York State, the largest number onthe Allegany Reservation (New York (State) Secretary ofState 1857:507; Fletcher 1888:551; New York (State)Legislature. Assembly 1889:59; U.S. Census Office. 11thCensus 1892:6).' §REF§Blau, Harold, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Onondaga”, 496§REF§ The code may more accurately reflect the pre-reservation period." }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " \"We observe first that this great chieftain did not invent a new system of government. He simply utilized the system already existing, with only such modifications as were required by new conditions or suggested by his own experience. The government continued to be essentially a feudal autocracy.\" §REF§(Kuykendall 1938, 51)§REF§ \"Kamehameha introduced one important new feature, made necessary by the uniting of all the islands into one kingdom. The king could be on only one island at a time; hence he appointed governors to be his special representatives on the other islands (except Kauai). They were in fact viceroys. It is probable that the governorship was at first only a temporary expedient and that it became a permanent institution because of the obvious necessity for such an office under the new conditions.\" §REF§(Kuykendall 1938, 53)§REF§<br>1. Ali'i nui\"At the apex of the polity sat the king, the ali'i nui or 'great ali'i,' [...]. The al'i nui ruled over the entire mokupuni [island], assisted by various administrative aides.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>__Central administration__<br>2. Kalaimoku\"The kālaimoku was charged with advising the king on all secular affairs, including war. Among his chief duties was to oversee the royal storehouses 'in which to collect food, fish, tapa [barkcloth], malo [loincloths], pa-u [female skirts], and all sorts of goods' (Malo 1951:195). Only the kālaimoku had the regular privilege of holding secret meetings with the king, and he controlled the access of other al'i to royal audiences.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 50)§REF§<br>2. Kahuna nuiThe kahuna nui \"carried the responsibilities for the king's religious duties and looked after his temples and main gods.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§<br>__Provincial administration__<br>2. Governor\"Kamehameha introduced one important new feature, made necessary by the uniting of all the islands into one kingdom. The king could be on only one island at a time; hence he appointed governors to be his special representatives on the other islands (except Kauai). They were in fact viceroys. It is probable that the governorship was at first only a temporary expedient and that it became a permanent institution because of the obvious necessity for such an office under the new conditions.\" §REF§(Kuykendall 1938, 51)§REF§<br>3. Ali'i-'ai-moku\"The districts (moku) into which the kingdom was divided were each under the control of a major chief of high rank, called the ali'i-'ai-moku. The operative term 'ai in this compound term has the core meaning of both 'food' and 'eat' but with metaphoric extensions connoting to 'consume,' 'grasp,' or 'hold onto' (Pukui and Elbert 1986:9). Thus the figurative extension of 'ai includes 'to rule, reign, or enjoy the privileges and exercise the responsibilities of rule.' The term ali'i-'ai-moku might thus be simply translated 'ruler of the moku,' but as in many Hawaiian expressions there are layers of kaona, 'hidden meanings', folded in. He is as well the chief who 'eats' the district (recall the metaphor of the chief as land shark), and literally 'eats from' its productions.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>4. Ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a\"[T]he more numerous ahupua'a territories were apportioned to chiefs who were called the ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a, the chiefs who “ate” the ahupua'a. Low-ranked chiefs might hold just a single, marginal land unit, but more powerful and higher-ranked ali'i frequently held more than one ahupua'a.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>5. Konohiki\"The three tiered hierarchy of land rulers, beginning with the ali'i nui who had the power to reallocate lands to the ali'i-'ai-moku and ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a under him, did not extend down below the level of the largely self-sufficient ahupua'a territories. Rather, the administration of the ahupua'a, including its various ̒ili subdivisions, was put into the hands of a konohiki, a resident “land manager” who acted on behalf of the ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a. Konohiki were, in fact, often lower-ranked members of the al'i class (such as kaukau ali'i), frequently junior collaterals of the ahupua'a chiefs themselves.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 49)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"The central administrative complex represents the core of the Cahokian polity. The location of ridgetop mounds within this area may equate with kin groupings or other administrative units. East St. Louis, being newer, may have been a higher status community of isolated elites.\"§REF§(Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 14)§REF§<br>At Mound 72 \"Analysis of the skeletal remains shows that certain burial groups were of higher status than others and that some may have come prom places other than Cahokia.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 82)§REF§<br><br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"The answers provided by the working group seem to point to Cahokia being an urban settlement that was the center of a regional government, but the picture is not entirely clear.\" §REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Regional political integration appears to have been an essentially ritual one; that is, the site hierarchy that is present appears to be more of a hierarchy of ritual spaces than of political jurisdictions.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia was also the center of a regional government of some kind, at least for a short period of time.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>\"mound complexes may have been organized around sodalities rather than around kin groups. Perhaps these sodalities were secret societies\"§REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>\"Mound and plaza groups may represent corporate (perhaps kin-based) political and<br>ritual complexes, each of which would have been maintained by their own administrativespecialists or generalized leader.\"§REF§(Kelly 2014, 22)§REF§<br><br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "us_oneota", "long_name": "Oneota", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Big man\"Villages, which were most likely pulled together by a single individual (a \"big man\"), would wax or wane, depending on the success of that individual\" §REF§G. Gibbon, Oneota, in P. Peregrine, M. Ember and Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 6: North America (2001), pp. 389-407§REF§." }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Kaghan<br>2. Governors for the settled regions.3. Princes - rulers of provincial districts. Representatives of Mongol power.\"The Chaghatay ulus was a decentralized state, with governors appointed by the Kaghan (for the settled regions, until 1289) and rulers of provincial districts, i.e. princes assisted by special officials, the darughachi or tammachi, the representatives of Mongol power.\" §REF§(Akhmedov and Sinor 1998, 269)§REF§<br>4. darugachi or tammachi5. assistants for darugachi?<br>4. Head of mint <i>inferred</i>5. Mint worker <i>inferred</i><br>Split into Eastern and Western Khanate in mid-14th Century§REF§(Khan 2003, 32) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§<br>\"The Chagatai khans ruled from the eastern side of the Khanate, an area that had gained the nickname Mughulistan, 'Land of the Mongols'; they had never been able to wield very much power in the western reaches of the kingdom, Transoxania (the lands just east of the Oxus river). There, amirs (local Mongol chiefs) wielded the real power.§REF§(Wise Bauer 2013, 557) Wise Bauer, S. 2013. The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton & Company.§REF§<br>\"The administrative reform divided the country around Bukhara and Samarkand into tümens, and in Ferghana and East Turkistan into orchins (literally ‘near’, ‘around’, ‘surrounding’), i.e. a region located around the capital. \" §REF§(Akhmedov and Sinor 1998, 269)§REF§<br>\"The Chaghatay ulus was a decentralized state, with governors appointed by the Kaghan (for the settled regions, until 1289) and rulers of provincial districts, i.e. princes assisted by special officials, the darughachi or tammachi, the representatives of Mongol power.\" §REF§(Akhmedov and Sinor 1998, 269)§REF§<br>\"At the time of Temür's rise to power, politics in the Ulus Chaghatay was controlled by the tribes who made it up. With the decline of central leadership, control over the territory and wealth of the Ulus had fallen to them. They provided most of the military manpower of the Ulus, either from their own tribesmen or from the armies of the regions under their control. No one therefore could either become or remain leader of the Ulus wihout the backing of the tribal leaders. Tribal chiefs naturally were not eager to strengthen the position of a central leader; they were intolerant of claims to sovereignty over them,and if a leader displeased them, they were quick to switch their loyalties to a rival candidate. Under these circumstances, central leadership was often contested, sometimes even after a leader had been acclaimed by the tribes of the Ulus.\" §REF§(Forbes Manz 1983, 79)§REF§<br>\"The early Chaghadayid khans and their followers lived out in the steppe, but in the early fourteenth century the Chaghadayid Khan Kebeg (1318-1326) took up his residence in Transoxiana and began to take a more direct interest in the settled population. Kebeg undertook a number of reforms and is credited with organizing Transoxiana into tümens, regions supporting ten-thousand soldiers, of which seven were in the Samarqand region and nine in Ferghana.3\" §REF§(Forbes Manz 1983, 81)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Complex administrative hierarchy<br>1. Khan<br>_Territorial hierarchy_<br>2. Provinces (wilayat) headed by hakim (governor)<br>3. Tuman<br>_Central government_<br>2. Grand emir<br>3. Ataliqs - experienced emirs<br>2. Diwan begi - head of state chancellery and treasury.<br>3. Diwan - state chancellery<br><br>\"The Bukhara khanate was divided into wilayats (provinces), each headed by a ha ̄kim (governor). The wilayats were in turn divided into tumans. If a canal was dug from a river, and the water irrigated 100,000 tanabs (1 tana ̄b = approx. 40 m) of land, such land was known as a tuman. District offices were subordinate to heads of departments in the capital. To the name of the official governing the territories of an influential tribe was added the name of that tribe.At the head of the state was the khan, who in theory had unlimited power, although it was assumed that any intended measures should first be discussed with his chief nobles and ministers. In practice, many Janid khans were completely dependent on their grand emirs, who possessed their own troops. While the eldest member of the ruling house was traditionally chosen as khan, in practice it was the individual with the strongest support among the nobles who came to power. Usually the election of the khan was accompanied by a ceremony in which the successful candidate was raised up on a white felt blanket, the four corners of which were held by four influential members of the ruling house, nobility and clergy.A decisive role in the Janid state was played by the ataliqs, who received their pay in the form of an appanage. In theory, the title ataliq was conferred upon a respected, experienced and elderly emir, a ‘knowledgeable, loyal and well-informed person’. In practice, in the second half of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century, the office of grand ataliq, which was considered a mainstay of the state, was claimed by the most powerful emirs.The next highest office of state was that of the diwan-begi, who was head of the diwan (state chancellery) and treasury. A significant role in state affairs was also played variously by the kukeldash (kukuldash), lit. ‘foster brother’, who gathered information from all over the empire and was also in charge of hunting accessories, ‘such as various hunting birds, hounds, and so on’ (later, under the Manghits, the role of the qush-begi, lit. ‘chief of birds’, ‘commander of falconers’, grew substantially); the mushrif (supervisor), whose duties included noting all grants made by the sovereign and maintaining records of khara ̄j (land tax) receipts in daftars (tax registers); the m ̄ır-shab (chief of night duty); the da ̄dkhwa ̄h, in charge of receiving complaints from the population; the m ̄ır-a ̄khur, or master of the stables; the dasta ̄rkhwa ̄nch ̄ı (court official, lit. ‘spreader of the banquet cloth’); the munsh ̄ı (chancery secretary), and others. Individuals belonging to the official hierarchy also participated actively in military campaigns. At government meetings and receptions, each official occupied a set place, according to his rank. Some sat and others stood; some were permitted to leave the palace on horseback, while others had to leave on foot.The ruling class included members of the ulama ̄’ (high clergy). Some of these were considered the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, which allowed them to claim the honorary title of sayyid and seek a high status accordingly. Another group of privileged individuals, calling themselves khwa ̄ja, claimed to be descended from one of the four immediate successors of Muhammad. Beginning in the sixteenth century, a decisive role was played by the Juyba ̄r ̄ı shaykhs, some of the richest individuals in the country. It was usually from among their number that the guardian of the law, or shaykh al-isla ̄m, was chosen.The waqfs were managed by sadrs (‘eminences’), whose task was to supervise the activ- ities of the mutawall ̄ıs, the managers of waqf institutions. Justice was in the hands of qa ̄z ̄ıs (judges). From amongst the jurists a muft ̄ı was appointed, whose duties included ruling on religious and legal questions. An important place in the administration was occupied by the muhtasib (market inspector), whose task it was to ensure order in the market, to check the accuracy of weights and measures in the bazaar, to guarantee the quality and standard of goods, and also to ensure that the inhabitants observed practices enjoined by Muslim law.\" §REF§(Mukminova 2003, 52-53)§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels." }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Amir/Emperor/Sultan<br>Timur \"ruled in the name of the Chagatai Khanate\" as an amir.§REF§(Wise Bauer 2013, 558) Wise Bauer, S. 2013. The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton & Company.§REF§<br>Did not take the title of \"Khan\" because he was not in the family of Genghis Khan: \"he maintained the charade that he was a governor under the Chagatai khan, when in reality he was the supreme power.\"§REF§(Khan 2003, 33) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§2. Ichki (or muqarrab)In the royal household this official \"did not have defined duties but who was in constant attendance on the ruler and served him in an advisory capacity.\"§REF§(Subtelny 2007, 68) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>Timurid government functionally distinguished between civilian and military branches of government.§REF§(Subtelny 2007, 68) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§<br>2. Vizier.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§\"Often inheriting their positions or having served in the administrations of previous rulers, the Persian secretaries (navisandagan-i Tajik) who staffed it and who held the title of vazir, exhibited remarkable professional continuity.\"§REF§(Subtelny 2007, 69) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§<br>3. Diwan-i a'la§REF§(Subtelny 2007, 68) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§\"The requirements of ruling over a sedentary population in the agrarian oases of Central Asia and Iran, however, necessitated the adoption of the traditional Perso-Islamic administrative system of the diwan, which was concerned primarily with financial and bureaucratic matters, including chancery correspondence.\"§REF§(Subtelny 2007, 68) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL.§REF§<br>4. Scribe in Department <i>inferred</i><br>5.<br>6. Imperial doorkeepers armed with maces.§REF§(Marozzi 2004, 212) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Governor or mayor called darugha.§REF§(Marozzi 2004, 141) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§\"The authority of the darughas and the diwans, the princes and amirs, all dependent directly on the emperor.\"§REF§(Marozzi 2004, 205) Marozzi, J. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London.§REF§<br>Timur's descendants divided the territories into provinces, which included Samarkand and Bukhara.§REF§(Khan 2003, 35) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group.§REF§<br>\"Timur was notably lax at establishing effective and loyal governments in the conquered lands. ... conquered lands had their own governing bodies, and ... he was content to leave them be.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>\"appanage system [created] a new class of rich and autonomous grandees who were largely beyond the control of the central government.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>3. Head of provincial diwans\"the personnel of city councils might become part of Timurid provincial diwans\"§REF§(Manz 2007, 151) Manz, Beatrice Forbes. 2007. Power, Politics and Religion in Timurid Iran. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4.<br>4. personnel of city councils? - where do they go?<br>" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Imams; (2) Retainers, advisers and other courtiers of imams; (1) Shaykhs and other tribal leaders<br>Political authority was loose and fluid. Accordingly, it is difficult to establish precise hierarchies and the code provided is only a rought approximation. Dresch describes the establishment of the Qasimi court: 'Besides the wealth to be extracted from the southern peasantry, the Imams of the period also had available, if they could retain control, taxes from a burgeoning coffee trade. The rise and fall of the Yemeni coffee trade with Europe matches almost exactly the trajectory of the Imamate's wealth (see Boxhall 1974; Niebuhr 1792). The English and Dutch established factories at Mocha in 1618; the trade was probably at its height around 1730; and the world price of coffee finally crashed at the start of the nineteenth century, at which point one gets mention of Imams debasing the currency (al-'Amri 1985: 59). This wealth, however, had always to be fought for; the rulers became wealthier and more powerful than hitherto, but still were liable to dispute among themselves.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 200§REF§ 'The state the Qasimis formed in the midst of this was none the less impressive (for the rulers' genealogy see Fig. 6.1). Al-Qasim himself, who early in his fight against the Turks had wept over his children starving at Barat, was wealthy when the truce was signed. He built the mosque at Shaharah, then built houses for himself and his followers, planted coffee in al-Ahnum, and amassed more land than the public treasury (Nubdhah: 258, 334-6). The court expanded with the southern conquests. Al-Mutawakkil received an embassy from Ethiopia and exchanged gifts of fine horses with Aurangzib of India (Serjeant 1983: 80-1), while his relatives expressed concern about his monthly demands for funds from Lower Yemen. Further criticism of his taxation policy came from Muhammad al-Ghurbani at Barat, but in 1675 the levies on Lower Yemen were redoubled (ibid. 82). Under Muhammad Ahmad, 'He of al-Mawahib'\" (1687-1718), the exactions became more severe still, in support of a grandiose court and a large standing army complete with slave soldiers (ibid., Zabarah 1958: 451, 457; alShawkani 1929: ii. 98).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 200§REF§ Leading shaykhly families rose to prominence in this period: 'At precisely this period, and in the space of a decade, the names of several great shaykhly families important nowadays all appear for the first time: al-Ahmar of Hashid, for instance, juzaylan of Dhu Muhammad, ani Hubaysh of Sufyan, Some of the lesser shaykhly houses, such as al-Ziyadi, al-Rarnmah, 'Irnran, ~lGhashrni, and al-Barawi, are attested as much as a century earlier (see e.g, Nubdhah: III, 121, 123, 175, 453). Many of the tribal divisions familiar nowadays had been present far longer, as readers will have gathered from Chapter 5, but the leading families now identified with them appear only at this later date. They were associated with the state and with events elsewhere than in tribal territory.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 202§REF§ The relationship between imams and tribal leaders could be supportive as well as hostile: 'Sali1}. Hubaysh of Sufyan is first mentioned in 1698 as putting down a revolt of Raymah and Wa~ab (south-west of San'a') against al-Mawahib's governor: women's earrings taken by his men were sold in San'a' with fragments of ear still attached, provoking certain 'ulama's» preach against Hubaysh's cruelty (Zabarah 195 8: 670). Then, after a disastrous attempt on Yafi' (in what is nowadays South Yemen), which resulted in Ibb being lost to the tribes of the eastern desert, al-Mawahib called to account the northern tribes who had failed him. In 1702 he sent his nephew to deal with 'Hamdan and their chief Ibn Hubaysh', but a truce was made instead (ibid. 428; Zabarah 1941: 297). Five years later, after another failure in Yafi', al-Mawahib sent al-Qasim b. al-Husayn and Sali1}. Hubaysh to Khamir to deal with Hashid, where the two fell out. In 1709 Hubaysh was again sent to Khamir by alMawahib, this time to deal with al-Qasim, but Hubaysh was finally tricked and killed there (ibid. 778-80; Zabarah 1958: 357)·' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 202§REF§ 'In the intervening period he had been placed in charge of an army to fight the tribes of the east and Yafi'. Al-Mawahib had ordered his minister to strike a balance between Hubaysh and Bin juzaylan of Dhii Muhammad (again, this is the earliest clear reference to this famous family), but the governor's own aim was to balance the pair of them with the eastern tribes whom the Imam wanted conquered. The result of his intrigue was that the two Bakil chiefs opposed each other and the easterners won (ibid. 875; Zabarah 1941: 773). Soon after this Hubaysh was sent with al-Qasim b. al-Husayn to Hiith, and the Imam's men razed a house nearby which belonged to Muhammad 'Ali al-Gharibi of Hashid (ibid. 778-80; id. 1958: 684; al-Shawkani 1929: ii. 46), who, as we shall see, is probably Bayt al-Ahmar's immediate forebear.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 202p§REF§ Conflict between rival imams also occurred and tribal support could be decisive for the outcome: 'A few years later, in 1713, al-Husayn b. al-Qasim declared himself Imam in opposition to al-Mawahib, and 'Ali Hadi Hubaysh (probably Sali1}.'s brother) supported him (Zabarah 1941: 601-9). 'Ali al-Ahmar of al-Usayrnat was sent by al-Mawahib to oppose him (again, this is the first mention of the family by name), but the tribes preferred the new claimant (ibid. 356,607). The country was at one point divided among several of these rival Imams-although, significantly, none of them claimed control of the major tribes (ibid. 616)-and the struggle between.the different Qasimis dragged on, with the shaykhs holding the balance, until al-Mawahib died in 1718.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 203§REF§ 'Al-Mutawakkil al-Qasim then took the Imamate (Serjeant 1983: 84), and at this stage al-Ahmar was apparently on good terms with al-Husayn, the new Imam's son (Zabarah 1941: 539); but when alNasir Muhammad made a rival claim in 1723 al-Ahrnar and many other shaykhs went over to him. The leading sayyids were meanwhile divided among themselves over the perennial problem of taxation (ibid. 289). In 1726 the Dhayban section of Arhab cut the roads, and a group of them made trouble in San'a' itself (Zabarah 1958: 359). The Imam had them hunted through the streets, in response to which \"Arhab tribesmen invited Hashid and Bakil to join them in taking revenge and wiping out the dishonour they had sustained. The tribes responded. 'All b. Qasim al-Ahmar, Paramount Shaykh of Hashid, and Nasir b. juzaylan, Paramount Shaykh of Bakil, proceeded to 'Amran where they met al-Husayn, the Imam's son, whom they persuaded to join them ... (al]iriifi 1951: 181, trans. Stookey 1978: 151-2).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 203§REF§ 'As Stookey points out, al-Husayn's combination with the tribes against his father availed him little since when his father died, in the following year, and he claimed the Imamate himself under the title al-Mansiir, they supported his cousin, al-Nasir Muhammad.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 203§REF§ 'But al-jirafi goes on, more importantly, to relate that al-Ahmar wrote al-Mansur al-Husayn a brusque letter demanding a meeting. The Imam feared an attempt at assassination; so he'assassinated alAhmar first, stuck his head on a lance, and galloped off with it through a hail of bullets from the shaykh's enraged tribesmen (aljirafi 1951: 182). In fact, al-Ahrnar, accompanied by Bin juzaylan of DhU Muhammad and by Ahmad Muhammad Hubaysh of Sufyan, seems to have come to 'Asir, just outside San'a', to seek a settlement (Zabarah 1941: 539 and 1958: 486). The details are probably lost forever, and we are told only that al-Ahmar 'had wished to make independent his own rule of part of the country' (ibid.), which he very well may have done; but al-Mansur alHusayn's view of the matter, as recorded in the histories, has all the vigorous clarity of the Zaydi tradition. The taunt to the tribesmen at the time was, typically, that they were no better than polytheists: he brandished al-Ahmar's head on his spear and cried 'this is the head of your idol'.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 203p§REF§ Dresch also mentions millenarian militant movements: 'In 175I, however, a millenarian rising broke out in the western mountains, led by Abu 'AIamah, a black 'magician' who preached a puritanical renewal of Islam. Accounts of the rising mention several forts in the west being taken from Bayt al-Ahmar: al-Qahirah at alMahabishah was lost, then Qaradah and al-Gharnuq at Najrah, just south of Hajjah, then Sabrah, and finally the fort near alMadayir that al-Mansur had bought several years earlier (Zabarah 1941: 53-5). During the forty years since al-Mansur al-Husayn b. al-Qasim (a rival of al-Mawahib) came to power in 1712, says a contemporary witness, the state had counted for little: \"The rule of 'All al-Ahmar and his sons after him and of other tribesmen from Hashid remained over-great and excessive until God destroyed what they had built and extinguished their flame, proclaiming their weakness and perdition by the appearance of this dervish. (Quoted ibid. 54)' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 206§REF§ Tribal leaders held lands, collected taxes, and defended forts, enabling them to form a power base in their own right: 'Whatever setbacks they suffered, however, Bayt al-Ahmar were not displaced permanently. In the year after Abu 'Alamah's rising, when the Sharif of Abu 'Arish and a rival claimant to the Imamate were active in the north-west, they were again a power to be reckoned with.\" Certainly they collected taxes as well as rents in the nineteenth century, and local memory credits them with taking revenue even from coastal towns in the north Tihamah, They retain considerable lands in the west to the present day.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 206§REF§ 'Nor were Bayt al-Ahrnar of Hashid the only shaykhly family in the area: Nasir juzaylan of Dhu Muhammad lost forts to Abu 'Alamah at al-Masiih, and a garrison from Dhii Husayn were chased out of al-Sha'iq in Bani 'Awam (again near Hajjah), but the shaykhly families of Barat retained or re-established a hold there. Al al-Shayif of Dhfi Husayn, for example, still own land in Hajjah province, and Bayt Hubaysh of Sufyan have considerable holdings near al-Mahwit (Tutwiler 1987). The picture which emerges between the lines of eighteenth-century histories and tariijim is of myriad forts in the western mountains, each garrisoned by twenty or thirty tribal soldiers and controlling an area for some shaykh of the northern plateau. As the eighteenth century wears on, so the same pattern comes more clearly to light in Lower Yemen too: in his entry for 1752, for example, al-jirafi records for the first time what will punctuate his history thereafter, Barat tribesmen at odds with the Imam south of San'a' (al-jirafi 195I: 183). They continued to appear there into the present century, leaving behind great numbers of tribal families and large shaykhly holdings of land outside tribal territory.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 206p§REF§ However, written records are often silent on these matters: 'These shaykhs are not the subject of Imamic history. Although the Imamate could not have functioned as it did without them, and although the granting of 'fiefs' to them went on for centuries, the details of their financial and administrative position are nowhere written up. Nor has local documentation come to light. Until it does, we must form what estimate we can by looking at the great shaykhly houses nowadays.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 209§REF§ In addition, sayyids also quarreled amongst themselves: 'AI-Mahdi al-iAbbas (1748-75) was very much a Sanani Imam, being based on the city throughout his reign. Among learned San'anis he retained a high reputation (al-Shawkani 19 29: 310-12; Serjeant 1983: 85 ff.), but it is plain that all was not well elsewhere. Abu 'Alamah's 175I rising in the north-west has already been mentioned. Two years earlier a campaign had been fought in Lower Yemen against a 'sorcerer' who promised his followers immunity against sword wounds and gun shots.V In the year before that, Hasan al-Tlkarn, of the qadi family from Barat and the north-east, was leading tribesmen at odds with the new Imam in Lower Yemen (Zabarah 1958: 684)Y In both the west and the south, the incursion of tribesmen over the preceding generation had not been quietly absorbed, and the affairs of the Barat tribes in particular (Dhii Muhammad and Dhu Husayn) became involved with those of the Imam's capital at San'a'.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 212§REF§ 'The connections of learning which were often important in an Imam's rise to power (Ch. 5) could also readily generalize a threat to that power if one emerged; and the language of equality, justice, and religious probity linked the learned with the tribesmen also. In 17 68, for instance, the 'ulamd' of Barat (particularly Bayt al-'Ansi) wrote to Zaydi centres such as Huth and Dhamar, calling for the expulsion of al-Mahdi al-Abbas and his Qasimi relatives on doctrinal grounds (al-jirafi 1951: 187; Zabarah 1958: 521-2; al-Shawkani 1929: ii. 134-5), though the Barat tribes' incursions in preceding years suggest that doctrinal detail was not the main motive force (see e.g. Zabarah 1958: 13).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 212p§REF§ 'The Qasimis were accused of 'innovations' (bida'). Zaydism had always recognized ijtihad (the formation of new law by extrapolation from scripture), but in the mid-eighteenth century a pronounced movement of criticism was under way. Ibn al-Amir, for instance, a Zaydi scholar who kept his political distance from the Imamate, blurred the distinction between his own school and the Shafi'i,14 with the result that conspicuous details, such as postures of prayer, became matters of contention among those less learned than he. The Barat qadis blamed the Qasimis for supporting him. On at least one occasion, an intestine squabble among San'ani 'ulamd' over mosque appointments, phrased in these terms, led one faction to demand arbitration from al-'Ansi, 'the qadi of Hashid and Bakil' (Zabarah 1941: 617), rather than from their Qasimi rulers.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 213§REF§ Imams were often reduced to negotiate protection money with tribes under the threat of incursions: 'Hasan al-'Ansi and the Barat tribes appeared outside San'a' in 1770. They were successfully driven off, which provoked some vainglorious poetry from the victors (Serjeant 1983: 86; d. alShawkani 1929: i. 459), but elsewhere al-Shawkani suggests (ibid. ii. 136) how this was achieved: an addition to the tribesmen's stipend of 20,000 riyals per annum, the implication being that they already received regular payment. These incursions and payments continued for several decades.P and the Barat tribes remained active in Lower Yemen until the Turks took the area in the late nineteenth century.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 213§REF§ 'Al-Mansiir 'All b. al-Mahdi (1775-1809) was, like his father, a San'ani Imam, and from the city's point of view was at first a considerable success (Serjeant 1983: 86-7; al-Shawkani 1929: i. 359 ff.). But at the state's periphery, Sharif Harniid of Abu Arish was forced south by the Nejd Wahhabis into territory the Imamate had held or at least had part access to. The resulting loss of port revenue was almost certainly serious. I? From now on, the Imams' ability to buy off the tribes declined sharply.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 214§REF§ 'At the centre, al-Mansur's grip on affairs failed when his sons fell out with each other, and the qadis of Bayt al-'Ulufi fell out with those of Bayt al-'Ansi, in part over stipends to the tribes (al-jirafi 1951: 192; al-tAmri 1985: 52-64; al-Hibshi 1980: 4; Zabarah 1929: i, 343-4). In 1818, in the time of the Imam al-Mahdi, a large body of tribesmen from Barat arrived at the capital in search of pay to fight in the Tiharnah (al-Hibshi 1980: 18). The Imam, having collected support of his own from Khawlan and Nihm, had 'All 'Abdullah al-Shayif of Dhii Husayn beheaded and the body strung up for three days, then thrown in the rubbish ditch outside Bab Sha'ub (ibid. 20-1; Zabarah 1929: ii. 66). But Bayt al-Shayif's call for support to avenge this was answered by Wa'ilah, Hashid, al' Amalisah, Sufyan, and Arhab, among others; in short, by tribes from as far away as what is now the Saudi border. They looted the city's outskirts and carried off enough plunder 'to suffice the son's son' (ibid. 23-4; al-Arnri 1985: 88-91).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 214p§REF§ This lead to a gradual break-down of imamic authority: 'In 1823 a severe drought in the east forced a meeting of tribes at Jabal Barat, where they decided to seek aid from the Imam. When he refused and they turned on Lower Yemen, he seems to have been able to do nothing but warn others they were coming. 'When they reached Sarnarah [the pass that is sometimes taken to define Lower Yemen's border; see Chapter I], each put down his pledge on a place, and they divided it all up as if their father had left them the land as inheritance' (al-Hibshi 1980: 34). It is quite possible, of course, that many had indeed been left inheritance there, either property or presumed rights to 'fiefs' (quta'): they had been involved with the area for the best part of a century. From 1823 onwards, though, they are said to have held the area unopposed: 'they took control of it by force and coercion, then settled there, married there, and forgot the east until the Faqih Sa'Id threw them out in [1840]' (ibid.i.l\" Even that was not sufficient, and when a further drought struck in 1835, Dhii Husayn, under Muhsin 'Ali alShayif, began raiding the north-west, while their women and children moved westwards by themselves in great numbers (ibid. 60-2). The Tiharnah had meanwhile fallen to the Egyptians.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 215§REF§ 'At the centre, in San'a', the Imamate under al-Mansiir 'All b. alMahdi 'Abdullah lost not only its resources but its ~oral vigour: 'drunkenness was the prevailing vice among the higher orders, and ... the corpses of men, women and children lay about the streets, no one taking the trouble to bury them .. .' (Playfair 1859: 145)· Al-Mansiir squabbled with one of his relatives, who fled to Ta'izz and handed it over to the Egyptians. Al-Nasir 'Abdullah Ahsan was then raised to the Imamate by the soldiers in San'a', only to be assassinated at Wadi Dahr in 1840.19 Al-Hadi Muhammad took the throne and succeeded briefly in regaining Mocha and Ta'izz, but when the Egyptians withdrew-under indirect pressure from Britain (Baldry 1976: I6I)-the Tiharnah fell under the control of Sharif Husayn.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 215§REF§ 'The geographical pattern of power had now changed beyond recognition. Hashid (led in part by the qadis of Bayt Hanash), were in Raymah, as well as further north in the western mountains, Dhii Muhammad and Dhii Husayn were in the south, as well as in the Tihamah, and all were involved with Yam, whose homeland in Najran had usually been outside the field of Yemeni events but whose presence in Haraz and the Tiharnah was nothing new. The land of Hashid and Bakil, on the northern plateau, was itself a dead centre to the whirl of events involving tribesmen elsewhere. Sharif Husayn's movements in 1845 make the point: starting from the north-west, in the Tihamah, he moved to the south, around Ta'izz, then to Barat, in the extreme north-east (al-Hibshi 1980: 120-31). The Imamate, at San'a', retained a mere rump of territory.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 215p§REF§ 'There was -violence enough in the north itself, particularly in times of drought (see e.g. ibid. 306); but the tribal divisions, one should note, changed very little, and then rather in a longue duree than in the order of events recorded year by year. As we shall see in Chapter 9, the geographical detail even of sections within tribes changes hardly at all from al-Qasim's time (early seventeenth century) to our own, and where change occurs it does so by recognizable quanta. Inequality and movement alike are registered in other terms. The prominence of major shaykhs, for instance, whom the tribesmen followed much as they did Imams, derived from wealth in the west and in Lower Yemen, and this is also where the great non-quantum shifts in territorial control resulted from tribesmen fighting each other. Inequality, power, and geographical change all attach, not to tribal self-definition, but to the history of successive Imams, to the history of a tradition or of a dynasty; and the dynasty had, by this point, collapsed because it had lost control of non-tribal land.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 216§REF§ 'The Imams' attempts to regain the south met with little success. Ahmad Salih Thawabah of Dhu Muhammad, who had controlled a large ;wa~he of Lower Yemen, was defeated by al-Mutawakkil Muhammad and finally executed in 1848, to the delight of the Imam's supporters (Dresch 1987b). Within three years, however, his sons were formally granted land in much the same area (al-Hibshi 1980: 166). In the interim the Imam had been forced to send Dhii Muhammad horses as slaughter-beasts ('aqa'ir), which they took but did not have killed, and then pay them to fight again in the south (ibid. 146).20 Dhu Muhammad, Dhii Husayn, Arhab, Khawlan, and Hashid were also all fighting in the west, on the Imam's side, the Sharif's, or both; but the Ottoman Turks now seized the Tihamah. Hufash, near al-Mahwit, and al-Haymah were both contested, and several rival claimants to the Imamate appeared at once.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 216p§REF§ This enabled the eventual Ottoman re-conquest: 'In despair al-Mutawakkil asked the Turks to intervene in the highlands. They arrived at San'a' in 1849 with 1,200 foot and 500 horse, but a riot ensued and they withdrew after only three weeks (Zabarah 1929: ii, 346 ff.; al-Sayaghi 1978: 25-7). AlMutawakkil was killed by his rivals. One of the Ashraf of the northern Tihamah, supported by 'a large following from Hashid, was then bought off with a gift of 2,000 riyals, robes of honour, and a horse (al-Sayaghi 1978: 31). The combination of a Tihamah Sharif and Hashid at the gates of San'a' is symptomatic enough of the Imamate's weakness.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 217§REF§ 'From the summary histories one forms an impression of steadily increasing disorder through the next twenty years, until 'the people of San'a' and others' invited the Turks again to take the city 'after they had tired of the chaos which prevailed there, the dominion of men from the tribes, the cutting of the roads, and the lack of any ordered security' (al-jirafi 1951: 205-6). A more recently available, and more detailed, source gives a different impression (al-Hibshi 19 80: 29 6 ff.). But the Turks seem in any case to have had designs on the highlands: they had increased their forces on the coast 'until stores were coming ashore with San'a' printed on every load' (ibid. 315), and when they finally arrived, in 1872, they demanded the tax registers which would reveal to them the administration and resources of the whole country (al-Wasi'I 1928: IIO). They were to remain in highland Yemen until 19 18.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 217§REF§ 'For much of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, then, Yemen had been plagued by disputes between rival Imams and by tribal disorder. The Imamate had taken the form of an elaborate dynastic state, yet failed to secure the means to support itself or to transmit authority without dispute. Al-Shamahi credits the Qasimi dawlah with surviving until the middle of the nineteenth century. In name it did. He rationalizes the great decline of its power by saying that al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (d. 1686) was the last of the Qasimis to possess all the qualities needed of an Imam, and that the rulers after him were more like kings (al-Shamahi 1972: 144-6). Similarly, al-Wazir (1971: 50) attributes the collapse of the state to the appearance of 'evil Imams'. Authors writing nearer the time each choose some point at which the real decline starts, always simply by reference to the actions or fate of a particular Imam (e.g. al-Hibshi 1980: 193).' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government and History in Yemen\", 217p§REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King and Queen<br>The founder of the state consulted and at times deferred to his queen, Asma; their son al-Mukarram continued to rely on her counsel during the years between his father's demise and her death (1067-1074).\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 67) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§ Queen Arwa who was married to al-Mukarram in 1065 CE also was influential from 1074 CE.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 68) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. ViceroySulayhids: when the king was absent he could have a viceroy, such as his heir, rule in his place.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 65) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>_Court government§REF§(Stookey 1978, 74) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§_<br>2. Chief minister <i>first appointed by Queen Arwa 1097 CE</i>Individual's role was \"commander of the army and head of administration.\" Queen Arwa \"relied heavily on his advice, and channeled her orders through him.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Lower administratorThe Sulayhids had administrators.§REF§(Hamdani 2006, 777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. GovernorsAli al-Sulayhi moved defeated princes into palaces in Sanaa and replaced them with governors \"often his own close relatives, whose administration he supervised personally and minutely, without the intermediary of a chief minister (an office which became customary in both the Abbasid and Fatimid courts, to the detriment of royal authority).\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 62-63) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Amirs? Sulayhid queen not in full control: \"another Amir, al-Mufaddal al-Himyari, who guarded her treasure at the fortress of Ta'kar but was also responsible for creating man enemies against her by his constant warfare.\"§REF§(Hamdani 2006, 777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>3. Assistant to the governor<br>3. Civil administrator<br>3. Revenue collectorSulayhids had officials. Provincial administration had an executive (civil administrator, revenue collection) and judicial branch and an assistant to the governor, all appointed by the king (3 officials in total below the governor). There also was a chief secretary to the governor.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 63) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§4.<br><br>Sulayhids: In 1110 CE the Fatimids in Egypt \"sent an Armenian commander, Ibn Najib al-Dawla, as a da'i to reign in the chaotic situation in Yemen. Soon the local tribes revolted against him and the authority of the queen was much constrained by him.\"§REF§(Hamdani 2006, 777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>In the early 12th century \"Another administrator was appointed at this time from the Sulayhid family, 'Ali ibn 'Abd Allah, with the title of Fakhr al-khilafa. The queen, however, relied on the Da'wa under Yahya ibn Lamak and its military arm, Sultan al-Khattab ibn al-Hasan al-Hamdani, the baron of Jurayb in the Hajur district. He is also called a da'j, for many works of the Yemeni da'wa were authored by him. He became the queen's defender of faith and the protector of her realm. He never attained the position of a Da'i mutlaq under the queen as a Hujja, which went to his mentor - the Da'i Dhu'ayb ibn Musa al-Wadi'i - on Da'i Yahya's death in 520/1126.\"§REF§(Hamdani 2006, 777) Hamdani, Abbas. Sulayhids. Josef W Meri ed. 2006. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1, A - K, Index. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>Najahids: \"Whether specimens of the 438 Rayy issue could have reached the Yemen by the following year, there to serve as models for the Najahid coinage, seems to me highly questionable, although there is evidence, architectural and epigraphic, to support the theory of a strong cultural link between Iran and the Yemen in the 11th century a.d. 17 What matters is that at this moment in history the title of Sultan could have been used only with reference to the head of state, the immediate deputy of the Caliph in the country of province concerned. At Zabid in 440 this authority was none other than Najah. The appearance of the title Sultan on coins 3 and 4 therefore reinforces the theory that coins of the ruler named al-Muzaffar must be Najahid, even if the name Najah does not figure on them.\"§REF§(? 1990, 190) Nicholas M Lowick. Joe Cribb. ed. 1990. Coinage and History of the Islamic World. Variorum Reprints.§REF§<br>\"Even before al-Mukarram's death, the Fatimid court had sent a chief justice to Yemen, Lamak bin Malik, who remained in the office until his death in 1116; his son Yahya succeeded him for the remainder of Arwa's reign. The judge's responsibility extended to advising the queen on the management of the Ismaili missionary effort in Yemen itself and to the east in Oman, the Persian Gulf, and India.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 72) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": 970, "year_to": 1171, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "§REF§(Nicolle 1996)§REF§§REF§(Oliver 1977)§REF§§REF§(Raymond 2000)§REF§<br>1. Vizier/Military chief (1073-1171 CE)<br>after 1073 CE (although transition may have begun under regency of al-Mustansir) position of vizier became de facto ruler, effectively a dictator with nominal caliph. in this period vizier lived in own palace. essentially after 1073 CE Badr al-Jamali the vizier is the chief executive.<br>1. Caliph<br>1073 to 1121: the military chiefs replaced the caliphs as the effective heads of government. §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 243)§REF§<br>Highly stratified court §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 242)§REF§<br>court employed 30,000 people according to traveller Nasir-i Khusraw (c1048 CE?) §REF§(Raymond 2000, 52)§REF§<br>2. Harem\"A hierarchical corps of eunuchs controlled the harem and the personal life of the caliph.\"§REF§(Hamblin 2005, 749) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§<br>_Central government line_<br>2. Slave viziers (c970 - 1073 CE)Vizier did not exist for Tunisian period 909-969 CE<br>al-Badr who assumed the powers of a \"military dictator\": \"Henceforth, with minor exceptions, real power in the Fatimid state remained in the hands of viziers who possessed military bases of power and acted independently, while the caliphs remained the nominal heads of state and as Ismaili imams also functioned as supreme leaders of the ismalil da'wa or religious organization. A distinguishing feature of the Fatimid vizierate during its final century is that several viziers were Christians, notably Armenians.\"§REF§(Daftary 2005, 744) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§<br>of 11 Fatimid rulers 7 came to throne as minors; Egypt frequently ruled by the Vizier.§REF§(Raymond 2000, 40)§REF§ Late 11th century viziers became more powerful, called themselves malik (prince).§REF§(Raymond 2000, 73)§REF§<br>3. Heads of administration (e.g. military, treasury, religious, missionary, and judiciary) §REF§(Hamblin 2005, 748) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§\"The post of auditor (zimam) and the office of the audit (diwan al-zimdm) are well known features of the 'Abbasid administration. In the case of the Fatimid administration, the earliest reference to diwan al-zimam is from 402/1011-1012, and the holder of the post (ndzir diwan al-zimdm) was a person of Iraqi origin with previous experience in 'Abbasid administration.\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 353)§REF§<br>Chancery (diwan al-inshda)§REF§(Lev 1987, 353)§REF§<br>4. (inferred) head of state armory (khizdna al-bunud)\"Al-Zahir is credited with establishing the state's armory (khizdna al-bunud), which was an arsenal and a workshop employing 3,000 craftsmen for producing arms.\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 354)§REF§<br>5. (inferred) manager of section in state armory<br>6. Craftsman in state armory<br>4. Lesser bureaucrats??5. Scribes??<br>_Provincial line _<br>2. Subject cites/territoriesE.g. in Hejaz<br>For a brief period Egypt was run by Jawhar, a proconsul §REF§(Raymond 2000, 39)§REF§<br>2. Provincial governorsE.g. Zirids in Tunisia)<br>3. ... ? ...Fustat was governed by a wali (governor) who was effectively chief of police. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§4<small>fustat</small>. In Fustat the muhtasib \"supervised the activities of shopkeepers and artisans and saw to the observance of religious law.\" §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§5<small>fustat</small>. In Fustat some public services were provided e.g. rubbish collection, sewage system. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 65)§REF§ \"al-attalun (police force?)\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 341)§REF§<br>4. Village headmen<br>Abu Yaqub Sejestani (d c.971 CE), da'i of Khorasan, \"now endorsed the imamate of the Fatimids and propagated their cause in Knorasan, Sistan, and Makran, where numerous Ismailis rallied to the side of the Fatimid da'wa. The Fatimid da'is also succeeded around 347/958 in establishing a Fatimid vassal state centered in Moltan, in northern India, where the kotba was now read in the name of the Fatimid caliphs, instead of their Abbasid rivals.\".§REF§(Daftary 2009) Daftary, Farhad. 2009. FATIMIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IX, Fasc. 4, pp. 423-426. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids</a>§REF§ This Isma'ili state in Multan overthrown by Gaznavids 1005-1006 CE.§REF§(Daftary 2009) Daftary, Farhad. 2009. FATIMIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. IX, Fasc. 4, pp. 423-426. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fatimids</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "in_deccan_ia", "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -1000, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"At the smallest and least complex (in terms of population, geographic scale and decision-making arrangements) end of this continuum, chiefs with limited decision-making prerogatives probably presided over single settlements. In larger examples, more powerful leaders based in larger centers likely exerted varying degrees of control over multiple and varying numbers of settlements. Finally, at the most complex end of this continuum, paramount chiefs ruling from large regional centers with lesser chiefs as political subordinates dominated even larger polities containing numerous settlements and substantial populations. In the present context it seems most likely that chiefdoms of the first type were prevalent during the earlier phases of the Iron Age, with those of the latter two types developing with increasing frequency as time passed.\"§REF§R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61, pp. 253-302§REF§<br>_Early in period_<br>1. Chief<br>_Later in period_<br>1. Paramount chief<br>2. Lesser chief<br><br>\"The disparities of scale, design, and materials in megalithic mortuary preparation and associated grave goods demonstrate differential access to labor and a variety of goods and resources that strongly suggest significant differences in social rank within Iron Age settlement communities\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§. However, few sources offers an explicit description of the social and political hierarchy of the time, as \"the study of variation among megalithic cemeteries has been beset by low-sample sizes of well-documented excavated interments and by a remarkable paucity of radiometric dates\" §REF§P. Johansen, The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India (2014), Journal of Social Archaeology 0(0): 1-28§REF§.<br>\"Among the material changes documented in the Iron Age archaeological record are more complex and labor-intensive settlement designs, new mortuary practices, the production and consumption of a range of new slipped and polished ceramic wares as well as iron tools, weapons, and hardware. Most notably, there was significant transformation in the organization of social relations during the Iron Age that produced tangible social differences and inequalities.\"§REF§(Johansen 2014, 1-28) Johansen, P. 2014. The politics of spatial renovation: Reconfiguring ritual practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India. Journal of Social Archaeology. 0(0).§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "Before the Roman Principate there was no formal bureaucracy. The old Roman treasury - the aerarium Saturni - was housed in the basement of the Temple of Saturn §REF§Garrett Fagan. Personal Communication.§REF§ The state treasury of the Roman Republic was kept in the custody of the priesthood inside the temple of Saturn, and was managed by elected aristocratic officials called quaestors.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>1. Consuls (two)<br>presided over the Senate<br>(minimum 42 years old) both also commanders. Elected by comitia centuriata, an aristocratic assembly.<br>Until 363 CE consuls may have been called praetors §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§.<br>Two consuls, appointed for one year terms.§REF§(Crawford 2001)§REF§<br>_Governing institutions_<br>1. Senators in the Senate<br>Three hundred senators (no minimum age) elected for life, and ten tribunes to represent plebians (created 471 BCE).<br>2. Quaestors in the State treasuryTreasury called aerarium or aerarium Saturni (treasury of Saturn). This was used for \"depositing cash and archives of the Roman state and was situated in the temple of Saturn below the Capitol. It was controlled by the quaestors under the general supervision of the Senate.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ This treasury still existed during the empire period when revenues \"were increasingly diverted into the fiscus (imperial treasury). The aerarium eventually became the treasury of the city of Rome.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>elected position. \"financial and administrative officials who maintained public records, administered the treasury (aerarium), acted as paymasters accompanying generals on campaigns and were financial secretaries to governors.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ In 2nd century BCE the quaestorship <i>(a provincial appointment?)</i> \"was an entry-level office; it had limited powers, and in this period was usually held around age 30.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 36) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. Assistants or scribes?<br>3. Equites managerial class who hold public contractsThe equites, the plebeian \"middle class\", \"were also able to take on public contracts, such as road building and supplying equipment to the army.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1994, 38) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Workers for Equites<br>1. Censors (two)<br>elected position. Two magistrates \"that involved some especially important sacral and civic duties\".§REF§(Brennan 2004, 34) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The office of the censor (censorship) from 443 BCE but not always present were two officials who enrolled citizens into military service.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 17) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>1. Aediles (two)<br>elected by comitia tributa. \"Two plebeian magistrates administered temple of Ceres, function later \"extended to public buildings and archives (of the plebiscita and senatus consulta). From 367 BC two curule aediles were elected from the patricians. The plebeian and curule aediles had similar functions at Rome; they were in charge of the maintenance and repair of public buildings (such as temples, roads and aqueducts), of markets (especially weights and measures), of the annona (to the time of Julius Caesar), and of public games and festivals (to the time of Augustus, when games were transferred to praetors).\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>1. Praetors (six?)<br>elected by comitia centuriata. \"In 366 BC the praetor urbanus (city praetor) was introduced, who was almost exclusively concerned with the administration of law at Rome. The praetor ... was the supreme civil judge. By the middle republic the praetors' powers were restricted to law and justice... By 241 BC a second praetor ... was established to deal with legal cases in which one or both parties were foreigners. ... there were eight by 80 BC. Praetors issued annual edicts that were an important source of Roman law.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ \"A third magistracy, the praetorship, was also established in 367.\"§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The first plebeian praetor was in 336 BCE.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>_ Provincial administration _<br>2. Municipia/praefecturaeCapua and Cumae had an internal government subject to Roman supervision §REF§(Stearns 2001, 79)§REF§<br>2. ColoniaeFirst Latin coloniae after 338, Cales founded 334 BCE. Latin status not Roman citizenship. Other areas, such as Capua and Arpinum, immediately acquired Roman citizenship §REF§(Crawford 2001)§REF§<br>Colonies of citizens - 8 coastal by 264, Latin colonies established by military (devolved government modelled on Rome). Civitates foederate, socii (allies, contributed troops to Rome). §REF§(Stearns 2001, 79)§REF§<br>2. Autonomous governmentsOld Latin states (Tibur and Praeneste) autonomous government in treaty of 338 (could become Roman citizens and were obliged to provide soldiers)§REF§(Stearns 2001, 79)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1. ruler (royal couple) called <i>rubā'um</i> ('prince') and <i>rubātum</i> ('princess')§REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) <i>Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen</i>. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137§REF§<br>2. higher officials, such as 'chief of the stairway', who could correspond with the main ruler; <i>rabi sikkitim</i> (chief of man)§REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 151§REF§§REF§Diakonof L.M. 1979. Some remarks on I 568. <i>ArOr</i> 47, pg. 40§REF§, who was responsible for military and trade;'chief sceptcr bearer, 'chief cup bearer' and 'chief of tablets' were directly serving the king. 'The chief of workers' took care and supervised craftsmen, who were also organised under a chief of their profession (e.g. 'chief of blacksmith' etc).3. Scribe?<br>rest of the population, lower class <i>hupšum</i>, mostly shepherds and farmers§REF§Michel C. 2011. The <i>karum</i> Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 323, 326§REF§§REF§Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Society in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 146§REF§.<br>NOTE: Barjamovic points to evidence for a \"complex administrative hierarchy\",§REF§(Barjamovic 2011: 325) Barjamovic G. 2011. <i>A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period</i>. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press§REF§ and though he does not provide quite enough information to infer the exact number of \"levels\" this hierarchy might have had, it seems reasonable to infer more than three.<br>" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§(Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95)§REF§<br>1. Chief<br>2. Elder. kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 1000, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Chief / Priest<br>In the Emergent Mississippian period: \"perhaps the appearance of chiefs\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 26)§REF§<br>\"Cahokia may have been led by a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests, but a shift to “king” does not appear to have happened at Cahokia.\"§REF§(Peregrine 2014, 31)§REF§<br>2. Sub-chief / Sub-priest?<br>\"Members of the highest social strata probably included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>3. Elder / Religious functionary<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor2. The Nine Courts<br>_Central government_<br>3. Secretariat (zhongshusheng)<br>3. Chancellery (menxiasheng)<br>3. Censorate (yushitai)<br>3. Three Dukes (sangong: Counsellor-in-chief chengxiang, Defender-in-chief taiwei, and Grand Preceptor taishi or taizai) later Eight Dukes (bagong: included the Grand Preceptor, Grand Mentor (taifu), the Grand Guardian (taibao), the Minister of Works (sikong), the Minister of Education (situ), and the Commander-in-chief (dasima) and the General-in-chief (dajiangjun)§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>3. Imperial Secretariat (shangshusheng)3-4. Royal Secretariat (shangshu tai) with six boards headed by presidents (shangshu)§REF§(Xiong 2009, 182)§REF§4-6. Six Ministries4-6. Board of Works§REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§ (inferred vice minister and minister positions)7. Qibu (Bureau of Works)8. Lushi: \"office manager in a general's headquarters, central government agency, or local administration\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 349)§REF§9. Clerk (inferred)<br>_Regional Government_<br>4. Regional Inspectors of Zhou<br>4. Regional Governors of Zhou<br>4. Regional Governors of Jun<br>4. Military Area Commanders (dudu or zongguan<br>4. Prince or Marquis5. Magistrate (ling) of a Xian (county)§REF§(Xiong 2009, 564)§REF§6. Lower-level officials (inferred)7. Clerks to the above offices (inferred)<br>The Nine Courts: \"Regular court officials, arranged in courts (fu or si) helped to organize the imperial household affairs as chamberlains (qing).\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§ The Nine Chamberlains (jiuqing), which were \"Nine central government leaders and the agencies and their control ... began to be called the Nine Courts (jiusi).\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 379)§REF§<br>Secretariat (zhongshusheng): \"the executive policy-formulating powers belonged to the Secretariat (zhongshusheng) that was the channel through which all memorials and documents flowed to the emperor and it was the agency that proposed and drafted all imperial rescipts, decrees (zhao) and edicts (ling).\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>Chancellery (menxiasheng): \"Policy consultants were gathered in an institution called Chancellery (menxiasheng) whose main function was to advise and to remonstrate.\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>Censorate (yushitai) headed by the Censor-in-chief: \"The surveying agency of the officialdom was the Censorate (yushitai), headed by the Censor-in-chief (yushi dafu).\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"The highest posts or titles of the Jin central government were inherited from the Han.\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§ \"Their staff was arranged in different sections (cao).\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>Imperial Secretariat (shangshusheng): \"The major institution of the Han central government, the Imperial Secretariat (shangshusheng), was ousted to a more routinely administrative role that controlled the Six Ministries (liubu, each headed by a minister shangshu and a vice-minister puye).\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>Six Ministries (liubu, each headed by a minister shangshu and a vice-minister puye)§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>Western Jin \"Bureau of Works, under the Board of Works.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 405)§REF§<br>Regional Government: \"From the Three Kingdoms through the Western Jin, a three tier local government system, comprised of zhou (province), jun (region), and xian (county), was in place.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 182)§REF§<br>Regional inspectors: a zhou was a province \"governed by regional governors zhoumu and controlled by regional inspectors, cishi\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"Each zhou had under its direct control a number of jun (regions). By the fall of the Western Jin, the zhou were reduced to de facto prefectures.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 686)§REF§<br>\"19 provinces (zhou), 173 regions and fiefdoms (jun guo), and 2,459,840 households.\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, xc)§REF§<br>Jun (region) \"administered by governors taishou.\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§ Jun were \"eclipsed by the appearance of zhou (province)\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 271)§REF§<br>\"Most regional governors were concurrently acting as military area commanders (dudu or zongguan).\"§REF§(Xiong 2009, 271)§REF§<br>\"Alongside with commanderies and districts there existed a lot of princedoms (wangguo) and marquisates (houguo), fiefs bestowed to members of the imperial house and, particularly the marquisates, to ministers of high merits.\"§REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"The administrative structure inherited Qin and Han reach down to the local level, the county (xian) with a population of several thousand or several tens of thousands...\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 20-21)§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "id_kalingga_k", "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Before 500 CE: \"Marked social stratification into a hereditary aristocracy, with privileged access to wealth and the power of life and death over slaves, is widely evidenced. Bali's sarcophagi have been classified into 74 small (0.8-1.4 m in length), seven intermediate (1.5-1.7 m), and six large sarcophagi (2.0-2.7 m long), of which the latter all fall within 10 km of Manuaba (the site of a Pejeng stone mold). These tiers may correspond to increasingly exclusive ranks in the aristocracy and the centralization of prestige in the Manuaba area (Ardika 1987: 4, 42-44). The richly furnished child buried inside a Dong Son drum at Plawangan (Prasetyo 1994/1995: 19, 39) seems to be the prematurely deceased incumbent to the local chieftainship.\"§REF§(Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 106)§REF§ Chiefs seemingly attested before the Kalingga period.<br>\"The story of the north Indian Buddhist pilgrim Gunavarman records the emergence of Holing (central Java) as a political entity. In 422, Gunavarman stopped at Holing on his way to China. He stayed there for several years, patronized by the queen mother and preaching Buddhist doctrine with great success; the king of Holing asked Gunavarman’s advice on whether to attack his enemies (Pelliot: 1904, 274-75). Herein in the Chinese accounts, the emergence of Holing from what was previously a tribal society involved competition among several communities and the productive outreach by one to a potential Indian advisor. This, like the Funan origin myth detailed in chapter 2, reflects the actual or symbolic use of Indic culture as the basis for the establishment of one enterprising chiefdom’s supremacy over its regional rivals. Holing sent envoys to China in 430 and 440 but is not mentioned in sixth-century Chinese records, suggesting that international contact with central Java was limited until two centuries later, when in the 640s and 660s Holing again sent embassies and around 640 welcomed a Chinese monk who remained to study under a Javanese Buddhist master (Pelliot: 1904, 286-88; Meulen: 1977, 90).\" §REF§(Hall 2011, 106)§REF§<br>At the onset of the next period: \"Like Sanjaya, initially the Sailendra leaders were rakrayan, or regional leaders, rulers of a watak that integrated village clusters (wanua) participating in a regional irrigation and/or otherwise networked society. As rakrayan, these earliest Sailendra rulers provided the political stability necessary to maintain the local irrigation and marketing networks, and through their patronage of Indic religion they constructed sacred cults to legitimize the regional integration of wanua into watak.\" §REF§(Hall 2011, 123)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Advisors<br>2. Rakrayan- regional leaders3. Village clusters (watak) chiefs?4. Village (wanua) chiefs?" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Source 1: Brier and Hobbs (2008, 72)- Diagram \"Government organization at the time of the New Kingdom.\"§REF§(Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Brier, Bob. Hobbs, H A. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§1. Pharaoh (not included in diagram)<br>2. Northern Tchety3. Northern nomarchs4. Village chiefs5. Constables<br>4. Great Kenbet of the North5. Village Kenbets<br>2. Southern Tchety3. Southern nomarchs4. Village chiefs<br>4. Great Kenbet of the South5. Village Kenbets5. Constables<br>2. Overseer of the House of Gold (Treasury)3. Overseer of Granaries<br>3. Overseer of Cattle<br>2. Taxes ?<br>Source 2: \"Fig. 3.4. Schematic outline of the developed structure of government in the New Kingdom. The fragility of much of the evidence on which this diagram is based must be emphasized, as must its inability adequately to illustrate significant changes in the structure ... Nevertheless, the writer believes that the diagram gives a reasonable approximation of the divisions of functions and powers within New Kingdom government.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 208) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Chancellor of the Court3. Camberlain of the Court<br>2. Chief Steward of the Royal Estates3. Bureaucracy for the Royal Domain<br>2. Commander-in-Chief3. Chief Deputy of the Northern Corps<br>3. Chief Deputy of the Southern Corps4. General Officers<br>4. Bureaucracy5. Garrisons / Town and Village Levies / Military villages<br>2. Overseer Of Prophets Of (All The Gods) Of Upper and Lower Egypt -- \"held at various times by vizier, high priest of Amun.\"3. God's Wife of Amun4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>3. High Priest of Amen4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>3. High Priests of Other Gods4. Priesthoods Bureaucracy<br>2. Northern Vizier<br>2. Southern Vizier3. Overseers (2) of the Treasury4. Bureaucracy5. Village Chiefs<br>5. Town Mayors6. for both mayors and kenbet-councils \"there was internal hierarchization and differences in function.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>5. Councils6. for both mayors and kenbet-councils \"there was internal hierarchization and differences in function.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 214) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>4. Police5. Village Chiefs<br>5. Town Mayors<br>5. Councils<br>2. Overseer of the Granaries of Upper and Lower Egypt / Overseer of Cattle <i>not sure I understand the correct position of these titles</i><br>2. Governors of Northern Lands3. Vassel Kings<br>Battalion Commanders<br>2. Governor of Southern Lands. King's Son of Kush.3. Deputy of Wawat4. Mayors of Egyptian Centres<br>4. Chiefs of Indigenous Groups<br>3. Deputy of Kush4. Mayors of Egyptian Centres<br>4. Chiefs of Indigenous Groups<br>3. Battalion Commanders<br>van den Boorn (1988)<br>\"We note, that the interrogation of local urban officials takes place in the bureau of the vizier ... It is evident, that interrogations and hearings of urban authorities entailed their journeying to the seat of the vizier: for the vizier, a perfect means of exercising effective control over his urban officials. For the functionaries involved, the possibility of being called back to the residence-city meant a check on possibile irregularities, also support for their local politics in having the opportunity to consult the vizier and knowing that they were backed. On the practical side, it entailed a great deal of traveling. Moreover, it presupposes a local apparatus managing affairs in their absence.\"§REF§(van den Boorn 1988, 115-116) van den Boorn, G. P. F. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier. Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. Kegan Paul International. London & New York.§REF§<br><i>Alternative attempt (multiple sources):</i><br>1. Pharaoh<br>The term \"Pharaoh\" - Egyptian for \"great house\" - emerged as political title in the New Kingdom.<br>JGM: Note also use of term in the Old Testament.<br>\"One office that was more often that not held by foreigners was that of 'royal butler,' a senior executive position outside the normal bureaucratic hierarchy, the holder of which was often entrusted with special royal commissions.\" §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 292)§REF§<br>_ Central government line _§REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Vizier §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 285)§REF§<br>3. Overseer of policemen(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\": \"\"It is he (the vizier) who appoints the overseer of policemen in the bureau of the pr-nswt.\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Overseer of the treasury §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§<br>4. Overseers of gold and silver houses, royal stewards, overseers of the granary §REF§(Bryan 2000, 261)§REF§, Overseer of works §REF§(Bryan 2000, 236)§REF§<br>5. Royal scribe§REF§(Bryan 2000, 264)§REF§<br>Are these public officials appointed by central or local government? Was there an \"Overseer of the market places\" at level 4a.? Perhaps they appointed the public weighers.<br>5. Qabbaneh (public weighers in the market place) §REF§(Willard 2008, 2249)§REF§6. Notary assisted the Qabbaneh §REF§(Willard 2008, 2249)§REF§<br>_ Provincial line _§REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Vizier\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>2. Nomes §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§Nomes had capitals. Hebenu was the capital of the Oryx nome. §REF§(Bryan 2000, 230)§REF§<br>3. Chiefs of towns\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>3. Chiefs of villagesMayors e.g. mayor of Thinis (region of Abydos). §REF§(Bryan 2000, 241)§REF§<br>\"It is he [the vizier] who holds the hearing of the mayor and the settlement-leaders who have gone out in his name to Upper and Lower Egypt.\"(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\"§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 727) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>4. Local bureaucrats<br>5. Scribes<br>_ Nubian line _ §REF§(Ref. Helck. 1957. Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reich.)§REF§<br>2. Governor\"Viceroy and overseer of southern countries.\"§REF§(Bryan 2000, 234)§REF§<br>Provinces in Palestine and Syria §REF§(Van Dijk 2000, 292)§REF§<br>3. Bureaucrats for the whole of Nubia4. Bureaucrats for both Nubian Provinces5. Scribes<br>(Thut III - Am II period). \"Inscription from the tomb of Vizier Rh-mi-r'\" mentions mayors and settlement-leaders.§REF§(Pagliari 2012, 726) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham.§REF§<br>EWA: Central line/capital: King, Central elites, bureaucrats<br>Provincial line: King, Central elites, chiefs of towns and chiefs of villages, local bureuacrats and scribes<br>Nubian line as an example of 'foreign' territory: King, Nubian Governor, bureaucrats for the whole of Nubia and for both Nubian provinces, scribes<br>O'Connor (1983)§REF§(O'Connor 1983) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The garrisons of Egyptian (and Kushite) troops in the 'Northlands' were small, scattered and under the direct control of several 'battalion-commanders' and not of the governors. ... The 'Southlands' (Wawat and Kush), with their Nubian population ... was ruled by a single governor, who shared no important administrative power with the local chieftains; its military forces were centralized under a single 'battalion-commander'\".§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 209) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"The internal government of Egypt was divided for functional reasons, into four major units (fig. 3.4) and these were sometimes further divided geographically ... Centralized control was maintained by means of the small group of powerful officials who headed each department, who reported directly who the king, who were appointed and removed by him.\"§REF§(O'Connor 1983, 209) O'Connor, David. \"New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period 1552-664 BC\" in Trigger, B G. Kemp, B J. O'Connor, D. LLoyd, A B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Dier-el-Medina worker village<br>1. Pharoah<br>2. Vizier3. Palace scribePalace scribe managed the community and was himself appointed by the Vizier.§REF§Ziskind, Bernard. Halioua. Occupational medicine in ancient Egypt. 2007. Medical Hypotheses. Volume 69. Issue 4. pp 942-945. Elsevier.§REF§ Two teams of workers worked ten days and then were replaced.§REF§Ziskind, Bernard. Halioua. Occupational medicine in ancient Egypt. 2007. Medical Hypotheses. Volume 69. Issue 4. pp 942-945. Elsevier.§REF§<br>4. Team on the left(or right) supervisor5. Team on the left(or right) worker (*5)<br>4. Team on the left(or right) doctor<br>4. Team on the left(or right) non-commissioned officer5. Team on the left(or right) guard<br>5. Team on the left(or right) gate-keeper" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Chief<br>In the Emergent Mississippian period: \"perhaps the appearance of chiefs\" §REF§(Iseminger 2010, 26)§REF§<br>2. Elder<br>kin group leaders §REF§(Iseminger 2014, 26)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. (2) Overall community headmen (1) Segmentary community leader. SCCS variable 76 'Community Leadership' is coded as ‘4’ or 'Dual/plural headmen'. SCCS variable 237 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' is coded as ‘1’ or 'No levels (no political authority beyond community)'. According to the Ethnographic Atlas' variable 33 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' was ‘1’ or 'No levels (no political authority beyond community) (.0)'.<br>1. Colonial Administration<br>2. Head-Chiefs or Island Chiefs and native Petty Officials3. District Chiefs4. Village and Lineage Headmen<br>The Chuukese/Trukese were divided into multiple clans and lineages: 'Chuuk's population is divided into a number of dispersed, matrilineal clans. Within any one district the several lineages are usually but not always of different clans. There are also personal kindreds. As a principle of clan and lineage membership, descent is matrilineal, but otherwise kinship is reckoned bilaterally.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ 'The domestic unit was an extended family, based on the women of a lineage or sublineage. It consisted of at least one experienced older woman and two more younger women of childbearing age together with their husbands. Unmarried sons and brothers slept apart in their lineage's meeting house. Extended family households continued through the periods of foreign administration.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ District chiefs were chosen from the dominant lineage of an area: 'In each district the lineage with title to its space held the chiefship. The several lineages with full or residual title to plots of soil had full residential rights. Lineages with only provisional titles to plots of soil in grant from other lineages had only conditional residential rights. Lineages with full residential rights maintained symbolic hearths where, with their client lineages, they prepared food to present to the chief in recognition of his lineage's ownership of the space.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ 'A district chiefship was divided between the oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally. The latter was executive chief, or \"chief of talk,\" and the former symbolic chief, or \"chief of food.\" Food presentations were made to the symbolic chief. Sometimes the symbolic and executive functions fell to the same individual; often they did not. The symbolic chief was surrounded by his lineage brothers and by his sons, who acted as his agents. These followers and his sisters and daughters were of chiefly rank, distinct from commoners. Through conquest, a lineage might gain the chiefship in more than one district and establish a junior branch as the chiefly lineage in the conquered district. The now subordinate district rendered food presentations to the superordinate one. Most districts were linked in two rival leagues based on competing schools of magic and ritual relating to war, politics, and rhetoric. A chief's authority derived from two things. His lineage's ownership of the district's space entitled him to presentations of first fruits at stated times of the year. More importantly, it gave him authority over the conservation and use of the district's food resources. His authority also derived from his connection with the sky world, its gods, and their superhuman power to accomplish purposes. There was, therefore, a degree of sacredness associated with chiefs.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward H. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Chuuk§REF§ Traditionally, authority did not extend beyond the atoll and was shared among multiple chiefs on one island. Chuuk was somewhat more fragmented than other Micronesian societies: 'Throughout most of Micronesia the maximum independent autonomous political unit was the high island or the atoll, often subdivided into more than one polity. At the time of European contact, Satawan Atoll in the Mortlocks had four separate communities, each with its own leader, which sometimes fought one another. Palau had two confederations of villages or districts, each independent of the other, and the villages themselves had considerable autonomy. Pohnpei had five petty states, although traditions of a unified rule for the whole island are apparent from an earlier period. Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically, with several independent communities on each of the six larger high islands. The Marshalls and the Gilberts had larger polities and integrated groups of separate atolls under a high chief; these expansionist states achieved their fullest development after the introduction of firearms by Europeans.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ There was a degree of differentiation between chiefs and ritual specialists: 'No regular religious duties were attached to the chief’s office. They were performed, instead, by various specialists. A chief was concerned, however, that the proper specialists [Page 144] engage in their respective activities at appropriate times, at least when the welfare of the entire district was involved. He also used to set the times for dances, which were a popular form of entertainment before the missionaries banned them.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1951. “Property, Kin, And Community On Truk”, 143§REF§ The colonial governments appointed a number of head-chiefs and superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system: 'In 1904 the disarming of the Truk people was undertaken by the “Kondor.” There were 436 guns and 2,531 cartridges confiscated. For better control the government appointed six head-chiefs, banished some swashbucklers who did not want to submit, and turned out the Japanese. With this a peaceful development was initiated. The missions (Protestant mission since 1879, Catholic mission since 1912) were able to work undisturbed. Unfortunately, the German government took little notice of Truk, since it was too preoccupied with the other islands. Yet many things were accomplished. Under the last director of the station, A. Überhorst, the lagoon was given new impetus in every respect. The relationship between officials and the population was usually a good one, under Mr. Überhorst even a cordial one. Anyone who was on Truk in those years certainly did not see any bad treatment of the natives. Much was done also with regard to health; in particular Dr. Mayer and his wife traveled from island to island without rest in order to take care of the sick. If during the Japanese occupation a young naval officer was not ashamed to assert that the Germans had done nothing for the islands, anyone who lived on the islands during the Japanese period can only say from the heart: “God protect the poor Truk people under the Japanese.”' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 253§REF§ 'On the main islands the German government introduced head chiefs (somol lap) who carried the flag. There were six of them, one each on Poloas, Uman, Fefan, Wöla, Udot, and Pol /Pul/. The smaller islands likewise belonged to the sphere of power of the head chiefs. But even this institution could not link the tribes together within themselves or with one another. Some of the lower chiefs sympathize with the head chief for egotistical reasons; others fight against him violently for the same reasons. One who is with him today might be against him tomorrow because he somehow stepped on his toes. It is often enough for the subchief to fight the head chief if his neighboring chief supports him. Thus the picture is constantly changing. [Page 125] There is a continuous, sometimes quiet, sometimes open, warfare of the subchiefs against the head chiefs, the lower chiefs among themselves, the common people against the chiefs. The main reason for this disagreeable phenomenon is the limitless egotism of the Truk people. Everyone strives more or less to be something of a chief also. Strong families who do not like the chief attempt to isolate themselves and choose one from their midst. In addition to this, there are also old family enmities and disputes about land. It is obvious that the islands will never be able to achieve peaceful development in this manner. It is difficult to say who is most to blame for it. In any case the chiefs are not to be pitied, because they behave themselves accordingly. They are to be blamed mostly for the exploitation of the people, their corruptibility, and partiality. Many of them unhesitatingly accept money and objects and help the giver, no matter how many times he is in the wrong.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 124§REF§ Head-chiefs or island-chiefs resolved disputes that could not be settled on the village level: 'The Germans set up a single chief over each island, or in Truk proper, over each large island with its satellites. One of the functions of this single chief was to settle such land disputes as could not be settled at the village level in order to prevent the outbreak of intra-island warfare.' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1958. “Native Land Tenure In The Truk District”, 205§REF§ The colonial administration established itself on Toloas: 'The main island is Toloas. On it lie: the government station (Witetun), the main station of the Catholic ( O[unknown]omenau) and of the Protestant ( Kutua) missions. The landmark of Poloas is the legendary mountain of Tolemuan (peak of the man). The small island of Eten, on which was to be found the seat of the Jaluit Company, is also under the head chief of Toloas.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 247§REF§ 'The Japanese, like the Germans, divided the Carolines into administrative districts governed from centers located on some of the more populous high islands. Under the Japanese, Truk—more specifically Dublon or Tolowas Island—was established as an administrative center. (Previously, under the Spanish and Germans Truk had been governed, rather nominally, from Ponape, 380 miles to the east).' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1961. “Japanese Schools For The Natives Of Truk, Caroline Islands”, 84§REF§ In the Japanese period, schooling was introduced, producing a small Chuukese elite of petty officials: 'The purpose of the schools for natives, judging from both reported policies and the Japanese school regulations was to civilize the natives and make them into loyal and economically useful citizens of the Japanese empire. While there was theoretically no limit to the higher education which the native child with sufficient ability and financial support might obtain, in actual fact only a minority of Trukese children attended the fourth and fifth grades, and only a minority of those completing fifth grade obtained further education at the vocational schools. Apparently no Trukese native obtained any academic education beyond fifth grade, except incidentally along with vocational training. The system was geared in effect to produce a supply of general laborers and domestic servants who understood the Japanese language, plus a small elite of skilled laborers and petty officials.' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1961. “Japanese Schools For The Natives Of Truk, Caroline Islands”, 84§REF§ Fischer also speaks of 'magistrates' and village chiefs, although their relationship to the above categories is somewhat unclear: 'The chiefs who receive these food presentations and feasts may not be the elected magistrates. If the magistrates happen to be also hereditary village chiefs, they receive such presentations, but only from their own village and not from the whole island. Most islands, even the outer islands, have at least two villages, and the larger island of Truk has a dozen or so each. Usually the village chief is a member of the chiefly clan who has been chosen for personal ability and not for seniority. This tendency is by no means universal.' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1958. “Native Land Tenure In The Truk District”, 209§REF§ Expert feedback on this is needed." }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Sultan<br>Sultans.§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ \"Ayyubid traditions remained strong in the new state, seen for example in their royal titulature.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ The first Rasulid Sultan, Nur al-Din, \"proclaimed himself sultan of Yemen with the title al-Mansur.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 108) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Council of Notables\"Reflecting the orthodox Muslim respect for the community consensus, the proclamation was issued by the council of notables of the realm, not as the sovereign's personal act. The Rasulids sought at least the appearance of public support for major decisions. The opinion of high state officials, it is recorded, was unanimous as to the accession of al-Ashraf II upon his father's death.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 119) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. WezirTop administrative official? \"al-Ashraf I ordered his minister\" who is referred to as a \"wezir\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3.\"an official in his chancery\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>The Rasulids had a \"public administration\" with a \"body of functionaries\" that attempted to extract \"as much revenue as practicable from their domain.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3.4. Tax collector5. Deputy tax collector\"Al-Ashraf II abolished an oppressive tax on cotton introduced by a deputy tax collector in the days of the sultan's predecessor.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 113) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>_Provincial line_<br>2. Chief JudgeProvinces had a chief judge who could get into disputes with the provincial governor.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>2. AmirRuler of region (or city?). e.g. Amir of Aden§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§ and \"governor of Sanaa\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 110) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Deputy governor worked under a provincial governor.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Deputy governorAl-Khazraji \"dates the ruin of the Tihama to the year 1353, and ascribes it to the malevolence of a deputy governor at Fashal\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>3. Town official\"and furthermore wrote to officials in the chief towns\".§REF§(Stookey 1978, 119) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>4. Customs inspectorCustoms inspectors e.g. at Aden.§REF§(Stookey 1978, 113) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Difference between Rasulids and Zaidi Imamate: \"the Zaidi imam al-Hadi's officials were simple, and derived solely from the Koran and hadith; under the imam's close guidance, a fairly rudimentary knowledge sufficed for their interpretation and application. Rasulid officials had a much more complex tax system to administer. While the core of the rules had roots in the shari'a, many other regulations were introduced for the sake of uniformity and increasing revenue.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 112) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>Upper and Lower Yemen: \"For two centuries the two regions coexisted in a state of mutual hostility, under sharply contrasting styles of leadership.\"§REF§(Stookey 1978, 124) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§<br>§REF§(Stookey 1978, 125) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>_Palatial government_<br>2. Shaperum/majordomo\"The chief civil administrator was the shaperum, \"majordomo\" or \"steward of the royal household.\" No comparable office existed in Sumer, so the Akkaddian word and concept were borrowed into Sumerian at this time.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>3. Land registrar\"A key civil figure after the steward of the royal household was the land registrar, the man accountable for the extensive arable districts controlled by the royal household and used to maintain officialdom.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>4. Surveyor\"The record keeping for accountable land and the surveying of subdivisions and plots fell to the land registrar and his staff of scribes and surveyors.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>4. Scribes<br>2. Royal inspector\"Akkadian administrators expected beautifully written, summary ledgers, with easy to read and understand broad schemes of accounting, to be filed in every locality, read for examination by the royal inspector ... One may suppose that this person was an independent auditor who went from place to place to ensure that the king's interests and rights were being maintained.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Governors (called ensi in Sumerian)3. Majordomo4. Bureau for the acquisition of oils and aromatics5. Assistant <i>inferred</i><br>4. Skilled artisan5. Assistant<br>3. Bailiff4. Scribes<br>4. Foremen<br>4. Recruiting officer5. Village headmen<br><br>Royal household. 1. Majordomo or shaperum \"an exalted, trusted personage who held executive responsibility for the king's resources in land and buildings, specie, livestock, and personnel\". 2. Courtiers \"prepared and served their food and drink, dressed and groomed them, readied and maintained their transport animals and wagons, entertained them, served as their messengers and couriers, and did their confidential divination and secretarial work.\" \"There are no signs of an advisory cabinet. 3. Other officials: \"the registrar of land, chief, and subordinate scribes\" - possibly responsible tothe majordomo.§REF§(Foster 2016, 43) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>At Mugdan was \"the seat of a manor that dominated the local countryside. ... This manor belong to members of the royal faily or royal household ... managed by a governor (ensi). Other local officials included the shaperum (majordomi) and a captain in command of a detachment of soldiers stationed there.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 59) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Akkadian Empire: \"It was an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland. This is precisely what we see in the Akkadian period.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 80) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Administrative documents from Adab show one of the governor's tasks \"was the management of arable land. In this capacity, he received various letters and petitions\" such as requests for irrigated land.§REF§(Foster 2016, 67) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Palace at Eshnunna \"had a special bureau that maintained records for the acquisition and distribution of oils and aromatics\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 56) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ -- at least two levels here<br>\"the records from Eshnunna reveal a large and complex agricultural operation involving hundreds of hectares, teams of professional plowmen, hundreds of draught animals, and thousands of sheep and goats. ... perhaps under the control of an Akkadian governor, who may have been a member of the royal family.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 57) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"A key civil figure after the steward of the royal household was the land registrar, the man accountable for the extensive arable districts controlled by the royal household and used to maintain officialdom.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>local administrators: \"the bailiff, the scribes who measured parcels of land and houses,the men in charge of apportioning irrigation water, the foremen of teams of working men and women, the commander of the local military unit, the recruiting officer for military service and public works, the mayor or headman of the town or village.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 39) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"first the king's governors, whom he appointed and who served at his pleasure, being dignitaries of political, military, and economic importance; second, the heads of the ancient cult centers, which in Sumer particularly, controlled considerable arable land; and third the notables, who received from the king's land office fields for their own support and for distribution as patronage to others.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ Hence a Sumerian poet wrote: \"The governors of cities, the managers of temples. The scribes who parcelled out the farmland in the steppe.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Governor of a city or city-state was called ensi in Sumerian.§REF§(Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ Sargon appointed Akkadians - people with \"willingness to leave their own city and community, to enter the king's service, and to depend upon him for preferment\" - as ensi where he conquered.§REF§(Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Under Akkad the ensi in Sumer did the same job as before but they could no longer be called kings.§REF§(Foster 2016, 40) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Ensi city governors \"responsible for upholding security and law and order in their cities. Maintenance of roads, canals, and major buildings was another of their duties.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 41) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>in centre: \"unlike the following Ur III period, the ensi were not yet governors, but were still rulers dependent on Akkadian support and approval.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>in periphery: \"On a political level, it was too vast and varied, with urban centres located in the middle of steppes, mountains and other areas ... Therefore, Akkad's interest was mainly commercial. This interest was secured through treaties with states too strong to be subdued (such as in the case of Elam), or through the appointment of a local ensi (such as the sankanakku of Mari). Another possibility was the creation of Akkadian strongholds in foreign territories, such as Naram-Sin's palace at Naga (Tell-Brak). This was probably not the only palace built by Akkadian rulers, and was possibly the most suitable way to keep a vast commercial network under control.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Rimash created a royal domain out of 134,000 hectares of agricultural land near Lagash and Umma in Sumer and distributed it among his retainers. These individuals had no ties to the city-states or temples of Sumer.§REF§(Foster 2016, 7) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Discussion on local assembly / village headman or mayor<br>Local assembly known as the ukken (Sumerian) and puhrum (Akkadian) \"limited to free citizens chosen or elected. In principle, all of them could voice opinions, but in practice key decisions, such as declaration of war, were made by a subgroup of elders who appointed a war leader in time of threat.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"The assembly had control over local land resources through approving major real estate transactions. It could also set prices, fines, taxes, undertake public works and other communal actions, and administer property, which originally included the temple before it evolved as a separate great household. In addition, the assembly exercised general control over administrative and governmental activity on the local level.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 44) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ -- however, \"no direct evidence for such an assembly exists in Akkadian sources, even among the many legal documents for the period\".§REF§(Foster 2016, 45) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ \"records refer to a 'mayor' (rabianum), perhaps a headman of a tribe or settlement, who mediated disputes, was responsible for dealing with crime, and recruited men for labor and military service. Others mention multiple \"elders,\" who carried out many of the same functions. Still others refer to the 'town' or 'city,' local notables who oversaw such matters as the conduct of business and commerce; this suggests the existence of a city corporation or government. ... For a village or rural area, a mayor or elders might have sufficed, whereas a larger agglomeration with a market and several local institutions might have had a 'town' or 'city' board.\" Existence of assembly inferred from later Sumerian fictional literature.§REF§(Foster 2016, 45) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 0, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " The remains of terracotta and bronze/copper seals, and numerous impressions of them, \"...lead us to suppose that some form of commercial business was carried on in this part of the site [PK.C]\"§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. p368§REF§; and processing remains suggest that there were craft specialists at Pirak.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362.§REF§ There may therefore have been some form of administrative levels, but this is not certain." }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Polity: Emperor2. Central Secretariat3. Lu/Fu governor4. Zhou (country subdivision) governor5. County governor" } ] }