Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 503, "name": "ir_neo_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam I", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"It is to this early period that the so-called Elamite Dynasty in Babylonia can be assigned. In fact, the dynasty consisted of a single ruler, Mar-biti-apla-usur (984-979 BC) who, in spite of his Akkadian name, was called 'remote (?) descenant of Elam' in the Dynastic Chronicle (Brinkman 1968: 165).\" However, \"there is no reason for either supposing that Mar-biti-apla-usur's reote affiliation with Ela was significant or that he had dealings with groups in western Iran.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 252) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>Unknown, but a range of 3-5 would be reasonable considering what we know of the situation in the 7th century BCE:<br>1. King<br>2. Provincial districts" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 504, "name": "ir_neo_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam II", "start_year": -743, "end_year": -647 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "According to Quintana, there were 14 royal cities (main cities), with their territories; 12 districts and 20 cities near the boundary with Hidalu. \"En su saqueo del territorio elamita, allá por el año 646 a.C., nos dice que destruyo 14 ciudades reales, es decir principales, con sus territorios, 12 distritos y 20 ciudades de la frontera con Hidalu, en una distancia de 60 beru (entre 650 y 700 kms): \"asole Elam hasta su mas lejana frontera,\" dice. Otro texto del mismo rey asegura: “todo el pais de Elam abati como un diluvio,” confirmando así que recorrió todo el territorio elamita (Weidner 1931-32: 3).\" §REF§(Quintana 2011, 169-170)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Provincial districts" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "The Parthians were \"a military aristocracy, which found it most convenient to rule not directly but through various kinds of authorities, each appropriate to the area governed, to whom they maintained a feudal relationship and to whose subjects they desired little direct relationship at all.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>The provinces and cities outside the Parthia heartlands paid tribute or allegiance to the ‘king of kings’, but regional lords retained their own power. Although the Parthians themselves were Zoroastrian, the empire was multi-ethnic and multi-religious and revolts against the Parthian King were common. There were also challenges form within the Parthian elites. Parthian Kings were chosen from the Arascid clan, but they were 'appointed' by nobles rather than automatically succeeding to rule. After 40 BCE Parthian military power was weakening and they could not mount offensive operations into Roman territory. They suffered a series of military defeats to the Romans and a smallpox epidemic between 161 CE and 217 CE. However it was invasion by the Sassanians from Iran that ended their rule.§REF§(Wenke 1981) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. King<br>Parthian King of Kings§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>2. Council of Nobles<br>2. Council of MagiThese were two different councils, one for kinsmen and one for magi.§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 140) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>_Court_<br>\"Parthian kings presided over a considerable body of specialized officials and functionaries of various levels dealing with the collection of duties and taxes and supervising local communities and administrative units. It should be noted that while provincial administration was extensive, central government was scant.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 181) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>\"The Parthian government consisted of the king and the royal court, in addition to the Council of the Nobles (the Mahistan). The king was traditionally elected by the nobles from the members of the Arsacid family, although the succession of the eldest son was not guaranteed. Below the king were the members of the six noble families, probably modeled after the six noble families of the Achaemenid court and continuing this tradition into the Sasanian period. These families all seem to have had a control of a section of the country where the majority of their land possessions were located. They also held particular positions in the royal court, members of each family having the privilege of crowning the king, serving in his bed-chamber, or serving as the first minister.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>\"We know that varied schools of philosophy flourished in Hellenistic Babylonia, and Greek metaphysicians, astronomers, naturalists, historians, geographers, and physicians worked there. The Parthian court made considerable use of such trained and able men for building its bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 8-9) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>2. First Minister\"The court system of the Arsacids was copied from the Achaemenid model, being staffed by many offices called Diwans, responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation. These were headed by their respective Dibirs who were all responsible to a first-minister, a member of the nobility as mentioned before.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>\"Unlike the Seleucid and Sasanian periods, the Arsacid empire is very poorly documented in terms of its administration.\" So discussion of the relationship between center and periphery in the Empire and how its main institutions were run is speculative to some extent. §REF§Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.144.§REF§<br>3. Dibir of a Diwan\"The court system of the Arsacids was copied from the Achaemenid model, being staffed by many offices called Diwāns, responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation. These were headed by their respective Dibirs who were all responsible to a first-minister, a member of the nobility as mentioned before.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>3. Official dealing with revenue<br>\"there was a general state cadastre for the lands of the royal domain. The state fixed and strictly controlled tax revenue.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§4.\"Records found in excavations at Nisa provide evidence of different types of tax collection, depending on the category of the land. Two categories are known - patbaz and uzbari. Patbaz was collection in kind for the use of the king. It is less clear what the other category was. There are also indications of the existence of special levies for the support of religious activities, somewhat similar to tithes.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 147) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"as the Parthians conquered Seleucid territory, they found in addition to the various municipal governments a decayed satrapal system, built upon the eparchs and hyparchs. The Parthian nobility had, in places, to be superimposed upon this structure. Various relatives and followers were granted 'fuedal' fiefs.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>\"Part of the kingdom was divided into satrapies ruled by satraps appointed by the king. The rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>2. Satrap of SatrapsMithradates II rock reliefs at Behistun 87 BCE show \"his principal officials ... The chief of these is called satrap of satraps, the other three simply satraps. Probably these men belonged to the great families of Iran such as the Surens and Karens.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxxix) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>3. Satrap\"Apart from the territories forming part of the royal domain and governed through satraps, much of Parthia consisted of vassal kingdoms.\"City officials (e.g. prefect)§REF§Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), III, p.631.Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London§REF§ §REF§New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.122.§REF§<br>\"There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§ <i>This quote might be referring to the provincial administration:</i><br>check parthiansources.com e.g. text SKZ<br>4. Parthian town\"While sources also speak of 'Parthian towns', in contrast to Greek ones, there is no specific information about their internal life. It can only be conjectured that they did not enjoy autonomy and were under the full control of the local Parthian administration.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>City officials (e.g. prefect)§REF§Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), III, p.631.Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London§REF§ §REF§New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.122.§REF§ <i>-- does this reference refer to towns directly controlled or to the Greek city-states?</i><br>5. dïz (group of villages) headed by a dïzpatThe lowest administrative unit was the stathmos (in Greek) or dïz (in Parthian), which represented a group of a few villages. The stathmos also had a small military post. This administrative unit was headed by a dïzpat.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>2. Governor of the Western Frontier\"Despite the doubt over the actual readings of some of the titles, it is clear that the governor of the western frontier of Parthia was a man of very high rank (possibly a Suren ...) and one whose duties included at least nominal authority over Arabian tribes within or along the Parthian frontier.\"§REF§(Raschke 1976, 826) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§<br>\"In some cases power over a number of satrapies (usually along the frontiers) was concentrated in the hands of the same person.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§ <i>is this the office of Satrap of Satrapies?</i><br>3. Head of administration? (Eunuch?)\"The eunuch, Phraates, and his lord, Manesus, the Parthian governor of the western frontier, both bear Iranian titles\".§REF§(Raschke 1976, 826) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§<br>4. Scribe <i>inferred level</i><br>4. Tax collector? Revenue <i>inferred level</i>5. Scribe/Assistant <i>inferred level</i><br>3. Tribal leader (Arabs)<br><br>3. Old Babylonian towns (e.g. Uruk Warka)\"The fully privileged aristocracy formed a religious and municipal commune enjoying a measure of self-rule. These towns owned a land district.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>_Vassals_<br>\"Seleucid and Parthian cities were self-governing and controlled considerable territories independent of the central government.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>2. Greek city-statesDocuments from Susa and Dura Europus show \"the governments of these places preserved the pattern of the Hellenistic city state. Such places rarely held Parthian garrisons.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xli) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>\"The Greek city-states in Parthia were a survival from the Seleucid period. Under the Parthians they formally retained their autonomy\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>\"power was concentrated into the hands of a council made up of representatives of a few of the richest families.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>2. Local Kingdoms §REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§\"From the reign of Mithradates I onwards, when the Parthians controlled Mesopotamia and Iran, local kingdoms were granted a certain amount of freedom, as long as they recognised the Parthian sovereign as their overlord.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>In Macedonian times \"Alexander and Peucestas apparently did touch neither the Achaemenid system of local dependencies and local administration, nor the basic ideas of the Persian ideology of kingship. There is no other way to explain the fact that nothing is known about unrest in Persis after Peucestas' appointment, that the new satrap could levy troops there without difficulty, and that a great number of nobles collaborated with Alexander. This kind support from the nobles for their new persophile Macedonian masters continued until the second century BCE\".§REF§(Wiesehöfer 2007) Wiesehöfer, Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "<br>The Parthians were \"a military aristocracy, which found it most convenient to rule not directly but through various kinds of authorities, each appropriate to the area governed, to whom they maintained a feudal relationship and to whose subjects they desired little direct relationship at all.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 16) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>§REF§(Wenke 1981) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. King<br>Parthian King of Kings§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>2. Council of Nobles<br>2. Council of MagiThese were two different councils, one for kinsmen and one for magi.§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 140) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>_Court_<br>\"Parthian kings presided over a considerable body of specialized officials and functionaries of various levels dealing with the collection of duties and taxes and supervising local communities and administrative units. It should be noted that while provincial administration was extensive, central government was scant.\"§REF§(Dabrowa 2012, 181) Dabrowa, Edward. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>\"The Parthian government consisted of the king and the royal court, in addition to the Council of the Nobles (the Mahistan). The king was traditionally elected by the nobles from the members of the Arsacid family, although the succession of the eldest son was not guaranteed. Below the king were the members of the six noble families, probably modeled after the six noble families of the Achaemenid court and continuing this tradition into the Sasanian period. These families all seem to have had a control of a section of the country where the majority of their land possessions were located. They also held particular positions in the royal court, members of each family having the privilege of crowning the king, serving in his bed-chamber, or serving as the first minister.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>\"We know that varied schools of philosophy flourished in Hellenistic Babylonia, and Greek metaphysicians, astronomers, naturalists, historians, geographers, and physicians worked there. The Parthian court made considerable use of such trained and able men for building its bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 8-9) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>2. First Minister\"The court system of the Arsacids was copied from the Achaemenid model, being staffed by many offices called Diwans, responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation. These were headed by their respective Dibirs who were all responsible to a first-minister, a member of the nobility as mentioned before.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>\"Unlike the Seleucid and Sasanian periods, the Arsacid empire is very poorly documented in terms of its administration.\" So discussion of the relationship between center and periphery in the Empire and how its main institutions were run is speculative to some extent. §REF§Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.144.§REF§<br>3. Dibir of a Diwan\"The court system of the Arsacids was copied from the Achaemenid model, being staffed by many offices called Diwāns, responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation. These were headed by their respective Dibirs who were all responsible to a first-minister, a member of the nobility as mentioned before.\"§REF§Rezakhani, Khodadad. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a>§REF§<br>3. Official dealing with revenue<br>\"there was a general state cadastre for the lands of the royal domain. The state fixed and strictly controlled tax revenue.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§4.\"Records found in excavations at Nisa provide evidence of different types of tax collection, depending on the category of the land. Two categories are known - patbaz and uzbari. Patbaz was collection in kind for the use of the king. It is less clear what the other category was. There are also indications of the existence of special levies for the support of religious activities, somewhat similar to tithes.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 147) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"as the Parthians conquered Seleucid territory, they found in addition to the various municipal governments a decayed satrapal system, built upon the eparchs and hyparchs. The Parthian nobility had, in places, to be superimposed upon this structure. Various relatives and followers were granted 'fuedal' fiefs.\"§REF§(Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene.§REF§<br>\"Part of the kingdom was divided into satrapies ruled by satraps appointed by the king. The rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) Koshelenko, G. A. Pilipko, V. N. Parthia. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>2. Satrap of SatrapsMithradates II rock reliefs at Behistun 87 BCE show \"his principal officials ... The chief of these is called satrap of satraps, the other three simply satraps. Probably these men belonged to the great families of Iran such as the Surens and Karens.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xxxix) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>3. Satrap\"Apart from the territories forming part of the royal domain and governed through satraps, much of Parthia consisted of vassal kingdoms.\"City officials (e.g. prefect)§REF§Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), III, p.631.Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London§REF§ §REF§New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.122.§REF§<br>\"There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§ <i>This quote might be referring to the provincial administration:</i><br>check parthiansources.com e.g. text SKZ<br>4. Parthian town\"While sources also speak of 'Parthian towns', in contrast to Greek ones, there is no specific information about their internal life. It can only be conjectured that they did not enjoy autonomy and were under the full control of the local Parthian administration.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>City officials (e.g. prefect)§REF§Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), III, p.631.Wiesehöfer, Josef, Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, trans. by Azizeh Azodi (London§REF§ §REF§New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996, p.122.§REF§ <i>-- does this reference refer to towns directly controlled or to the Greek city-states?</i><br>5. dïz (group of villages) headed by a dïzpatThe lowest administrative unit was the stathmos (in Greek) or dïz (in Parthian), which represented a group of a few villages. The stathmos also had a small military post. This administrative unit was headed by a dïzpat.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>2. Governor of the Western Frontier\"Despite the doubt over the actual readings of some of the titles, it is clear that the governor of the western frontier of Parthia was a man of very high rank (possibly a Suren ...) and one whose duties included at least nominal authority over Arabian tribes within or along the Parthian frontier.\"§REF§(Raschke 1976, 826) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§<br>\"In some cases power over a number of satrapies (usually along the frontiers) was concentrated in the hands of the same person.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§ <i>is this the office of Satrap of Satrapies?</i><br>3. Head of administration? (Eunuch?)\"The eunuch, Phraates, and his lord, Manesus, the Parthian governor of the western frontier, both bear Iranian titles\".§REF§(Raschke 1976, 826) Raschke, Manfred G. in Haase, Wolfgang ed. 1976. Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten). Walter de Gruyter.§REF§<br>4. Scribe <i>inferred level</i><br>4. Tax collector? Revenue <i>inferred level</i>5. Scribe/Assistant <i>inferred level</i><br>3. Tribal leader (Arabs)<br><br>3. Old Babylonian towns (e.g. Uruk Warka)\"The fully privileged aristocracy formed a religious and municipal commune enjoying a measure of self-rule. These towns owned a land district.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>_Vassals_<br>\"Seleucid and Parthian cities were self-governing and controlled considerable territories independent of the central government.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>2. Greek city-statesDocuments from Susa and Dura Europus show \"the governments of these places preserved the pattern of the Hellenistic city state. Such places rarely held Parthian garrisons.\"§REF§(Debevoise 1938, xli) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf</a>§REF§<br>\"The Greek city-states in Parthia were a survival from the Seleucid period. Under the Parthians they formally retained their autonomy\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>\"power was concentrated into the hands of a council made up of representatives of a few of the richest families.\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§<br>2. Local Kingdoms §REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§\"From the reign of Mithradates I onwards, when the Parthians controlled Mesopotamia and Iran, local kingdoms were granted a certain amount of freedom, as long as they recognised the Parthian sovereign as their overlord.\"§REF§(Curtis 2007) Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>In Macedonian times \"Alexander and Peucestas apparently did touch neither the Achaemenid system of local dependencies and local administration, nor the basic ideas of the Persian ideology of kingship. There is no other way to explain the fact that nothing is known about unrest in Persis after Peucestas' appointment, that the new satrap could levy troops there without difficulty, and that a great number of nobles collaborated with Alexander. This kind support from the nobles for their new persophile Macedonian masters continued until the second century BCE\".§REF§(Wiesehöfer 2007) Wiesehöfer, Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Shah<br>_Central government_<br>2. First Minister<br>_Town/City government_<br>2. Kalantar (mayor)3. Darugha (police official)4.<br>3. Headman of city quarter<br>2. Provincial Governor<br>\"In a country where communications were weak, and bureaucracy minimal, power was also devolved, and the shah depended on the cooperation of many tribal, ethnic, religious, local, bureaucratic and commercial figures and groups. In particular, power was devolved to the provincial governors, appointed from outside the province but usually with some local connections and knowledge. More often than not, as the century progressed, the governors were also members of the Qajar ruling family. Like the shah their preoccupation was with law and order, in addition to which they raised taxes, both for the centre and for local needs. ... Another attribute of the local governors was that they had their own militia, with which they were supposed to crush opposition and lawlessness in the provinces. ... the shah had only a small military force, as little as a few thousand ... this force was also irregularly clothed, paid and armed.\"§REF§(Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"the Shahs of Iran were able to get away with arbitrary power over life and death because there was no well-defined aristocracy in Iran comparable in composition and function to that of Europe. This lack of hereditary aristocracy allowed for no other power bases, vesting totally unrestrained power in the Shah. The land-owning elite often changed when the king changed. The property of no-one was secure and could be taken away at the Shah's pleasure. Ministers and government officials were the personal servants of the Shah, the populace his serfs.\"§REF§(Ghani 2000, 4) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§<br>The government had a First Minister.§REF§(Ghani 2000, 3) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"By 1903 there was a full-grown movement asking for political reform. What had started in Europe with the French Revolution ... had finally come to the East. In 1905 the Czar had been forced to grant sweeping concessions and a Consultative Assembly had been established. .... By late 1904 the demand for a House of Justice had grown to a demand for a proper parliament modeled on the British House of Commons. In 1906 there were mass demonstrations. The Shah, who up to then had resorted to repressive measures, had to give in. On his birthday, 5 August 1906, he granted a form of constitution and permitted the convention of a constituent assembly which promptly met to draft an electoral law. In October 1906 the assembly had drafted and passed a constitution which was ratified by the Shah. The supplement, i.e. an Iranian version of a Bill of Rights, was enacted later in October 1907.\"§REF§(Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Gendamerie created in 1911 CE. Organized by Swedish government. 200 officers and 7000 men by 1914 CE.§REF§(Ghani 2000, 15) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London.§REF§<br>\"Each town or city had a mayor (kalantar) who was a local man of standing selected by the state in a process of consultation with leading members of the community, whose acquiescence was vital if he was to succeed in his duties.\"§REF§(Martin 2005, 17) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>The city/town mayor (kalantar) \"also supervised the management of the city quarters under local headmen (kadkhudas) whom he appointed. One of this principal duties was the allocation of taxes amongst city quarters\".§REF§(Martin 2005, 17) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>The city/town mayor (kalantar) was responsible for law enforcement through his police official (darugha).§REF§(Martin 2005, 17) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. The Shah<br>- “At the top of the Safavid administrative and social structure was the Shah. He and his court constituted the apex of a substantial bureaucracy centred in the capital. The highest officials of the court included Vazir-e-azam (chief minister), Amir al-omard (commander in chief of the army, which later titled Sepdhsdldr-e koll-e lasgar-e Iran), Sadr (judiciary and religious minister), and vice-regent.\" §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>\"haram women and palace eunuchs\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>2. khassa landskhassa lands were controlled directly by the central court, as distinct to mamalik lands controlled by the provincial administration.§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>\"highly centralized and complex bureaucratic system\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ \"Ismail's bureaucratic structure was largely a continuation of its Aq Qoyunlu counterpart and its Turco-Mongolian traditions.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 29) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>2. vakil, vikalat (vicegerency)§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 89) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§\"Qadi-yi Jahan's nomination as co-vazir, to be shortly followed by a promotion to the office of vakil\".§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 89) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>3. niyabat (deputyship to vicegerency)§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 89) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>3. vizier§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§ / <i>Vazir-e-azam</i> (chief minister)vizier an office below vakil: \"Qadi-yi Jahan's nomination as co-vazir, to be shortly followed by a promotion to the office of vakil, is a continuation of those policies that had been effected since the 1508 \"palace revolution,\" keeping administrative power out of the hands of the Qizilbash.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 89) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>“At the top of the bureaucracy was Vazir-e-azam (chief minister). He generally had a lengthy stay in office and on frequent occasions continued to serve in the office after the Shah who had appointed him had died.\" §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>3. <i>Divan-e-ala</i> (State Council)\"The daily functioning of the state ran by Divan-e-ala (State Council), which included the Vazir-e-azam, Mustaufi al-mamalek (finance minister), Sadr, and Amir al-omara (army chief commander). Financial institution was directly overseen by the Shah and his chief minister (Vazir-e-azam). Except for the Shah, the latter was the final authority of financial affairs.\" §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>4. Divan for taxation<br>5. sub-head in divan for taxation?<br>6?. ra'is <i>did this official still exist at this time or was it replaced by the kalantar?</i>The ra'is \"was essentially the link between the government and the taxpayers ... cases involving taxation were referred to his dīvān.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. Divanbegi (chief judge)<br>\"dīvānbegī, the chief 'orfī judge of the empire, who could intervene in any matter under the jurisdiction of the dārūḡa; once he had done so, the latter could no longer concern himself with it\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Darughah, Daruga (or beglerbegī) and his deputy (same level). Vali (viceroy of border states) & Beiglar-beigi (governor general of a province), Hdkem - (\"ruler of major cities and areas\") §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§\"Provincial governorships were held by tribal elites appointed from the centre or, as a sign of the inability of the coalition controlling the capital to enforce its writ throughout the realm, retained by tribes out of favour at the centre.\"§REF§(Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York.§REF§<br>dārūḡa was a police officer or a post analogous to the šeḥna: Jean Chardin 1669 CE said \"[E]ach fortress or town has its own governor called darugha ... they are appointed directly by the king and each one has a deputy also appointed by the king independently of the governor\". §REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ Under the Safavids \"the term beglerbegī tended to supersede dārūḡa in the sense of a local governor, as distinct from a police officer\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. asas and ahdat (guards) and mir sab (night watch)\"The dārūḡa was especially charged with the maintenance of security at night, in which task he was assisted by officials called ʿasas and aḥdāṯ (guards) and a mīr šab (night watch).\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. Prison chief\"the dīvānbegī, the chief 'orfī judge of the empire, who could intervene in any matter under the jurisdiction of the dārūḡa; once he had done so, the latter could no longer concern himself with it\" §REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. Prison guard <i>inferred</i><br>3. gassal-basi (chief of the washers of the dead)§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§4. Washers of the deadA \"chief of the washers of the dead\" suggests there also were less prestigious posts.§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. Kalantarc15th century onward \"designated an official of the 'civil' hierarchy, in charge of a town or a ward.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ Under the Safavids \"As the head of a town or ward the kalāntar was, like the raʾīs, a link between the central government and the taxpayers; it was his task to reconcile the interests of the two parties.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. moḥaṣṣeṣ-e mamlakat (clerk) (or Mustaufi al mamalek?)\"in effect, the kalāntar’s clerk and appointed with his approval.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§ \"the technical business like preparing and auditing the budget, assessing taxes, and collecting the revenues, was in the hands of a large staff of accountants, clerks, tax collectors, and financial experts under the direction of Mustaufi al mamalek.\" §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008):23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>4. naqib (guild supervisor)\"an official whose functions included the supervision of guild affairs\".§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. ostādān (master craftsman)Kalantar appointed master craftsmen (ostādān)§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. rīš-safīdān (elder of guild)Kalantar appointed elders (rīš-safīdān) of the guilds§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. Kadkodas (of villages/wards)\"If the town was large, the kalāntar appointed kadḵodās over the wards.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>5. roʾasā ? of hamletKalantar appointed \"the roʾasāʾ and kadḵodās of the villages and hamlets of the bolūkāt (administrative subdivisions)\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br><br>2. Minor Provincial governors- Khan (\"head of tribe or small city\" ), Sultan (\"lowest position in the provincial governorship\") §REF§Mousavi, Mohammad A. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 23-24 doi:10.2307/25597352.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King of Kings§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br><br>_Central government_<br>2. Grand VizierAdministration based in Ctesiphon<br>\"Sassanid administration was headed by a Grand Vizier, who was in charge of political and diplomatic affairs. On occasion he commanded the army in the field. He also headed the divans (ministries), which were directed by secretaries expert in their various fields.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>3. Secretaries of a divan (ministry)§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>4. Scribe in central administration <i>inferred</i><br>5. Manager of state-run granary <i>inferred</i>, silk workshops\"As with the Parthians, the economy was based on agriculture.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>\"State monopolies rivalled private concerns; in particular, raw silk from China was woven at workshops in Susa, Gundeshapur and Shustar.\"§REF§(Wilcox 1986, 24) Wilcox, P. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>6. Worker in state-run granary <i>inferred</i> or silk workshop<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Shahrabs<br>Governors of a province called Shahr§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>2. King, appointed by King of Kings§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Kings of a district called shahr§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>3. shahrab and mowbed<br>Government run by a shahrab and a mowbed and often an accountant.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>Mowbed had responsibility for property and legal matters.§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§4. lesser administrators<br>4. Official of a division called rustag (number of villages)§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br>This administrator reported to a local government official?<br>5. Deghan of a division called deh (village)§REF§(Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Daryaee, Touraj. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§<br><br>Unlike the religious and military institutions, the administrative system did not undergo a \"quadpartite\" reform at the start of this period.<br>" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. King §REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a Relative of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology. 132 (1) pp45-57. p48.§REF§§REF§Ramsey, G. 2011. Seleucid Administration - Effectiveness and Dysfunction Among Officials. In, Erickson, K. and Ramsey, G. Seleucid Dissolution: The Sinking of the Anchor. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp37-50. p38§REF§<br>2. Relatives of the King §REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a Relative of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology. 132 (1) pp45-57. p48.§REF§3. Circles of <i>philoi</i>: §REF§Ramsey, G. 2011. Seleucid Administration - Effectiveness and Dysfunction Among Officials. In, Erickson, K. and Ramsey, G. Seleucid Dissolution: The Sinking of the Anchor. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp37-50. p38§REF§(a) “First ranking” (<i>protoi philoi</i>) §REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a Relative of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology. 132 (1) pp45-57. p48.§REF§<br>(b) “Esteemed” (<i>timoumenoi philoi</i>)§REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a Relative of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology. 132 (1) pp45-57. p48.§REF§<br>(c) “Friends” (<i>philoi</i>)§REF§Dreyer, B. 2011. How to Become a Relative of the King: Careers and Hierarchy at the court of Antiochus III. American Journal of Philology. 132 (1) pp45-57. p48.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Heads of financial administration, satrap governance and local military commanders within each satrap.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p295§REF§Head generals and officials §REF§Ramsey, G. 2011. Seleucid Administration - Effectiveness and Dysfunction Among Officials. In, Erickson, K. and Ramsey, G. Seleucid Dissolution: The Sinking of the Anchor. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp37-50. p38§REF§(e.g. the General Commander of the Upper Satrapies.) §REF§Kosmin, P. J. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. p.680§REF§<br>3. <i>Dioiketes</i>- responsible for finances within the satrapies of royal land, revenue and expenditure, and possibly also supervised royal mints and registry offices.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p295§REF§<br>4. <i>Level between head of royal mint and Dioiketes?</i>5. Head of a royal mint <i>inferred</i>6. Worker in a royal mint <i>inferred</i><br>4.5.<br>3. <i>Eklogistai</i>- under the dioikētai and responsible for setting the level of taxation.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p295§REF§<br>4.5.<br>3. <i>Oikonomoi</i>- ‘managed royal land and revenue, one it had been received, and also controlled expenditure in their financial districts.’§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p295§REF§<br>4.5.<br>3. <i>hoi epi tōn hierōn</i> (a separate group)- supervised temples and their revenue.§REF§Aperghis, G. G. 2004. The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p295§REF§<br>4.5.<br>_Provincial line_<br>1. King<br>2. Satrapies governed by a strategosCivil, financial and military powers separated since Alexander's reform of the Persian system.§REF§(Tam 2010, 2) Tam, W W. 2010. The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"in all the lands east of the Euphrates the Seleucids had a more complete system of internal subdivision; it was a threefold division - satrapy, eparchy, hyparchy - corresponding roughly to the threefold division in Ptolemaic Egypt of nome, topos, village, the nome like the satrapy, being under a strategos or general. This threefold administrative division in each of the two empires must, one supposes, have had a common origin, but what it was is unknown. As the smallest administrative unit in Egypt was the village and in Seleucid east the hyparchy - a district would comprise a number of villages - the organisation of the Seleucid east was of necessity much looser than that of Egypt; the hyparchy, however, for purposes of land registration, was again subdivided into fortified posts called stathmoi - originally post stations on the main roads, the Seleucids having taken over the Persian postal system - each stathmos being the centre of a subdivision comprising so many villages.\"§REF§(Tam 2010, 1-2) Tam, W W. 2010. The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. Eparchy\"So far as is known at present, the eparchy was a Seleucid innovation.\"§REF§(Tam 2010, 2) Tam, W W. 2010. The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>4. Hyparchy<br>5. Stathmoi<br>_Autonomous Cities_<br>2. Leader of city/council <i>inferred</i>\"Seleucid and Parthian cities were self-governing and controlled considerable territories independent of the central government.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. Department in city administration? <i>inferred</i>4.5.<br>" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Akkadian Empire had 5 levels. Ur III at least 4. Range reflects uncertainty, taking into account that the governor-level bureaucracy would have had at least one level.<br>1. King<br>\"The Shu-Sin texts which describe the defeat of the Shimaskian lands make it clear that each had its own ruler, styled 'great ensi' (ensi-gal-gal) or 'king' (lugal) in the case of those who ruled a land, and simply ensi for those whose domain was a city or town (Kutscher 1989: 99). Kutscher suggested that Ziringu, named as the paramount ruler of Zabshali in one of the Shu-Sin texts, ruled a Shimaskian 'empire' comprised of a 'confederacy of lands whose leading force was the land of Zabshali' (Kutscher 1989: 100).\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 145) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Palatial government_<br>2. Viceroy (Sakanakkun)\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>_Provincial government_<br>3. Halmenik (governors)4.<br>4.<br>5.<br><br>\"The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§<br>Akkadian Empire possible influence. Kingdom of Elam i.e. bureaucracy adopted Akkadian cuneiform so possibly also adopted bureaucracy on Akkadian template. \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§<br>\"Anshan was soon restored as the major metropolis of the Elamite federation, and the rulers of Shimashki seem to have adopted the title \"king of Anshan and Susa\" sometime before 1900 B.C. That imperial title of the rulers of Elam was subsequently changed to sukkalmah, a term borrowed from the Sumerian administration and meaning \"grand regent.\" Under the rule of the sukkalmahs, which continued until about 1500 B.C., Susa remained within the Mesopotamian cultural sphere, but local artistic traditions continued.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 8) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>“Governors” mentioned: “El sucesor de ambos, Tanruhurater, hijo de Indatu, nos consta como gobernador en Susa, ciudad tal vez dependiente de Isin en esta época, como se deduce del matrimonio de este soberano con Mekubi, la hija de Bilalama también gobernador (no rey) de Eshnuna, probable contemporáneo de Ishbierra. De la actividad de este Tanruhurater sólo cono- cemos la construcción de un templo en Susa9. » §REF§(Quintana XXXX, 38)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Akkadian Empire had at least 5 levels. Ur III at least 4. Range reflects uncertainty, taking into account that the governor-level bureaucracy would have had at least one level.<br>\"Old Elamite III (ca. 2000-1475 B.C.) ... Elam was ruled during most of the Old Elamite III period by a triumvirate: a sukkal or sharrum of Susa, a sukkal of Elam and Shimashki, and a sukkalmah, who was the highest official. The offices sukkal (minister or vizier) and sukkalmah (prime minister or grand vizier) originated as aides to the rulers of Mesopotamia and sometimes Elam (cf. Hinz 1971:650) during the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian periods (Hallo 1957:112-21). Cameron (1936:71-72) showed that these offices were closely related and were often occupied by a succession of relatives.\"§REF§(Schacht 1987, 177-178) Schacht, Robert. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. Sukkal-mah - supreme leader of the confederation based in Susa<br>_Palatial government_<br>2. Viceroy (Sakanakkun)\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Sukkal of Elam and Shimashki based in Shimashki (the occupant of this post inherited the throne)<br>2. Sukkal of Susa (this post was less important than the Sukkal of Elam, its occupant was third in line to the throne)3. Other members of the royal family with inferior appointments eg. Lord of a town.<br><br>\"The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§<br>Akkadian Empire possible influence. Kingdom of Elam i.e. bureaucracy adopted Akkadian cuneiform so possibly also adopted bureaucracy on Akkadian template. \"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad.\"§REF§(Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge.§REF§<br>\"The Elamite state, ruled by the so-called Sukkal-mah Dynasty (the title designating the role of a king), was characterised by a particular administrative structure. Power was distributed among three officials. Firstly, there was the sukkal-mah, the supreme leader of the confederation, who resided in Susa. Then, there was the sukkal of Elam and Shimashki. He usually was the younger brother of the sukkal-mah and resided in Shimashki. Thirdly, there was the sukkal of Susa, normally the sukkal-mah's son. The three offices were of decreasing importance. After the death of the sukkal-mah, his place was taken by the sukkal of Elam, his brother, whose place was in turn taken by either a brother or by the son of the deceased sukkal-mah, namely the sukkal of Susa. In other words, power was transferred from brother to brother. Only after having gone through one generation of brothers it was possible to move on to the son of the first brother, namely, to the next generation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 253) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Elam's political structure was characterised by its confederate nature. This aspect was typical of the region from as early as the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, the role of the sukkal-mah corresponded to the Elamite confederation and the single sukkal correspond to the individual regional districts. Among these, the role of the sukkal of Elam and Shimashki maintained its privilege as a legacy of the former supremacy of the dynasty of Shimashki at the beginning of the second millennium BC.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 253-254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>“En las tablillas de Susa,junto al sukkalmah y el sukkal, se hace también mención de otros miembros de la casa real, que o bien no llevan título alguno, o bien aparecen nombrados con cargos inferiores, como alcaldes, etc. » §REF§(Quintana 2007, 42)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 498, "name": "ir_elam_4", "long_name": "Elam - Late Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Akkadian Empire had at least 5 levels. Ur III at least 4. Range reflects uncertainty, taking into account that the governor-level bureaucracy would have had at least one level.<br>\"Old Elamite III (ca. 2000-1475 B.C.) ... Elam was ruled during most of the Old Elamite III period by a triumvirate: a sukkal or sharrum of Susa, a sukkal of Elam and Shimashki, and a sukkalmah, who was the highest official. The offices sukkal (minister or vizier) and sukkalmah (prime minister or grand vizier) originated as aides to the rulers of Mesopotamia and sometimes Elam (cf. Hinz 1971:650) during the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian periods (Hallo 1957:112-21). Cameron (1936:71-72) showed that these offices were closely related and were often occupied by a succession of relatives.\"§REF§(Schacht 1987, 177-178) Schacht, Robert. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. Sukkal-mah - supreme leader of the confederation based in Susa<br>_Palatial government_<br>2. Viceroy (Sakanakkun)\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Sukkal of Elam and Shimashki based in Shimashki (the occupant of this post inherited the throne)<br>2. Sukkal of Susa (this post was less important than the Sukkal of Elam, its occupant was third in line to the throne)3. Other members of the royal family with inferior appointments eg. Lord of a town.<br><br>\"The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§<br><br>\"The Elamite state, ruled by the so-called Sukkal-mah Dynasty (the title designating the role of a king), was characterised by a particular administrative structure. Power was distributed among three officials. Firstly, there was the sukkal-mah, the supreme leader of the confederation, who resided in Susa. Then, there was the sukkal of Elam and Shimashki. He usually was the younger brother of the sukkal-mah and resided in Shimashki. Thirdly, there was the sukkal of Susa, normally the sukkal-mah's son. The three offices were of decreasing importance. After the death of the sukkal-mah, his place was taken by the sukkal of Elam, his brother, whose place was in turn taken by either a brother or by the son of the deceased sukkal-mah, namely the sukkal of Susa. In other words, power was transferred from brother to brother. Only after having gone through one generation of brothers it was possible to move on to the son of the first brother, namely, to the next generation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 253) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Elam's political structure was characterised by its confederate nature. This aspect was typical of the region from as early as the Early Dynastic period. Therefore, the role of the sukkal-mah corresponded to the Elamite confederation and the single sukkal correspond to the individual regional districts. Among these, the role of the sukkal of Elam and Shimashki maintained its privilege as a legacy of the former supremacy of the dynasty of Shimashki at the beginning of the second millennium BC.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 253-254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>“En las tablillas de Susa,junto al sukkalmah y el sukkal, se hace también mención de otros miembros de la casa real, que o bien no llevan título alguno, o bien aparecen nombrados con cargos inferiores, como alcaldes, etc. » §REF§(Quintana 2007, 42)§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3700, "year_to": -3700, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3600, "year_to": -3600, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3500, "year_to": -3500, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3400, "year_to": -3400, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3300, "year_to": -3300, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3200, "year_to": -3200, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3100, "year_to": -3100, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk<br>\"Given the lack of evidence for resident administration at settlements smaller than centers, the foregoing analysis would indicate the operation of a two-level administrative hierarchy within a three-level settlement system.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§ - <i>central government line gives us more than 2 levels. also, if there were assistant scribes at regional centers these would count as a third level.</i><br>Middle Uruk (perhaps from c3500 BCE)§REF§(Johnson 1987, 115) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>1. King§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King was the head of the palace which was \"managed like a large organisation.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ - note that \"In the Uruk phase, the palace as the exclusive residence of the king did not yet exist.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>King also high-priest \"the human administrator of the city on behalf of the god, the latter being the ideological head of the city.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 80) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. Chief accountants at the temple3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools<br>3. Specialized workers e.g. Shepherds or postal service worker<br>Uruk phase c3800-3000 BCE: \"Bureaucracy, managed by the scribes and hierarchically subdivided, took care of the economic administration of the city-state. It managed and recorded the movement of surplus from the villages to the city. It also determined the redistribution of resources to its workers, and managed the State's land. Finally, the bureaucracy sent orders to specialised workmen, planned and constructed key infrastructures (such as canals, temples, or walls), and engaged in long-distance trade.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Uruk phase \"Urban Revolution\": \"Early state formation therefore featured both the rise of a ruling class, making decisions and benefiting from a privilaged position, and the development of a political and religious ideology. The latter was able to ensure stability and cohesion in this pyramid of inequality.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Alongside the traditional animal representations a new repertory of scenes was elaborated on the seals, inspired by the daily activities of a population that was apparently proud of its new status. Thus there appears a 'priest-king,' possibly representative of a type of monarchy that is known from later Sumerian literature.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"the Sumerian civilisation which flourished before 3500 BC. This was an advanced civilisation building cities and supporting the people with irrigation systems, a legal system, administration, and even a postal service. Writing developed and counting was based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60.\"§REF§J J O'Connor, J J. Robertson, E F. December 2000. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_mathematics.html</a>§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time - city-states as inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Administration system - presumably temple based, run by accountants3. Scribes<br>3. Teachers at scribal schools4. Specialised workers who produced the stuff that accountants do accounting for e.g. shepherds<br>Writing developed \"as a response to the administrative needs (commodities, quantities, people, operations successfully accomplished or to accomplish) of the urban societies of the time.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"With these new instruments, administration became the most specialised work within the great organisations. The functionary became a 'scribe', who after a highly specialised training was able to write, calculate and perform various administrative tasks. Trainees in workshops learned the secrets of their craft within the first years of apprenticeship. On the contrary, scribes had to train in bona fide schools, where teachers taught their students to master a repertoire of hundreds of signs. This training was reserved to the members of the cultural and political elite of the State.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 76) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Sumerian management depended on dense concentrations of workers at the disposal of temples and other large institutions, minutely graded into teams and sets of entitlements.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 17) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"While internal independence of the member states was respected, intergovernmental relations on civil administration were regulated by various administrative rules and ordinances.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people. The Elamite over-lordship in Susa was the main power of the federated states, the heads of which frequently assembled for political and military purposes. Decision making was based on equality, and cooperation was key to the coordinated system of government in a federal structure.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time had city-states and inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Susa was annexed by Anshan. Although it was a much smaller center than Anshan, its long previous period of cultural development enabled it to contribute to the formation of the new civilization, which expanded into ethnically related regions.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"§REF§(Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur. The bureaucratic management of these provinces was uniform and interchangeable, and could be applied throughout the land (although some some local variations remained in place).\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(4) Commonwealth Assembly (Alþingi); (3) Local Assemblies (Þings) or Territorial Lordships; (2) Chieftains (Goðar) or Hreppar; (1) Free Farmers/Heads of Households<br>'As there was no state as such, it is difficult to identify proper administrative levels. The existence of parallel hierarchies complicates matters. The communes (hreppar) existed independently from the godords and, unlike them, were territorial units. Typically there would be one or two members of the gentry living on their manor-farms in each commune and they would often, even usually, have a sphere of influence albeit an informal one and not necessarily concurrent with the commune. However, there is a broad four-tier hierarchy which incorporates both formal and informal elements, although the levels were not the same throughout. We can summarize it like this: 930-1200: 1) Free Farmers 2) Goðar 3) Local assemblies 4) Alþingi. Note: The local assemblies may not have been formalized until around 960 but probably functioned in some sense even before that. 950/1050-1200 (concurrently with above): 1) Free Farmers 2) Hreppar 3) Local Assemblies 4) Alþingi. Note: We don’t know when the hreppar were established but it must have been in the 10th or 11th centuries. 1200-1262 1) Free Farmers 2) Hreppar 3) Territorial lordships 4) Alþingi. Note: The local assemblies were usually abolished with the emergence of territorial lordships that often covered approximately the same area.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ The general assembly of chieftains was the highest political institution of the Commonwealth: 'At the time of Iceland’s settlement, Norse people worshiped gods whom they called æsir (singular áss), and this religion left behind an extensive mythology in Icelandic literature. Thor seems to have been the most popular of the pagan gods in Iceland, although Odin is thought to have been the highest in rank. It appears that heathen worship was organized around a distinct class of chieftains called godar (singular godi), of which there were about 40. In the absence of royal power in Iceland, the godar were to form the ruling class in the country. By the end of the settlement period, a general Icelandic assembly, called the Althing, had been established and was held at midsummer on a site that came to be called Thingvellir. This assembly consisted of a law council (lögrétta), in which the godar made and amended the laws, and a system of courts of justice, in which householders, nominated by the godar, acted on the panels of judges. At the local level, three godar usually held a joint assembly in late spring at which a local court operated, again with judges nominated by the godar. All farmers were legally obliged to belong to a chieftaincy (godord) but theoretically were free to change their allegiance from one godi to another; the godar were allotted a corresponding right to expel a follower. Some scholars have seen in this arrangement a resemblance to the franchise in modern societies. On the other hand, there was no central authority to ensure that the farmers would be able to exercise their right in a democratic way. No one was vested with executive power over the country as a whole. In any case, no trace of democratic practice reached farther down the social scale than to the heads of farming households; women and workers (free or enslaved) had no role in the political system.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Iceland/Government-and-society#toc10088</a>§REF§ The country was divided into quarters served by local assemblies: 'One of the peculiarities of early Iceland was the lack of formal state institutions. The legislature, extensive law code, and judicial system of local and higher courts left prosecution and the enforcement of settlements in the hands of individuals. From an early date, the country was divided into Quarters. Each quarter constituted a broad community with three assemblies (ÞINGS), with the exception of the Northern Quarter that had four, and a system of local courts. Once a year the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) met in the southwest of Iceland. Judicial cases that could not be resolved in local quarters were heard and the parliament (LÖGRÉTTA) convened. The parliament was the principal legislative institution and was responsible for the introduction and maintanence of law. It consisted of chieftains (GOÐAR) from the local quarters. After the conversion to Christianity, the two Icelandic bishops were each given a seat in the parliament. The institution of chieftaincy (GOÐORÐ) was the main locus of political leadership in the country. Originally there were 36 but this number was later expanded. Chieftaincies themselves were a form of property and could be alienated and even divided among multiple individuals. In some cases, individuals asserted power beyond the scope of the political system and controlled multiple chieftaincies. All independent farmers had to be affiliated with a chieftain, although they could choose among any of the chieftains in their quarter and could switch allegiances if they did not feel that their needs were being met. Other than a seat on the parliament, chieftains had few rights beyond those of other independent farmers and few institutional means of dominating others. Chieftains derived much of their authority from their ability to broker support as advocates for their constituents in legal disputes or feuds.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Chieftains relied on the support of farmers and armed followers: 'Following the establishment of the Althing in 930, executive power at the regional level was vested in the goðar, whose possession of goðorð and common participation in the judicial and legislative branches of the general assembly defined them as chieftains. However, the chieftains were not linked hierarchically. After A.D. 965 Iceland was divided into thirteen assembly districts, each with three chieftainships and a district assembly site. The assembly districts were in turn grouped into four quarters. While goðar were tethered to particular districts by law, the political office of chieftainship, the goðorð, did not imply control over a defined territorial unit. It was instead a shifting nexus of personal, negotiated alliances between a chieftain and those bœndur who became his supporters or pingmenn through public oaths of allegiance.' §REF§Smith, Kevin P., and Jeffrey R. Parsons 1989. “Regional Archaeological Research In Iceland: Potentials And Possibilities”, 182§REF§ Conflicts between rival chieftains were a major source of internal strife before the onset of Norwegian rule. During the Sturlung period, the godords became concentrated in the hands of a few powerful magnates: 'It may be tempting to regard the Icelandic Commonwealth as a permanent structure, for, after all, it seems to be sealed in the poorly-dated or undated ‘ethnographic present’ of the sagas. But any social system is necessarily a product of history, representing a particular moment in time. We know for sure that the Commonwealth underwent important changes before it eventually ‘collapsed.’ Not only was there important ecological and demographic change and, as a result, mounting pressure on land (Gelsinger 1981; McGovern et al. 1988), access to resources was increasingly determined by the political manoeuvres and battles of competing goðar. According to the near contemporary Sturlunga saga, the battles between contesting leaders involved an ever larger number of men-no less than two thousand fought in the biggest one, at Örlygsstaðir in year 1238. To increase the number of followers, each goði had to maximize his fund of power at the cost of competitors. Feasts and gifts, a measure of the generosity of the goði, and the display of imported luxury goods, must have been an additional burden to the household, at a time of economic decline. One saga describes a large wedding feast extending through a whole week (SS 3, ch. 17:22). The only way to meet the costs involved was to collect taxes, hire additional labor, and seek further support from followers. With the Tithe Law, the tax law enacted in 1096, the ownership of churches became an important source of wealth and power. Furthermore, slavery seems to have disappeared early (see Karras, ch. 17), probably because recruiting freemen who had insufficient land was less costly than maintaining slaves. This meant that soon there was a reserve of labor; on one occasion, in 1208, a group of more than 300 unemployed people, many of whom were strong and healthy, followed a travelling bishop in the hope of some sustenance (see G. Karlsson 1975:27).' §REF§Pálsson, Gísli 1992. “Introduction: Text, Life, And Saga”, 15§REF§ 'From the twelfth century onwards, especially during the Sturlung Period, a few families managed to control all the goðorð in Iceland. [Page 17] Increasingly the goðorð became territorial units; the most powerful chiefs sought to consolidate their position, appropriating land and property on a large scale. Sigurðsson (ch. 12) discusses the evolution of ríki (‘small states’, new political units with rather clear territorial boundaries), beginning in some parts of Iceland in the eleventh century and culminating almost everywhere by the middle of the thirteenth century. Sigurðsson estimates that by year 1220 perhaps only five chieftains ruled the whole country, whereas during the tenth century the number of chieftains would normally have been no less than fifty. He explores the changing place and dilemmas of friendship, a voluntary relationship based on trust, in the context of increasing concentration of power. Clearly, the bond between chieftain and followers became less personal than before. Due to increased confrontations between the major chieftains and the relative absence of potential mediators, ‘friends of both’ as they were called, there was a rapid escalation in violence, brutality, and warfare. Because of internal conflicts and the expansive policy of the Norwegian state, the Commonwealth finally came to an end. After fierce battles the chieftains agreed in 1262 to cede their authority to the king of Norway. Eyrbyggja saga seems to compare and personify the political systems of the early and late Commonwealth period; the struggle between the two main goðar in the story, Arnkell and Snorri, reflects the changing times (see Olason 1989, 1971:19-20; Turner 1985:112-17; Pálsson 1991b). Arnkell signifies the reality of the early Commonwealth, he is a heroic big man who mobilizes support by personal charms and his obituary is full of praise; he was “a great loss to everybody … good tempered, brave and determined” (ÍF 4, ch. 37). Snorri, on the other hand, represents the reality of the chiefs during the thirteenth century; he is a clever politician who controls his army but does not fight himself. Durrenberger suggests (1990:77), citing Fried (1967), that these saga accounts of the political development of the Commonwealth add to the general credibility of the sagas; they indicate precisely the kind of history one would expect from the ethnography and dynamics of stratified societies without states.' §REF§Pálsson, Gísli 1992. “Introduction: Text, Life, And Saga”, 16§REF§ The household headed by a property-holding farmer was the primary unit of local social and economic organization: 'The principal unit of social organization was the household. Those with rights to property, the farmer and his (or her) family, headed households. Large households incorporated a range of dependent labor: wage laborers, servants, and slaves. As an institution, slavery declined in the twelfth century and had probably disappeared sometime in the thirteenth century; however, social distinctions were maintained between self-sufficient farmers (either land-owners or renters) and the majority of the population who served as household labor. The main cooperative unit outside of the household was the commune (HREPPUR). The commune was a territorial unit including many households (20 or more). The commune's main functions were management of summer grazing lands, the cooperative round up of animals in the fall, and care for paupers who had no other household support. They also provided some insurance to households against fire or the loss of livestock.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. \"There are very few signs of status differentiation amongst the few burials known. Most settlements were simple collections of huts with no evidence for internal differentiation in architecture or material culture than might suggest clear-cut divisions in society.\" §REF§G. Barker, Mediterranean Valley (1995), p. 156§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 178, "name": "it_latium_ca", "long_name": "Latium - Copper Age", "start_year": -3600, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Only possible form of hierarchy visible is military §REF§R. Whitehouse, Underground Religion (1992), p. 21§REF§." }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Writing present which would have helped organize and create administrative levels.<br>Cornell writes that there is \"no evidence of economically differentiated classes or any other kind of permanent social stratification\" §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 54§REF§, but after pointing differences in burial treatment of a certain restricted group of privileged males compared to the general population, including a \"potential chief or leader\" of Osteria dell'Osa, which suggests that there <i>was</i> some kind of social stratification §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), pp. 51-53§REF§. There is a lot of evidence for the existence of elites throughout the chronological sequence §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 54§REF§§REF§G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (2006), pp. 53-58§REF§.<br>\"Most of the burials at Castel di Decima (LC III and IV) are quite simple inhumations, with no or modest grave goods, but a minority of graves are accompanied by high-quality goods such as amber beads, gold fibulae, and even chariots. The wealth of this minority appears to increase throughout the 8th and 7th centuries.§REF§(Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. <i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "Where do these fit?<br>\"there were three Praetorian Prefects, one for the Gauls, one for Italy, and one for the City of Rome\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>a gothic scribe was called a bokareis§REF§(Burns 1991, 121)§REF§<br>\"In terms of administrative strategy, the Amal court seems to have preferred a style of governance in which an administrative nucleus (referred to in the Variae as comitatus noster and officium nostrum), including the staffs of such senior officials as the praetorian prefect, attended the itinerant ambit of the Gothic ruler.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 58) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>1. King<br>\"Because of his inevitable insecurity, Theodoric, like Alaric and a host of other kings of his era, searched for greater authority over his own people by invoking the conceptual hierarchy of Christian Rome with its titular elevations and ranks delineated in dress and court ceremonial. He was quick to perceive the potential for dynastic continuity in associating himself with Roman tradition and the special role of the monarchy in Christendom. In part that explains Theodoric's desire for such Roman denotations of power as the praenomen Flavius, the title Patrician, the consulship, the rank of magister militum praesentalis, and his efforts to have his regal position in Italy recognized in Constantinople.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 71)§REF§ \"It is quite clear that Theodoric never claimed to be Emperor of the West, the successor of Honorius and Augustulus. But there are grave reasons for doubting whether he called himself, as has been often stated, \"King of Italy\". In the fifth century territorial titles of this kind were, if not absolutely unknown, at least very uncommon. The various Teutonic rulers generally took their titles from the nations whom they led to battle, Gaiseric being \"King of the Vandals and Alans\", Gundobad, \"King of the Burgundians\", Clovis, \"King of the Franks\", and so forth. Upon the whole, it seems most probable that Theodoric's full title was \"King of the Goths and Romans in Italy\" ...\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ Title of first ruler: Flavius Theodericus rex §REF§(Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 286) H Wolfram and T J Dunlap. 1990. <i>History of the Goths.</i> University of California Press.§REF§. Under the constitution Theodoric was the only Ostrogoth Roman citizen.§REF§(Stearns 2001, 169)§REF§.<br>2. quaestor\"present as secretary to the monarch under the Ostrogoths.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 170)§REF§ \"the official whose business it was to put the thoughts of the sovereign into fitting and eloquent words, either when he was replying to the ambassadors of foreign powers, or when he was issuing laws and proclamations to his own subjects. As his duties and qualifications were of a more personal kind than those of his two brother-ministers already described, he had not like them a large official staff waiting upon his orders.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>2. saiones\"The institution, if the saiones can be so classified, existed as early as 508, when Theorodric instructed saio Nandus to assemble troops for the invasion of Gaul. Saiones or similar royal servants existed among many Germanic peoples throughout the Middle Ages and seem to have emerged out of the royal band in response to basic needs for personal and trusted contact with the royalty. None of the Ostrogothic saiones ever achieved comital or ducal status, which suggests that they were of lowly origin.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 178)§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Princeps cardinalis of the comitatus (aka Cabinet of Illustre, or council of the ministers of state)<br>\"Nearly every one of these great ministers of state had under him a large, ambitious, and often highly-paid staff of subordinates, who were called his Officium.\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ The comitatus \"was the heart of the government of Italy. Under Theodoric, as under the emperors, the comitatus represented all aspects of government and was attached to the ruler. ... The head of the comitiaci at court was the princeps cardinalis, and there was a vicarate at Rome with its own staff. In its civilian aspects, the comitatus remained intact. The formal household, sacrum cubiculum with its praepositus and eunuch chamberlains (cubicularii), stood watch over the palace ... The two great heads of the bureaucracy were present as ever: the praetorian prefect and the magister offiorum. ... The comes sacrarum largitionun was responsible for mines and mints (gold and probably silder) and certain taxes and payments, including donatives. ... The comes rei privatae was a member of the comitatus and managed the estates of the imperial fisc, then in Theodoric's hands. The consistory was another important imperial legacy present in the comitatus. By this time, membership in the consistory was restricted to counts of the first order of the three ranks of counts. The comes primi ordinis, and, in fact, under Theodoric only those actually serving in the provinces, and the counselors of the praetorian prefect were automatically members. ... The various Roman offices represented in the comitatus were themselves complex bureaus with numerous subalterns and clerks. The consistory had an independent staff of secretaries. ... Theodoric maintained a personal treasury, the patrimonium, under the comes patrimonii. ...\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 169-171)§REF§ The comitatus \"was essentially a court of final jurisdiction in cases involving the nobilities.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 172)§REF§ praetorian prefect was the \"highest-ranking minister attendant in the comitatus\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br><br>2. Praetorian Prefect, the vicegerent of the sovereign\"a man who held towards Emperor or King nearly the same position which a Grand Vizier holds towards a Turkish Sultan. Like his sovereign he wore a purple robe (which reached however only to his knees, not to his feet), and he drove through the streets in a lofty official chariot. It was for him to promulgate the Imperial laws, sometimes to put forth edicts of his own. He proclaimed what taxes were to be imposed each year, and their produce came into his \"Praetorian chest\". He suggested to his sovereign the names of the governors of the provinces, paid them their salaries, and exercised a general superintendence over them, having even power to depose them from their offices. And lastly, he was the highest Judge of Appeal in the land, even the Emperor himself having generally no power to reverse his sentences.\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§ \"Cassiodorus accorded the office of praefectus praetorio a dignity above all other offices.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"Having authority over both legal and financial personnel of the administration, the prefect commanded the most numerous branches of the bureaucracy (exceptores and scrinarii).\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Praetorian prefect responsible for \"collection of taxes in all provinces, the local officials involved in its collection, the distribution of taxes as payment to military and administrative personnel, the maintenance of the public food supply, oversight in local finances, and rendering final judgement in legal disputes\".§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3. vices agenti (deputy assistant)In Cassiodorus' \"Variae 11.5, the prefect directs his deputy assistant (vices agenti) to administer the annona in Rome, without mention of the authority that the praefectus annonae would have had in the matter.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3. canonicariusagent the praetorian prefect could use \"to requisition provisions for the Gothic court\" without having to go through the comes patrimonii.§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 63) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3. ? <i>exceptores</i> (branch of the bureaucracy)<br>4.\"The various Roman offices represented in the comitatus were themselves complex bureaus with numerous subalterns and clerks.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 169-171)§REF§<br>5.\"A large number of singularii, rationalii, clavicularii, and the like (whom we should call policemen, subordinate clerks, and gaolers) formed the \"Unlettered Staff\" (Militia Illiterata), who stood on the lowest stage of the bureaucratic pyramid.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>3. ? <i>scrinarii</i> (branch of the bureaucracy)<br>4.\"The various Roman offices represented in the comitatus were themselves complex bureaus with numerous subalterns and clerks.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 169-171)§REF§<br>5.\"A large number of singularii, rationalii, clavicularii, and the like (whom we should call policemen, subordinate clerks, and gaolers) formed the \"Unlettered Staff\" (Militia Illiterata), who stood on the lowest stage of the bureaucratic pyramid.\"§REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>2. comes siliquatariorum (minister)<br><br>2. comes patrimonii nostri (minister)<br>\"authority extended to the management and collection of rents from properties owned by the Amal family (and the supply of the court with provisions from those properties)\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 62) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Note 1. This official often given many other roles on ad hoc basis including those of the praetorian prefect e.g. tax collection from a province.§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 63) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§</i>3.<br>2. comes privatarum (minister)<br>official responsible for \"laws pertaining to slaves, sexual morality, the protection of the dead, intestate land, and the discovery of abandoned treasure.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 62) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Note 1. This official often given many other roles on ad hoc basis including those \"more regularly undertaken by the praetorian prefect.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 62) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Note 2. many of this own official duties could be delegated to other ministers on ad hoc basis.§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 62) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§</i>3.<br>2. comes sacrarum largitionum (minister)<br>In 4th and 5th centuries had \"authority over the mint (and thereby over the distribution of donatives to the military and benefactions of the ruler to civilians), mines (linked to coin production at mints), the production of royal vestments, and customs and taxes from foreign trade.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 61) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ <i>Note: many of these duties could be delegated to other ministers on ad hoc basis such as comes siliquatariorum, comes patrimonii nostri, comes privatarum or the praefectus praetorio.§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 62) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§</i>3. Manager of a mint works<br>4.<br>3. Manager of a mine works<br>4.<br>3. Manager of a royal vestments works<br>4.<br>3. Foreign trade official<br>4.<br>2. magister officorum\"formally held authority over the cursus publicus, regularly found that role assumed by the praetorian prefect and saiones.\"§REF§(Bjornlie 2016, 63) Bjornlie, Shane M. Governmental Administration. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3.<br>4.<br>2. praefectus annonae\"The praefectus annonae was in charge of having the grain from the annona baked into bread by the bakers (and was also in charge of the pork-butchers).\"§REF§(Deliyannis 2016, 255-256) Deliyannis, Deborah M. Urban Life and Culture. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3.<br>4.<br>2. comes archiatrorum\"an official known as the comes archiatrorum who oversaw doctors\"§REF§(Deliyannis 2016, 256) Deliyannis, Deborah M. Urban Life and Culture. in Arnold, Jonathan J. Bjornlie, Shane M. Sessa, Kristina. eds. 2016. A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3.<br>4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Provincial governor (praeses)There were also provincial governors §REF§(Burns 1991, 196)§REF§ and prefectures §REF§(Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 293)§REF§<br>\"In Dalmatia, the comes was superior to the principes and the Roman governor (praeses), who was increasingly a fiscal officer having some responsibility for tax collection. The principes of Dalmatia maintained the Roman legal structure alongside the Gothic command embodied in the comes.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§<br>2. Provincial comesProvence. Possibly: Istria, Noricum Mediterranean, Switzerland.§REF§(Burns 1991, 175)§REF§<br>\"Perhaps the rank of comes secundi ordinis was accorded to the urban comites, whereas the provincial became comes primi.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 176)§REF§<br>3. priores\"At least in some areas, lesser officials called priores assited the provincial comites\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 176)§REF§<br>2. praefectus praetorio GalliarumGaul same as before. §REF§(Burns 1991, 176)§REF§<br>3. Civitas - prefect\"Prefect of the City\": \"A nobleman of the very highest rank, Consul, Patrician, and Prefect of the City, Cæcina Maurus Basilius Decius, successfully accomplished this work under the orders of his sovereign...\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>4. Member of curialecuriales in towns §REF§(Burns 1991, 131)§REF§<br>5.Scribes?<br>3. defensor civitatis\"In Italy the Ostrogoths continued the office as a local \"protector.\" Defensors were supposed to protect the community from oppression, just as Valentinian had planned, but their protection included the seasonal fixing of prices and often the forced requisition of military supplies. In small towns, the defensors and the curia were the government: the defensor represented the central government; the curia, of course, was drawn from the locality.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 177)§REF§<br>3. Urban comes\"A princeps may have been assigned to each major city, since the office of princeps was held by several men at one time. They were under the comes. The provincial governor (praeses) retained some civil authority and shared some responsibility for tax collection.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§<br>\"The Goths established garrisons in important cities throughout their rule. Such special cities as Naples Pavia, and Syracuse had their own comes, as did Massilia, Arelate, the Insulae Curicta, and Celsina. These comites Gothorum were legal officers, as were the provincial comites, and they also commanded whatever garrisons were stationed there.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 176)§REF§<br>4. Vicivillage<br>5. Pagirural settlements<br>_Gothic lands_<br>2. Gothic lord (Saio?)\"At least in the north, probably around Pavia in particular, where the Po Valley allowed more effective use of the land in small units, the Goths apparently subdivided their shares into family farming units called condamae.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 82)§REF§<br>2. comes Gothorum\"The cases of appeal from the general settlement areas in which there were large numbers of Gothic communities required the regionalized comes Gothorum, i.e., one of provincial scope, comites provinciarum. \"§REF§(Burns 1991, 174)§REF§<br>3. Condamae\"The φνλαί as described by Eunapius were basic organizations among the Goths. The Greek term φνλαί usually referred to a group united by blood and living in the same area. Each φνλαή had its own cult objects and holy men to care for and carry them. The φνλαί formed temporary confederations for specific purposes. Their leaders conducted affairs in councils, but the exact makeup of these varied. In some assemblies, the optimates, probably consisting of the dux and principal members of the nobility, made the decisions and enforced them. In other areas, the council of elders decided action and dominated the younger men. The apparent distinction between optimates and elders was in reality blurred, since many nobles were themselves elders of important families. Nonetheless, the great ducal families, it would seem, were not everywhere able to control the φνλαί in their area. In such cases the elders probably represented the various villages within the φνλαή. The φνλαί were not territorially but religiously defined. Their political unity became more cohesive during the fourth century. The Gothic word garvi does not seem to have described areas as large as those inhabited by the φνλαί but rather was a term used to denote the Latin pagus, the rural area around towns and villages. Even in a φνλαή where one family clearly controlled the actions of optimates and villages alike, there ere ways to manifest the traditional independence of the village as a unit within the regional federation.\"§REF§(Burns 1991, 164-165)§REF§ According to the Greeks, head of a Gothic φνλαή was a άρχων or ήγεμών; in Latin regulus, ducator, or dux; in Gothic texts reiks.§REF§(Burns 1991, 165)§REF§ The leaders of φνλαί were independent until an outside threat brought them together.§REF§(Burns 1991, 166)§REF§ \"There is no question that the continued as the basic political and military units long after their settlements in the empire. The same can be said for similar groups among the Ostrogoths...\" The fara of the Lombards \"was structurally and functionally the same as the φνλαή among the Goths. There are three, perhaps four, Ostrogothic farae known from various sources. ... The Ostrogothic farae and their heads may well have played a role similar to that of their Burgundian and Lombard counterparts.\" §REF§(Burns 1991, 166-167)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Note: this hierarchy is still confused.<br>On sources for the institutional structure of Papal government Wickham recommends: \"Bresslau, Handbuch, I, pp. 192-229; Halphen, Études; Toubert, ‘Scrinium et palatium’; Noble, The Republic of St. Peter, pp. 212-55.\"<br>1. Pope<br>By 781 CE (Charlemagne agreement) \"what had been the Dutchy of Rome was, somewhat enlarged, recognised as St. Peter's and the Pope's own principality.\" Authority over Ravenna \"shared in ill-defineded tandem.\" §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>Pope was head of the senate. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>Pope, sovereign and \"universal bishop\", symbolically crowned with tiara. §REF§(Noble 2011, xx)§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. SenatorsThe title of \"senator of all the Romans\" is attested from the 10th century, and often describes a person in a position to decisively influence papal elections, as well as being a powerful secular administrator.§REF§Partner, 105§REF§ It is often unclear what senators and patricians did in the way of day-to-day duties, however, and may have been an honorific granted to members of the Roman baronial families.§REF§Marazzi, 58§REF§ (4)<br>2. Palatine judges (primicerius, secundicerius, primus defensor, nomenculator, arcarius, saccellarius, and protoscriniarius) of the notariate, Papal lands, Papal charity and treasurythe primicerius, secundicerius and protoscriniarius ran the notariate or scrinium.§REF§(Wickham 2015, 187) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>primus defensor \"the senior official among the managers of papal lands\"<br>nomenculator \"ran Papal charity\"<br>arcarius and saccellarius \"ran the treasury\"<br>2. vestararius (to 1000 CE) then urban prefect\"Slightly separate was the office of vestararius, which was again a financial office; this official was not a standard judge. On the other hand, when the vestararius appears in court proceedings, he seems often to preside over cases, whereas the palatine judges run the court under him; although here, too, we do not have enough evidence to be sure of a firm hierarchy of office, vestararii seem to be political leaders of unusual importance. There were also lands in the Agro romano attached to the office, which made it visibly remunerative. ... Vestararii, together with superistae/magistri militum, seem to have marked the highest positions lay aristocrats could reach in Rome...\" §REF§(Wickham 2015, 187-188) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>\"In the tenth century the importance of the vestararius, although sometimes still very great, was by now intermittent; after 1000 references to the title vanish. The new tenth-century political office that came to be of major importance was instead the revived position of urban prefect, which reappears in the middle decades of the tenth century after a long break, and it is very likely that it was Alberico who re-established the office. The prefecture was particularly central from 1000 onwards.\"§REF§(Wickham 2015, 188) Wickham, C. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>3. Administrative subdivisionsArchives held in Lateran Palace with other paperwork. However, very important documents were kept in tomb of St Peter. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>High-ranking ecclesiastical officials (legates, papal representatives, etc.): The Papal state had administrative subdivisions, loosely conceived. Noble has argued that through its extensive landholding, charitable actions, and diplomatic role as a negotiator with the Lombards, the Roman Church significantly impacted most residents of Byzantine Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>The bureaucrats attached to the papacy itself, usually based in the Lateran palace in Rome. The bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city.§REF§Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75§REF§<br>4. Head of Sub-division within an administrative subdivisionSome scholars have claimed that it was the most effective government in Western Europe by the end of the seventh century (although this isn't saying much, given how small-scale papal administration was).§REF§(Partner 1972, 9§REF§<br>Lower-ranking administrative officials: A nomenclator was probably assisted by ordinator. Vicedominus was steward of the papal Lateran palace. Vicedominus more involved in central administration than a major domus.§REF§(Richards 1979, 298)§REF§<br>Amoner (financial controller).<br>Major-domo (treasurer and controller of wardrobe).<br>Pilgrims to the city of Rome was a source of income for the popes. §REF§(Trevor 1869, 115)§REF§<br>4. primicerius defensorumDefensores defended \"the rights of the Roman church ... and the oppressed. The formula of appointment was vague enough to allow them to undertake virtually any duty on behalf of the church.\" There was a college of defensores headed by a primicerius. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. defensorum<br>4. primicerius notariorum (head of college of notaries) §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. secundicerius notariorumA college of notaries headed by primicerius, later joined by college of defensores headed by primicerius, and a college of subdeacons. Notaries were the staff of the papal chancery, career bureaucrats. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Clerical officers (acolytes and guardians) §REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>6. notariorumBy this period, the popes had been caring for orphans, widows, and others as part of their pastoral duties.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>2. Cardinals & legatesTo a certain extent, these are simply a particular, preeminent, sub-section of the Roman <i>curia's</i> bureaucracy (see below). They enjoyed prestige on an international level, however. During the pontificate of Gregory VII (1074-1085), the cardinals numbered around 74.§REF§Southern, 143§REF§ The cardinalate was composed of the bishops of the suburbicarian dioceses§REF§The suburbicarian dioceses are the seven dioceses closest to Rome, and which provided the bishop-cardinals of the early Middle Ages. Today, they are: Ostia, Porto-Santa Rufina, Frascati/Tusculum, Palestrina, Albano, and Sabina-Poggio Mirteto.§REF§; twenty-eight priests of churches in the vicinity of Rome; 18 deacons, attached to either the papal palaces or urban churches of Rome; and, maybe, 21 sub-deacons (who were, essentially, part of the papal bureaucracy.§REF§Southern, 143-44§REF§ Legates were drawn from the cardinalate. They were sent out by the popes either on specific missions, or as ambassadors-at-large, and given papal authority to hear disputes, settle ecclesiastical trials, and even make peace between warring lords; the legate system expanded dramatically in the late eleventh century, and was fully functioning as a level of the bureaucracy by the early twelfth century.§REF§Southern, 147-52, provides an excellent case-study of how these legates worked.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Regional governor of a DutchyAfter 756 CE, the duchies were officially controlled from Rome through Papal government administration. Every major city had a bishop. Regional governors. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials. §REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>The popes became increasingly involved during the late first millennium in appointing the duke for the Dutchy of Rome. §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>On several occasions, indeed, papal authority over the imperially-appointed dukes was demonstrated when popes had to save dukes from the irate Roman mob, or were able to defy the duke or Exarch of Ravenna with the aid of <i>militia totius Italiae</i>, \"the entire army of Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 18§REF§<br>Regionary guardians. Regional notaries.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>3. Bishop of a CityEvery major city had a bishop. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials.§REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>Under the Lombards, a system of episcopal immunities emerged that made the bishops virtually local temporal sovereigns and enabled them to preserve the local spirit of municipal independence and organization (e.g., consuls, guilds). The urban population was free, and the town walls (often built by the bishops) were refuges. §REF§(Stearns 2001 173)§REF§<br>The Roman bishop administered lands of the Church and lands of Roman basilicas, classified as tituli. §REF§(Partner 1972, 6)§REF§<br>4. Rectors of the Patrimony (in a Diaconate?)Ecclesiastical government contained other important regional officials. Rectors of the Patrimony were appointed for each major territory. These were drawn from subordinate Roman officials: sub-deacons or notaries and guardians, among them whom could be laymen.§REF§(Partner 1972, 8)§REF§<br>Diaconates were established to store and distribute grain, and be centers of social welfare. §REF§(Partner 1972, 9)§REF§5. Granary worker<br>5. Town / village leaderA more informal, often <i>ad hoc</i>, stratum but probably the most important on a day-to-day level. They included local landholders in particular. The aristocratic, land-holding stratum of Byzantine Italy emerged following Justinian's 6th-century reconquests.§REF§Noble, 5-6§REF§<br>By the late seventh century, many sources speaks of this stratum, which Noble has described as forming \"the key social class in late Byzantine Italy.\"§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§ These landholders, often of eastern origin, acquired land through leasing them from bishops contractually.§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " Coded as a range to allow for flexibility. AD<br>1. Pope<br>By 781 CE (Charlemagne agreement) \"what had been the Dutchy of Rome was, somewhat enlarged, recognised as St. Peter's and the Pope's own principality.\" Authority over Ravenna \"shared in ill-defineded tandem.\" §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>Pope was head of the senate. §REF§(Trevor, 1869, 113)§REF§<br>Pope, sovereign and \"universal bishop\", symbolically crowned with tiara. §REF§(Noble 2011, xx)§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Administrative subdivisions - Chief of Papal chancery / Papal archives etc.arcarius §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§ - treasurer<br>Papal chancery §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Archives held in Lateran Palace with other paperwork. However, very important documents were kept in tomb of St Peter. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>High-ranking ecclesiastical officials (legates, papal representatives, etc.): The Papal state had administrative subdivisions, loosely conceived. Noble has argued that through its extensive landholding, charitable actions, and diplomatic role as a negotiator with the Lombards, the Roman Church significantly impacted most residents of Byzantine Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>Regional elites \"sought and gained grants of land and jurisdiction from the popes.\" §REF§(Kleinhenz 2004)§REF§ Described as feudal in the ninth century. §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://faculty.ucc.edu/egh-damerow/papal_monarchy.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">[1]</a>§REF§<br>The bureaucrats attached to the papacy itself, usually based in the Lateran palace in Rome. The bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city.§REF§Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75§REF§<br>3. Head of Sub-division within an administrative subdivisionSome scholars have claimed that it was the most effective government in Western Europe by the end of the seventh century (although this isn't saying much, given how small-scale papal administration was).§REF§(Partner 1972, 9§REF§<br>Lower-ranking administrative officials: A nomenclator was probably assisted by ordinator. Vicedominus was steward of the papal Lateran palace. Vicedominus more involved in central administration than a major domus.§REF§(Richards 1979, 298)§REF§<br>Amoner (financial controller).<br>Major-domo (treasurer and controller of wardrobe).<br>Pilgrims to the city of Rome was a source of income for the popes. §REF§(Trevor 1869, 115)§REF§<br>4. primicerius defensorumDefensores defended \"the rights of the Roman church ... and the oppressed. The formula of appointment was vague enough to allow them to undertake virtually any duty on behalf of the church.\" There was a college of defensores headed by a primicerius. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. defensorum<br>4. primicerius notariorum (head of college of notaries) §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§Officials Constantine I took with him on his 710 CE visit to Constantinople included: 2 bishops, 2 priests, a deacon, a secundicerius notariorum, the primicerius defensorum, the sacellarius, the nomenclator, the scriniarius, and two subdeacons. Archdeacon, archpriest and primicerius notariorum were left behind. Other officials, vicedominus, arcarius, ordinator and abbot. §REF§(Richards 1979, 275)§REF§<br>5. secundicerius notariorumA college of notaries headed by primicerius, later joined by college of defensores headed by primicerius, and a college of subdeacons. Notaries were the staff of the papal chancery, career bureaucrats. §REF§(Richards 1979, 290-292)§REF§<br>Clerical officers (acolytes and guardians) §REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>6. notariorumBy this period, the popes had been caring for orphans, widows, and others as part of their pastoral duties.§REF§Noble, 1984, 10§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br>2. Regional governor of a DutchyAfter 756 CE, the duchies were officially controlled from Rome through Papal government administration. Every major city had a bishop. Regional governors. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials. §REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>The popes became increasingly involved during the late first millennium in appointing the duke for the Dutchy of Rome. §REF§(Daly 1986)§REF§<br>On several occasions, indeed, papal authority over the imperially-appointed dukes was demonstrated when popes had to save dukes from the irate Roman mob, or were able to defy the duke or Exarch of Ravenna with the aid of <i>militia totius Italiae</i>, \"the entire army of Italy.§REF§Noble, 1984, 18§REF§<br>Regionary guardians. Regional notaries.§REF§(Partner 1972, 1)§REF§<br>3. Bishop of a CityEvery major city had a bishop. Bishops in joint session with provincial magnates elected the governor of each province and helped choose city officials.§REF§(Woods 1921, 48)§REF§<br>Under the Lombards, a system of episcopal immunities emerged that made the bishops virtually local temporal sovereigns and enabled them to preserve the local spirit of municipal independence and organization (e.g., consuls, guilds). The urban population was free, and the town walls (often built by the bishops) were refuges. §REF§(Stearns 2001 173)§REF§<br>The Roman bishop administered lands of the Church and lands of Roman basilicas, classified as tituli. §REF§(Partner 1972, 6)§REF§<br>4. Rectors of the Patrimony (in a Diaconate?)Ecclesiastical government contained other important regional officials. Rectors of the Patrimony were appointed for each major territory. These were drawn from subordinate Roman officials: sub-deacons or notaries and guardians, among them whom could be laymen.§REF§(Partner 1972, 8)§REF§<br>Diaconates were established to store and distribute grain, and be centers of social welfare. §REF§(Partner 1972, 9)§REF§5. Granary worker<br>5. Town / village leaderA more informal, often <i>ad hoc</i>, stratum but probably the most important on a day-to-day level. They included local landholders in particular. The aristocratic, land-holding stratum of Byzantine Italy emerged following Justinian's 6th-century reconquests.§REF§Noble, 5-6§REF§<br>By the late seventh century, many sources speaks of this stratum, which Noble has described as forming \"the key social class in late Byzantine Italy.\"§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§ These landholders, often of eastern origin, acquired land through leasing them from bishops contractually.§REF§Noble, 1984, 7§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " Pope; Cardinals and legates; rectors, counts, and dukes; the papal curia; garrison commanders, village leaders, and provincial officials<br>1. Pope: The pope remained the head of a vast bureaucracy and leader of the papal state, and by the late sixteenth century his authority was rarely directly challenged in the Papal State.<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate was a fundamental part of the administration and politics of the Papal State. Legates-often, themselves, cardinals-handled diplomatic business outside of the papal states. The cardinals' palaces in Rome were in effect sub-headquarters of the papal bureaucracy.<br>3. Rectors, counts, governors: These were the clerical officials sent out by the papacy to the provinces of the Papal State..<br>3. The curia: The papal bureaucracy was a massive, complex machine founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. The sale of offices within the curia had long been routinized, but following the Council of Trent (1545-1563), the Counter-Reformation began curtailing the nepotism and corruption that characterized the Renaissance-era papacy.§REF§Martin in Marino, 30§REF§<br>4. Garrison commanders, village leaders: I use this category to denote minor officials in the provinces of the papal states, who often were appointed locally; the unit of territory would be the parish, which remained the basic unit of religious and administrative organization in the Papal State until at least the Napoleonic invasions, and in many ways beyond.§REF§Reynolds, 79§REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " Pope; Cardinals and legates; rectors and governors; the papal curia; rural landlords & barons; village leaders, and provincial officials<br>1. Pope: The pope remained the head of a vast bureaucracy and leader of the papal state.<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinals' palaces in Rome were in effect sub-headquarters of the papal bureaucracy.Cardinal-legates ruled Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli (the Legation cities) as papal representatives.§REF§Davis, 269§REF§<br>3. Rectors and governors: These were provincial officials deputed by the pope to run the provinces of the State.<br>3. The curia: The vast complex of religious and secular administration based in Rome, in the various papal palace complexes.<br>4. Rural landlords & barons: landholders in the countryside with significant estates, who often either dominated local government or could influence decision-making.<br>5. village leaders: I use this category to denote minor officials in the provinces of the papal states, who often were appointed locally." }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " Pope; Cardinals and legates; rectors, counts, and dukes; the papal <i>curia</i>; senators of Rome; castellans, village leaders, and provincial officials<br>1. Pope: The pope remained the head of a vast bureaucracy and leader of the papal state, despite ongoing weakness on the ground during the fifteenth century. Some popes, however, such as John XXIII and Julius II, were effective administrators and military leaders.<br>2. Cardinals and legates: The cardinalate had increased in number from 24 (the limit set by the Council of Constance, 1414-1418) to 35 by 1500 or so.§REF§Peterson in Najemy, 74§REF§ By this period, the cardinals were a fundamental part of papal elections and crucial to the politics of the papal states. Legates-often, themselves, cardinals-handled diplomatic business outside of the papal states. The cardinals' palaces in Rome were in effect sub-headquarters of the papal bureaucracy.<br>3. The <i>curia</i>: By the late 14th century, the papal bureaucracy had become a massive, complex machine founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics.§REF§See Martin in Marino, 34§REF§ Papal officials operated in Avignon until 1378, returning with the papacy to Rome. During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the <i>curia</i> became routinized; Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone.§REF§Peterson in Najemy, 74§REF§<br>3. Rectors, counts, and dukes: These were the clerical officials sent out by the papacy to the provinces of the Papal State, or secular lords appointed as <i>signori</i> (lords) of regions of the State.§REF§Najemy,191§REF§ During the Great Schism, the <i>signori</i> were functionally independent of any higher authority.§REF§Najemy, 195§REF§<br>Senators of Rome: It is unclear whether this was a continuous office, or a ceremonial appointment for distinguished foreigners influential in papal politics.<br>4. Castellans, village leaders: I use this category to denote minor officials in the provinces of the papal states, who often were appointed locally.<br>_Provincial_<br>SignoriePartner has characterized the situation in the Papal State during the fifteenth century thus: \"It remained true [in the mid-15th century] that the Papal State was divided into war-like little <i>signorie</i> to an extent unknown in any other region of Italy.\"§REF§Partner, 418§REF§ These lordships relied on utilizing their male subjects as mercenary troops, as the Malatesta of Urbino. The popes could occasionally intervene against these petty lords, but the Papal State would not attain internal cohesion and administration (to a limited extent) until the sixteenth century. Despite this internal weakness, the papacy was strong enough that the Papal State was one of the five guarantor powers of the Peace of Lodi (1454), which established an unprecedented era of peace and cooperation between the Italian powers (the papacy, Florence, Milan, Venice, and the Kingdom of Naples).§REF§Peterson in Najemy, 72§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. Emperor in Constantinople (nominal)<br><br>1. Exarch of Ravenna<br><br>_Central government_<br>Note: from the time the Exarchate was created \"the central government took on a new form\" §REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§<br>2. Prefect of Italy\"The new order was created at the end of the reign of Justin II. (565-578) under a new and supreme official. Without doing away with the prefect of Italy the emperor placed over him as supreme head of the new administration the exarch who was both the military commander-in-chief and the governor-general of Italy; and, since the chief need of Italy was defence, without entirely suppressing the civil administration, he placed at the head of each of the re-organised provinces a certain military officer - the duke.\" §REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§<br>3. In Rome, \"The senate ceased to meet sometime after 603\" §REF§(Burns 1991, 90)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>Note: from the time the Exarchate was created \"the provincial administration was re-organised.\" §REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§ Reformed in response to Lombard invasion of Italy. \"By the year 590, then, we see Italy thus divided into seven districts or governments: (1) the Dutchy of Istria, (2) the Duchy of Venetia, (3) the Exarchate to which Calabria is attached, (4) the Dutchy of Pentapolis, (5) the Dutchy of Rome, (6) the Dutchy of Naples, (7) Liguria.\"§REF§Edward Hutton. 1913. Ravenna: A Study. J M Dent & Sons Ltd. London.§REF§<br><br>2. Dutchy ruled by a DukeRegion of Ravenna \"formed a new province under the direct authority of the governors-general of Italy, that is to say, the exarch of Ravenna.\"§REF§(Hutton 1926)§REF§<br>\"Beneath the exarch ... were dukes, who possessed military and civil authority in the duchies... and tribunes or counts, who led individual detachments of troops called numeri and who also had important civil functions in particular localities.\" §REF§(Noble 1984, 5-6) Noble, Thomas F. X. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter. The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.§REF§<br>3. Tribunes / counts\"Beneath the exarch ... were dukes, who possessed military and civil authority in the duchies... and tribunes or counts, who led individual detachments of troops called numeri and who also had important civil functions in particular localities.\" §REF§(Noble 1984, 5-6) Noble, Thomas F. X. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter. The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.§REF§<br>3. CivitasDuring the preceding Ostrogothic period there was a \"Prefect of the City\": \"A nobleman of the very highest rank, Consul, Patrician, and Prefect of the City, Cæcina Maurus Basilius Decius, successfully accomplished this work under the orders of his sovereign...\" §REF§(Hodgkin 1897)§REF§<br>4. Vicivillage<br>5. Pagirural settlements<br>" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "Before the Roman Principate there was no formal bureaucracy. The old Roman treasury - the aerarium Saturni - was housed in the basement of the Temple of Saturn §REF§Garrett Fagan. Personal Communication.§REF§ The state treasury of the Roman Republic was kept in the custody of the priesthood inside the temple of Saturn, and was managed by elected aristocratic officials called quaestors.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ During the Roman Principate there were salaried officials who worked in the Imperial Bureaux (scrinia) §REF§(Mattingly 1910, <a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/imperialcivilser00mattuoft/imperialcivilser00mattuoft_djvu.txt\" rel=\"nofollow\">[3]</a>)§REF§ but before this time any bureaucrats are thought to have been unpaid aristocrats.<br>1. Consuls (two)<br>presided over the Senate<br>(minimum 42 years old) both also commanders. Elected by comitia centuriata, an aristocratic assembly.<br>Until 363 CE consuls may have been called praetors §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§.<br>Two consuls, appointed for one year terms.§REF§(Crawford 2001)§REF§<br>_Governing institutions_<br>1. Senators in the Senate<br>Three hundred senators (no minimum age) elected for life, and ten tribunes to represent plebians (created 471 BCE). <i>In this period 600 then 900.</i><br>2. Quaestors in the State treasuryTreasury called aerarium or aerarium Saturni (treasury of Saturn). This was used for \"depositing cash and archives of the Roman state and was situated in the temple of Saturn below the Capitol. It was controlled by the quaestors under the general supervision of the Senate.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ This treasury still existed during the empire period when revenues \"were increasingly diverted into the fiscus (imperial treasury). The aerarium eventually became the treasury of the city of Rome.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>elected position. \"financial and administrative officials who maintained public records, administered the treasury (aerarium), acted as paymasters accompanying generals on campaigns and were financial secretaries to governors.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ In 2nd century BCE the quaestorship <i>(a provincial appointment?)</i> \"was an entry-level office; it had limited powers, and in this period was usually held around age 30.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 36) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. Assistants or scribes?<br>3. Equites managerial class who hold public contractsThe equites, the plebeian \"middle class\", \"were also able to take on public contracts, such as road building and supplying equipment to the army.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1994, 38) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Workers for Equites<br>1. Censors (two)<br>elected position. Two magistrates \"that involved some especially important sacral and civic duties\".§REF§(Brennan 2004, 34) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The office of the censor (censorship) from 443 BCE but not always present were two officials who enrolled citizens into military service.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 17) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>1. Aediles (two)<br>elected by comitia tributa. \"Two plebeian magistrates administered temple of Ceres, function later \"extended to public buildings and archives (of the plebiscita and senatus consulta). From 367 BC two curule aediles were elected from the patricians. The plebeian and curule aediles had similar functions at Rome; they were in charge of the maintenance and repair of public buildings (such as temples, roads and aqueducts), of markets (especially weights and measures), of the annona (to the time of Julius Caesar), and of public games and festivals (to the time of Augustus, when games were transferred to praetors).\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>1. Praetors (six?)<br>elected by comitia centuriata. \"In 366 BC the praetor urbanus (city praetor) was introduced, who was almost exclusively concerned with the administration of law at Rome. The praetor ... was the supreme civil judge. By the middle republic the praetors' powers were restricted to law and justice... By 241 BC a second praetor ... was established to deal with legal cases in which one or both parties were foreigners. ... there were eight by 80 BC. Praetors issued annual edicts that were an important source of Roman law.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ \"A third magistracy, the praetorship, was also established in 367.\"§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The first plebeian praetor was in 336 BCE.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>_ Provincial administration _<br>2. Provincial governors3. quaestors<br>2. Municipal government3. Decurions in the townships4. Scribes?<br>2. Client rulers and Colonies<br>Colonies of citizens - 8 coastal by 264 BCE. Latin colonies established by military. They had a devolved government modelled on the system at Rome. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 79)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "Before the Roman Principate there was no formal bureaucracy. The old Roman treasury - the aerarium Saturni - was housed in the basement of the Temple of Saturn §REF§Garrett Fagan. Personal Communication.§REF§ The state treasury of the Roman Republic was kept in the custody of the priesthood inside the temple of Saturn, and was managed by elected aristocratic officials called quaestors.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>1. Consuls (two)<br>presided over the Senate<br>(minimum 42 years old) both also commanders. Elected by comitia centuriata, an aristocratic assembly.<br>Until 363 CE consuls may have been called praetors §REF§(Stearns 2001)§REF§.<br>Two consuls, appointed for one year terms.§REF§(Crawford 2001)§REF§<br>_Governing institutions_<br>1. Senators in the Senate<br>Three hundred senators (no minimum age) elected for life, and ten tribunes to represent plebians (created 471 BCE).<br>2. Quaestors in the State treasuryTreasury called aerarium or aerarium Saturni (treasury of Saturn). This was used for \"depositing cash and archives of the Roman state and was situated in the temple of Saturn below the Capitol. It was controlled by the quaestors under the general supervision of the Senate.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ This treasury still existed during the empire period when revenues \"were increasingly diverted into the fiscus (imperial treasury). The aerarium eventually became the treasury of the city of Rome.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>elected position. \"financial and administrative officials who maintained public records, administered the treasury (aerarium), acted as paymasters accompanying generals on campaigns and were financial secretaries to governors.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ In 2nd century BCE the quaestorship <i>(a provincial appointment?)</i> \"was an entry-level office; it had limited powers, and in this period was usually held around age 30.\"§REF§(Brennan 2004, 36) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>3. Assistants or scribes?<br>3. Equites managerial class who hold public contractsThe equites, the plebeian \"middle class\", \"were also able to take on public contracts, such as road building and supplying equipment to the army.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1994, 38) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>4. Workers for Equites<br>1. Censors (two)<br>elected position. Two magistrates \"that involved some especially important sacral and civic duties\".§REF§(Brennan 2004, 34) Brennan, Corey T. Power and Process Under The Republican 'Constitution'. Flower, Harriet I ed. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The office of the censor (censorship) from 443 BCE but not always present were two officials who enrolled citizens into military service.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 17) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>1. Aediles (two)<br>elected by comitia tributa. \"Two plebeian magistrates administered temple of Ceres, function later \"extended to public buildings and archives (of the plebiscita and senatus consulta). From 367 BC two curule aediles were elected from the patricians. The plebeian and curule aediles had similar functions at Rome; they were in charge of the maintenance and repair of public buildings (such as temples, roads and aqueducts), of markets (especially weights and measures), of the annona (to the time of Julius Caesar), and of public games and festivals (to the time of Augustus, when games were transferred to praetors).\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>1. Praetors (six?)<br>elected by comitia centuriata. \"In 366 BC the praetor urbanus (city praetor) was introduced, who was almost exclusively concerned with the administration of law at Rome. The praetor ... was the supreme civil judge. By the middle republic the praetors' powers were restricted to law and justice... By 241 BC a second praetor ... was established to deal with legal cases in which one or both parties were foreigners. ... there were eight by 80 BC. Praetors issued annual edicts that were an important source of Roman law.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ \"A third magistracy, the praetorship, was also established in 367.\"§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§ The first plebeian praetor was in 336 BCE.§REF§(Oakley 2004, 18) Oakley, Stephen P. The Early Republic. Flower, Harriet I. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>_ Provincial administration _<br>2. Provincial governors3. quaestors<br>2. Municipal government3. Decurions in the townships4. Scribes?<br>2. Client rulers and Colonies<br>Colonies of citizens - 8 coastal by 264 BCE. Latin colonies established by military. They had a devolved government modelled on the system at Rome. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 79)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "Before the Roman Principate there was no formal bureaucracy. The old Roman treasury - the aerarium Saturni - was housed in the basement of the Temple of Saturn §REF§Garrett Fagan. Personal Communication.§REF§ The state treasury of the Roman Republic was kept in the custody of the priesthood inside the temple of Saturn, and was managed by elected aristocratic officials called quaestors.§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§ Work on this temple is only thought to have been begun by the last king of the Regal Period, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. During the Roman Kingdom, therefore, the treasury must have been held somewhere else; one might speculate within the court of the monarch. King Servius Tullius (578-535 BCE) - presumably with the resources of his court - may have used this to administer the first census of Rome.<br>1. King<br>\"while the urban community at Rome may have begun to develop a distinct, community-based identity from the eighth century onwards, the gentilicial elite of Rome, even as late as the early sixth century, would probably be best characterized as simply 'Latin,' or possibily even 'central Italian'. The presence of this pan-central Italian gentilicial aristocracy would have had a dramatic impact on how Rome interracted with other Latin settlements as it may have blurred man of the assumed settlement-based divisions, particularly with regard to military matters, which seem to have been almost entirely under the purview of the more mobile gentilicial elite.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 73) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>\"After Romulus, the position of king was held by men of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan extraction. The kingship was not hereditary.\"§REF§(Adkins and Adkins 1994, 3) Adkins, Lesley. Adkins, Roy A. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. Senate and an assembly.§REF§Richard Hooker <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://richard-hooker.com/sites/worldcultures/ROME/KINGDOM.HTM\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://richard-hooker.com/sites/worldcultures/ROME/KINGDOM.HTM</a>§REF§<br>from tradition we can \"infer an early elective monarchy, the king being elective by vote of the heads of all the Roman families; (i.e., voting under the form of suffrage known as the comitia curiata), and having as merely advisory council, the Senate.\"§REF§(Shumway 1902, 100) Shumway, Edgar S. 1902. Some View-Points of Roman Law Prior to the Twelve Tables. The American Law Register (1898-1905). Vol. 50. No. 2. Volume 41. New Series. The University of Pennsylvania Law Review. pp. 97-104.§REF§<br>2. Senior magistrates of the Assembly (comitia curiata) §REF§(Cornell 1995, 115)§REF§Rome was similar to a Greek polis.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 118)§REF§<br>3. Scribes (inferred - working for senior magistrates)<br>_Clan system (gens)_<br>2. Tribal leaderTribes were the basis of political and military organization in middle 7th century BCE.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 115)§REF§<br>The gens became established in Latium before c600 BCE.§REF§(Cornell 1995, 84)§REF§<br>The gens system was reformed under Servius Tullius (578-534 BCE).§REF§(Cornell 1995, 128)§REF§ New tribes were created to replace the old three tribes with the division based on wealth. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 173, 179)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><i>Reference to a closing of a Great Council 1297 CE?</i><br>1. Doge of Venice<br>The position of Doge was a life appointment.§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>2. Magistracy of the Avogaria di Comun.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 51) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>2. Maggior Consiglio3. Council of Ten'Plebian' nobility.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 57) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Council of Ten is part of the Maggior Consiglio.<br>Council of Ten was created in 1310 CE.§REF§(Martin and Romano 2000, 4) John Martin. Dennis Romano. Reconsidering Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>3. Ducal chancery\"Toward the early fourteenth century the ducal chancery was established. In the first instance it served as a bureaucratic arm of the Maggior Consiglio, bringing into the sphere of government the active participation of the citizen class.\"§REF§(Pincus 2000, 91) Debra Pincus. Hard Times and Ducal Radiance. Andrea Dandolo and the Construction of the Ruler in Fourteenth-Century Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>2. Consiglio dei PregadiThe office of Doge of Crete \"was not for life, as in Venice, but only for two years, renewable at the discretion of the Lesser Council or Senate, which made the appointment in the first place.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>\"the Senate, or Consiglio dei Pregadi, was made up of 120 permanent members.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 57) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3. Sestiers <i>associated with any official?</i><br>3. Podesta (with the Captain, one of the Rectors) of large town or city<br>3. Captain (with the Podesta, one of the Rectors) of large town or city4. Municipal councils<br>4. Local police<br>4. Schools<br>3. Podesta, Capitano or Povveditor of a small town\"In each of the more important dependent cities she placed a civil governor, called the Podesta, and a military commandant, called the Captain, whose duty it was to raise levies and look after the defence of the city; these two when acting together were called the Rectors. The local municipal councils, varying in numbers, were left undisturbed and retained the control of such matters as lighting, roads, local taxation. The police and imperial taxation were in the hands of the Rectors, and they were in constant communication either with the Senate, or, in very grave emergencies, with the Council of Ten. The smaller towns were governed by a Podesta, a Capitano, or a Provveditore. Each town possessed its own special code, called the Statuto, which the Rectors swore to observe. The Statuto dealt with octroi dues, roads and bridges, wells, lighting, doctors, nurses, fires, guilds, santitary matters, - in short with all the multifarous details of municipal and even of private life. ... In the Courts of Justice the Podesta or one of his three assessors merely presided; the did not constitute the Court, which was composed of citizens. Provision was made for public instruction in the humanities, in canon and civil law, and in medicine; primary education was supplied by what were called schools of aritmetic. The cost of education was charged on the revenues of the province.\"§REF§(? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Doge of CandiaIn Crete a \"simplified model of the Venetian home government\" was used. \"This allowed Venetian residents abroad to enjoy accustomed roles on governing boards and councils, while centralized conrol was assured by entrusting principal executive powers to officers appointed from Venice, usually for a term of two years. This practice dated from 1208, before Crete had been conquered, when the Venetians appointed a doge of Candia (the main city of the island) to act as chief magistrate and military commander.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>2. Greater Council (of Crete)3. Fief holders in sestiers (administrative areas) of Crete\"The first doge of Candia, Giacomo Tiepolo, divided the island into six administrative areas and named them after the sestiers into which Venice itself was divided. Fief holders from the sestiers acted as members of a Greater Council, modeled on the Maggior Consiglio of Venice, to which all nobles belonged.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>\"In 1297, culminating reorginization attempts that had begun in the late 1280s, the Maggior Consiglio (Great Council) set up a regularized system of membership, accepting as member those who had previously served in the council and the legitimate male descendants of all part and present members. The immediate effect was to increase the size of the council, but ultimately it limited access to a discrete group of families.\"§REF§(Pincus 2000, 90) Debra Pincus. Hard Times and Ducal Radiance. Andrea Dandolo and the Construction of the Ruler in Fourteenth-Century Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>Magistracy of the Avogaria di Comun.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 51) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The college of the three avogadori could intromettere [introduce an appeal] into the government council which seemed most suitable to the typology of the case: the Quarantia civile or the Quarantia criminale - courts of justice composed of 40 nobles each, destined during the course of the 15th century to become state's highest courts of appeal; the Senate or Consiglio de' Pregadi - the principal Venetian legislative organ at the center of the production of norms regarding foreign and domestic policy, civil and military; the Minor Consiglio - a restricted and elite body represented by the doge's councilors, six nobles nominated by the Senate; or the Maggior Consiglio - composed, instead, of all the the nobles who had reached their majority.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 52) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"in the 15th century ... the role of this magistracy took center stage in the political and constitutional history of Venice.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 52) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"Decrees of the Senate or sovereign letters signed by ducal councilors, sentences passed by the plethora of republican institutions with their seat in the capital, pronouncements or acts of government of the Venetian rectors in the terraferma or envoys in the colonies of the stato da mar; every type of act produced in the course of the activities of government, from the least important magistracy to the Doge himself, no matter how solemn or banal it might have been, could be brought by appeal before the Avogaria.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 53) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The ever-increasing interventions of the Avogaria in the years 1440-60 represent a true turning point in Venetian political history. The apex of the constituional system - the doge, the Provveditori di San Marco, the ducal councilors, the Savi del Consiglio - thus came to be subjected to a form of continuous supervision. In 1453, for example, the avogadori were able to block an order from the Doge to the Giudici di Petizion.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 54) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"The much enlarged imperial territories that thus accrued to the Venetian state after 1204 had to be governed somehow. In Corfu briefly, and in Crete more permanently, the Venetians resorted to the form of military administration used by all the Latin crusading states. That is, the city granted fiefs to knights and serjeants who undertook to build castles and defend the land in return for the income to be derived from territories granted to them. Holders of these fiefs were all Venetian citizens; their lands came by confiscation from Greek magnates.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 33) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>1200 CE: \"a bailo was appointed to supervise Venetian affairs along the entire Syrian and Palestinian coast.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><i>Reference to a closing of a Great Council 1297 CE?</i><br>1. Doge of Venice<br>The position of Doge was a life appointment.§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>2. Magistracy of the Avogaria di Comun.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 51) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>2. Maggior Consiglio3. Council of Ten'Plebian' nobility.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 57) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Council of Ten is part of the Maggior Consiglio.<br>Council of Ten was created in 1310 CE.§REF§(Martin and Romano 2000, 4) John Martin. Dennis Romano. Reconsidering Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>3. Ducal chancery\"Toward the early fourteenth century the ducal chancery was established. In the first instance it served as a bureaucratic arm of the Maggior Consiglio, bringing into the sphere of government the active participation of the citizen class.\"§REF§(Pincus 2000, 91) Debra Pincus. Hard Times and Ducal Radiance. Andrea Dandolo and the Construction of the Ruler in Fourteenth-Century Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>2. Consiglio dei PregadiThe office of Doge of Crete \"was not for life, as in Venice, but only for two years, renewable at the discretion of the Lesser Council or Senate, which made the appointment in the first place.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>\"the Senate, or Consiglio dei Pregadi, was made up of 120 permanent members.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 57) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>3. Sestiers <i>associated with any official?</i><br>3. Podesta (with the Captain, one of the Rectors) of large town or city<br>3. Captain (with the Podesta, one of the Rectors) of large town or city4. Municipal councils<br>4. Local police<br>4. Schools<br>3. Podesta, Capitano or Povveditor of a small town\"In each of the more important dependent cities she placed a civil governor, called the Podesta, and a military commandant, called the Captain, whose duty it was to raise levies and look after the defence of the city; these two when acting together were called the Rectors. The local municipal councils, varying in numbers, were left undisturbed and retained the control of such matters as lighting, roads, local taxation. The police and imperial taxation were in the hands of the Rectors, and they were in constant communication either with the Senate, or, in very grave emergencies, with the Council of Ten. The smaller towns were governed by a Podesta, a Capitano, or a Provveditore. Each town possessed its own special code, called the Statuto, which the Rectors swore to observe. The Statuto dealt with octroi dues, roads and bridges, wells, lighting, doctors, nurses, fires, guilds, santitary matters, - in short with all the multifarous details of municipal and even of private life. ... In the Courts of Justice the Podesta or one of his three assessors merely presided; the did not constitute the Court, which was composed of citizens. Provision was made for public instruction in the humanities, in canon and civil law, and in medicine; primary education was supplied by what were called schools of aritmetic. The cost of education was charged on the revenues of the province.\"§REF§(? 1902, 263) ?. Chapter VIII. Venice. A W Ward. G W Prothero. Stanley Leathes. eds. 1902. The Cambridge Modern History. Volume I. The Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>2. Doge of CandiaIn Crete a \"simplified model of the Venetian home government\" was used. \"This allowed Venetian residents abroad to enjoy accustomed roles on governing boards and councils, while centralized conrol was assured by entrusting principal executive powers to officers appointed from Venice, usually for a term of two years. This practice dated from 1208, before Crete had been conquered, when the Venetians appointed a doge of Candia (the main city of the island) to act as chief magistrate and military commander.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>2. Greater Council (of Crete)3. Fief holders in sestiers (administrative areas) of Crete\"The first doge of Candia, Giacomo Tiepolo, divided the island into six administrative areas and named them after the sestiers into which Venice itself was divided. Fief holders from the sestiers acted as members of a Greater Council, modeled on the Maggior Consiglio of Venice, to which all nobles belonged.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>\"In 1297, culminating reorginization attempts that had begun in the late 1280s, the Maggior Consiglio (Great Council) set up a regularized system of membership, accepting as member those who had previously served in the council and the legitimate male descendants of all part and present members. The immediate effect was to increase the size of the council, but ultimately it limited access to a discrete group of families.\"§REF§(Pincus 2000, 90) Debra Pincus. Hard Times and Ducal Radiance. Andrea Dandolo and the Construction of the Ruler in Fourteenth-Century Venice. John Martin. Dennis Romano. eds. 2000. Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297-1797. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.§REF§<br>Magistracy of the Avogaria di Comun.§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 51) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The college of the three avogadori could intromettere [introduce an appeal] into the government council which seemed most suitable to the typology of the case: the Quarantia civile or the Quarantia criminale - courts of justice composed of 40 nobles each, destined during the course of the 15th century to become state's highest courts of appeal; the Senate or Consiglio de' Pregadi - the principal Venetian legislative organ at the center of the production of norms regarding foreign and domestic policy, civil and military; the Minor Consiglio - a restricted and elite body represented by the doge's councilors, six nobles nominated by the Senate; or the Maggior Consiglio - composed, instead, of all the the nobles who had reached their majority.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 52) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"in the 15th century ... the role of this magistracy took center stage in the political and constitutional history of Venice.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 52) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"Decrees of the Senate or sovereign letters signed by ducal councilors, sentences passed by the plethora of republican institutions with their seat in the capital, pronouncements or acts of government of the Venetian rectors in the terraferma or envoys in the colonies of the stato da mar; every type of act produced in the course of the activities of government, from the least important magistracy to the Doge himself, no matter how solemn or banal it might have been, could be brought by appeal before the Avogaria.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 53) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The ever-increasing interventions of the Avogaria in the years 1440-60 represent a true turning point in Venetian political history. The apex of the constituional system - the doge, the Provveditori di San Marco, the ducal councilors, the Savi del Consiglio - thus came to be subjected to a form of continuous supervision. In 1453, for example, the avogadori were able to block an order from the Doge to the Giudici di Petizion.\"§REF§(Viggiano 2014, 54) Alfredo Viggiano. Politics and Constitution. Eric Dursteler. ed. 2014. A Companion to Venetian History, 1400-1797. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"The much enlarged imperial territories that thus accrued to the Venetian state after 1204 had to be governed somehow. In Corfu briefly, and in Crete more permanently, the Venetians resorted to the form of military administration used by all the Latin crusading states. That is, the city granted fiefs to knights and serjeants who undertook to build castles and defend the land in return for the income to be derived from territories granted to them. Holders of these fiefs were all Venetian citizens; their lands came by confiscation from Greek magnates.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 33) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br>1200 CE: \"a bailo was appointed to supervise Venetian affairs along the entire Syrian and Palestinian coast.\"§REF§(McNeill 1986, 34) William H McNeill. 1986. Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<i>Needs more work done to illustrate chain-of-command. Coded same as Kamakura.</i><br>'For the nearly 700-year span of Japan’s medieval and early modern periods, warriors-with varying levels of effectiveness and hegemony-ruled the country. Although the fortunes of particular extended warrior families waxed and waned, only members of the warrior class could serve as shoguns, the military rulers. Their governments, known commonly as shogunates, were often challenged by the interests of other powerful warrior families in various parts of Japan and by the imperial family in Kyoto. Although the warrior bureaucracy largely controlled the affairs of the state, the emperor and the imperial court were still the formal head of government. Warrior governments typically sought out- or forced-the formal imperial decrees that gave legitimacy to the shoguns. Occasionally emperors would attempt to reassert direct imperial rule. They were, however, always suppressed in favor of warrior rule... Warrior governments functioned as a lord-vassal system of loyalty. This is reflected in the political structures of the different shogunates. Although they varied greatly in their organization, the notion of loyalty, whether earned or forced, always laid the foundation on which the warrior government was built.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§ 'The Ashikaga shoguns of the medieval period, for all the noble status they had acquired, were obliged to share political power with other court families, other members of the military aristocracy, and the religious orders. Theirs was a national command limited by the fragmentation of sovereignty and by the precedents and structures of the court-centered institutions of governance.' §REF§Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.p.10§REF§<br>'The Ashikaga shogunate inherited much of the administrative structure of the Kamakura government. Key offices such as the Mandokoro (Administrative Board), Samurai-dokoro (Board of Retainers), and the Monchujo (Board of Inquiry) remained. The following description of individual positions and offices only covers those not already dealt with in the section on the Kamakura administrative structure. The only exception is when a particular office or position underwent significant change in the Muromachi period. §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.94.§REF§<br>_Central Administration_<br>6. Shogun<br><br>5. Shogunal Deputy (Kanrei)\"The office of kanrei was instituted by the Ashikaga shogunate. The role of the shogunal deputy was to assist the shogun in administering the warrior government. One importantbetween the shogunate and the shugo (military governors). Military governors had grown more powerful by this time and posed a threat to the governing authority of the shogunate. Three warrior families— the Shiba, the Hosokawa, and the Hatakeyama — shared this position on a rotating basis.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.94.§REF§\"The office of kanrei was instituted by the Ashikaga shogunate. The role of the shogunal deputy was to assist the shogun in administering the warrior government. One importantbetween the shogunate and the shugo (military governors). Military governors had grown more powerful by this time and posed a threat to the governing authority of the shogunate. Three warrior families— the Shiba, the Hosokawa, and the Hatakeyama — shared this position on a rotating basis.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.94.§REF§<br>4. Council of State (Hyojoshu)\"The Hyojoshu was established in 1225 by Hojo Yasutoki as a way to share the responsibility for governance. The council included the most important statesmen, warriors, and scholars. Matters were decided by a simple majority vote.’ The council continued under the Ashikaga shogunate.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. High Court (Hikitsuke)\"The Hikitsuke was established as a judicial court by shogunal regent Hojo Tokiyori in 1249. It was intended to supplement the responsibilities of the Hyojoshu (Council of State). Among the legal issues dealt with by this body were land claims and taxation.’ The High Court continued under the Ashikaga shogunate.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2.<br>3. Administrative Board (Mandokoro)\"Established in 1191 by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the Mandokoro took over the functions of the Kumonjo as the main executive and general administrative office of the Kamakura shogunate. After Hojo family regents assumed real control over the shogunate, they transformed the Mandokoro into an office whose sole responsibility was to oversee the government’s finances.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2.<br>3. Board of Retainers (Samurai-Dokoro)\"This office was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180. It functioned as a disciplinary board to regulate the activities of Yoritomo’s expanding network of warrior vassals (gokenin). Its main responsibility was overseeing the police and the land stewards (jito). In the Muromachi period, added duties included security for the capital at Kyoto, and administration of shogunal and other property.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2. e.g. head of police <i>inferred</i>1. e.g. policeman <i>inferred</i><br>3. Board of Inquiry (Monchujo)\"See above under 'Kamakura Shogunate.' In the Muromachi period, many of the responsibilities formerly carried out by the Monchujo were reassigned to the Mandokoro (Administrative Board), and the Board of Inquiry was reduced to record keeping.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>2.<br><i>Scribes?</i><br>_Local Administration_<br>4. Kamakura Governor-General (Kamakura Kubo)<b></b>\"During the Muromachi period, the term kubo referred both to Ashikaga shoguns and to their governors- general. The post of Kamakura kubo was established in 1336 to monitor the interests of the shogunate in Kamakura and eastern Japan. To this end, the Kamakura kubo was responsible for governing affairs in this region. The Kamakura governorgeneral became a hereditary position within the Ashikaga family.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>4. Kanto Deputy (Kanto Kanrei)\"The Kanto kanrei was a position initiated by the Ashikaga shogunate in 1349. Headquartered in Kyoto, the shogunate needed an overseer in the Kanto region, which included Kamakura. The Kanto deputy fulfilled this role, especially in providing assistance to Kanto area governors-general (Kamakura kubo). From the latter half of the 14th century, members of different branches of the Uesugi family held the position of Kanto kanrei.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>4. Kyushu Deputy (Kyushu Tandai)§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>4. Oshu Deputy (Oshu Tandai)§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>4. Ushu Deputy (Ushu Tandai)As part of the Ashikaga shogunates’ effort to maintain control over political and military affairs, regional deputies (tandai) were appointed in parts of Japan that were deemed strategically important. The Muromachi-period government placed deputies in northwestern Honshu (the Oshu and Ushu tandai) and in Kyushu (Kyushu tandai). See also “Rokuhara tandai” and “Chinzei tandai” above under “Kamakura Shogunate.” §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>2. Military Governors (Shugo)\"The shugo rank was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo to maintain control over the provinces. The position became a formal part of the administrative structure of the Kamakura shogunate. Although Yoritomo handselected the first shugo, this title became hereditary over time. Duties of this office included general police and peacekeeping activities and administrative responsibilities such as investigating crimes and judging legal cases.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2. Deputy Military Governors (Shugodai)\"The position of shugodai existed during the Kamakura period. Up until the Mongol invasions in the latter half of the 13th century, shugo infrequently lived in the provinces they were assigned to govern. This responsibility fell to the shugodai. In the Muromachi period, the shugodai became a more formal part of the shogunate’s administrative structure.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>4. Land Stewards (Jito) -- <i>since Jito collected taxes may also be a low level in the central government chain of command e.g. treasury (if it was called that)</i>\"Land stewards, or jito, were officials appointed by the Kamakura shogunate from among its most trusted vassals to serve as estate (shoen) supervisors. Jito were responsible for overseeing the shogunate’s tax interests on these private estates. As such, jito handled the collection of taxes and ensured correct distribution. The jito system, however, was also a means whereby the Kamakura shogunate could reward its loyal vassals (gokenin) for their service to the military government. Over time, jito became an inherited office.’ still present in the Muromachi period.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Deputy Land Stewards (Jitodai)\"Within the jito system, some shogunal vassals received appointments to oversee multiple estates. When this occurred, deputy land stewards were used to govern these additional regions. This position was significant enough to become a formal part of the Ashikaga shogunate’s administrative structure.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br><i>Village level leadership/government?</i><br>" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. In 645 CE was introduced the Taika reform, which established the <i>ritsuryo</i> system of social, fiscal, and administrative organization of the state§REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 195-198.§REF§. The ritsuryō system was codified in several stages. The ritsuryō system was further consolidated and codified in 701 under the Taihō Code, which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until 1868§REF§L. Worden, Robert, 1994. \"Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250-710\"§REF§§REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 233-236.§REF§.<br>1. Emperor<br><br>_Central government_<br>6. Council of Kami Affairs-4[b]. Council of State<br>6. Chancellor5. Minister of the Left-3[b] Minister of the Right<br>5. Four senior counselorsEight ministries:<br>4. Ministry of Central affairs<br>4. Ministry of Personnel<br>4. Ministry of Civil affairs<br>4. Ministry of Popular affairs<br>4. Ministry of War<br>4. Ministry of Justice<br>4. Ministry of Treasury<br>4. Ministry of Imperial household3. more levels2. more levels, scribes etc.<br>" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "1 Emperor<br>\"the emperor and the imperial court were still the formal head of government. Warrior governments typically sought out- or forced-the formal imperial decrees that gave legitimacy to the shoguns.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§<br>2. Imperial court<br>_Warrior bureaucracy (Shogunate)_<br>1-2. Shogun<br>_Provincial bureaucracy_<br>2-3. Provincial aristocrats\"Their governments, known commonly as shogunates, were often challenged by the interests of other powerful warrior families in various parts of Japan and by the imperial family in Kyoto.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§<br>3-4. Cosigner / Council of State Members4-5. Administrative Baord office heads / court officials5-6 Board Office staffers<br>'For the nearly 700-year span of Japan’s medieval and early modern periods, warriors-with varying levels of effectiveness and hegemony-ruled the country. Although the fortunes of particular extended warrior families waxed and waned, only members of the warrior class could serve as shoguns, the military rulers. Their governments, known commonly as shogunates, were often challenged by the interests of other powerful warrior families in various parts of Japan and by the imperial family in Kyoto. Although the warrior bureaucracy largely controlled the affairs of the state, the emperor and the imperial court were still the formal head of government. Warrior governments typically sought out- or forced-the formal imperial decrees that gave legitimacy to the shoguns. Occasionally emperors would attempt to reassert direct imperial rule. They were, however, always suppressed in favor of warrior rule... Warrior governments functioned as a lord-vassal system of loyalty. This is reflected in the political structures of the different shogunates. Although they varied greatly in their organization, the notion of loyalty, whether earned or forced, always laid the foundation on which the warrior government was built.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§ 'Hideyoshi is remembered as the creator of institutions that became the building blocks for the subsequent Tokugawa hegemony.'§REF§Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.p.7§REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "'For the nearly 700-year span of Japan’s medieval and early modern periods, warriors - with varying levels of effectiveness and hegemony—ruled the country. Although the fortunes of particular extended warrior families waxed and waned, only members of the warrior class could serve as shoguns, the military rulers. Their governments, known commonly as shogunates, were often challenged by the interests of other powerful warrior families in various parts of Japan and by the imperial family in Kyoto. Although the warrior bureaucracy largely controlled the affairs of the state, the emperor and the imperial court were still the formal head of government. Warrior governments typically sought out- or forced-the formal imperial decrees that gave legitimacy to the shoguns. Occasionally emperors would attempt to reassert direct imperial rule. They were, however, always suppressed in favor of warrior rule. During the first part of the Kamakura period, the shogunate and the court more or less shared governmental authority.Warrior governments functioned as a lord-vassal system of loyalty. This is reflected in the political structures of the different shogunates. Although they varied greatly in their organization, the notion of loyalty, whether earned or forced, always laid the foundation on which the warrior government was built.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§ 'The shogunal regent (shikken) system put into effect by the Hojo family further transformed the relationship between court and shogunate. At court, the imperial government was run, in fact, not by the emperor but by an imperial regent from the aristocratic Fujiwara family. The Hojo family was now in control of the shogunate via the shogunal regency. Both forms of authority were thus controlled by regents, with the Hojo regent regulating most aspects of government. The Hojo regents also increasingly involved themselves in matters of imperial succession, thereby lending additional complications to the already divisive process of choosing emperors.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§<br>1. Hojo regents<br>_Central Administration_<br>6. Shogun<br>5. Shogunal regent (shikken)\"The office of shogunal regent was held by members of the Hojo family between 1203, when Hojo Tokimasa assumed the title, until the end of the Kamakura period in 1333. Lacking the necessary social rank to hold the title of shogun, it was through the office of shikken that the Hojo family was able to run the government behind the scene. As shogunal regents, the Hojo family not only controlled the affairs of state, they eventually came to decide who would be appointed shogun in the first place.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>5. Cosigner (rensho)\"The office of rensho was established by the shogunal regent Hojo Yasutoki in 1225 as a way to share power and government administration with competing branches of the Hojo family. This position created, in effect, an associate regent. Official documents required the signatures of both the regent and the cosigner.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>4. Members of the Council of State (Hyojoshu)\"The Hyojoshu was established in 1225 by Hojo Yasutoki as a way to share the responsibility for governance. The council included the most important statesmen, warriors, and scholars. Matters were decided by a simple majority vote. It was the highest decision-making body in the Kamakura government.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Public Documents Office (Kumonjo)\"The Kumonjo was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1184 as the main executive and general administrative office of his government. After the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate, this office was renamed the Mandokoro.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Administrative Board (Mandokoro)\"Established in 1191 by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the Mandokoro took over the functions of the Kumonjo as the main executive and general administrative office of the Kamakura shogunate. After Hojo family regents assumed real control over the shogunate, they transformed the Mandokoro into an office whose sole responsibility was to oversee the government’s finances.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Board of Inquiry (Monchujo)\"In 1184 Minamoto no Yoritomo established the Monchujo to be responsible for legal matters, especially dealing with lawsuits and appeals. Most cases concerned disputed land rights, but over time they included such things as business matters and loans.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Board of Retainers (Samurai-dokoro)\"This office was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180. It functioned as a disciplinary board to regulate the activities of Yoritomo’s expanding network of warrior vassals (gokenin). Its main responsibility was overseeing the police and the land stewards (jito). In the Muromachi period, added duties included security for the capital at Kyoto, and administration of shogunal and other property.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. High Court (Hikitsukeshu)\"The Hikitsuke was established as a judicial court by shogunal regent Hojo Tokiyori in 1249. It was intended to supplement the responsibilities of the Hyojoshu (Council of State). Among the legal issues dealt with by this body were land claims and taxation.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2. Department head, e.g. head of department dealing with tax law1. Department staff e.g. worker in department dealing with taxa law<br>_Local Administration_<br>3. Kyoto Military Governor (Kyoto Shugo) -- <i>who did the governor directly report to? who appointed him?</i>\"The position of Kyoto military governor was established at the beginning of the Kamakura shogunate. The governor’s role was to oversee the affairs of the imperial court on behalf of the shogunate. This position was replaced by the Rokuhara tandai in 1221.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>2. Rokuhara Deputies (Rokuhara Tandai)\"The office of Rokuhara tandai (shogunal deputies located in the Rokuhara district of Kyoto) was established in 1221 to replace the office of Kyoto shugo as supervisors of political, military, and legal matters. The Rokuhara tandai were responsible not only for overseeing Kyoto, but also affairs in the southwestern part of Japan. This position was created as the direct effect of Emperor Go-Toba’s attempt, known as the Jokyu Disturbance, to overthrow the shogunate and reestablish direct imperial rule. After Go-Toba’s defeat, the Rokuhara tandai was set up in part to ensure that such threats to shogunal power did not occur again.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Kyushu Commissioner (Chinzei Bugyo)\"This position was established by the Kamakura shogunate. The shogunate appointed two commissioners to oversee local Kyushu matters, especially the activities of Minamoto vassals.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Oshu General Commissioner (Oshu Sobugyo)\"This office was established by the Kamakura shogunate at the beginning of the medieval period in an area of northeastern Japan known as Oshu (island of Honshu). This region was the domain of a warrior branch of the Fujiwara family known as the Oshu Fujiwara who ruled the area with little intervention from the imperial court during the Heian period. In 1189, Minamoto no Yoritomo, fearing the power of this domain, attacked and conquered the Oshu Fujiwara. The position of Oshu general commissioner was founded to manage affairs in this region for the shogunate.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Military Governors (Shugo)\"The shugo rank was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo to maintain control over the provinces. The position became a formal part of the administrative structure of the Kamakura shogunate. Although Yoritomo handselected the first shugo, this title became hereditary over time. Duties of this office included general police and peacekeeping activities and administrative responsibilities such as investigating crimes and judging legal cases.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>3. Jito (Land Stewards)\"Land stewards, or jito, were officials appointed by the Kamakura shogunate from among its most trusted vassals to serve as estate (shoen) supervisors. Jito were responsible for overseeing the shogunate’s tax interests on these private estates. As such, jito handled the collection of taxes and ensured correct distribution. The jito system, however, was also a means whereby the Kamakura shogunate could reward its loyal vassals (gokenin) for their service to the military government. Over time, jito became an inherited office.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.92.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 299, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "<br>\"The Kofun period is commonly regarded as the state formation phase.\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 26) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"it is difficult to see any evidence for a political unification of a large part of Japan as early as A.D. 369, or shortly thereafter. Yamao (1977) argues, on documentary grounds, that unification was not achieved until about A.D. 531.\" §REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"the administrative devices of the central state in the Nara were imported from the continent\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>5. Emperors §REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32-33) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Period noted for having \"ruling dynasties\" and built large tumuli mounds. Possibly more levels than 2, especially in mound building activity.<br>\"it is only after about A.D. 600 that palaces have been found where increasingly greater space was allotted for the administrative work of bureaucrats (Yokoyama 1978).\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>4.The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§<br>by 600 CE \"a well-developed bureaucracy in the Nara basin was exerting its authority and promoting Buddhism as a unifying ideology for the new regime, thus replacing the ritual authority vested in earlier individual rulers.\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>3. Different departments <i>inferred</i>first imperial chronicles by 712 CE and historical records before this time §REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"the administrative devices of the central state in the Nara were imported from the continent in order to consolidate the power of that state vis a vis the competing polities in the surrounding areas within Japan.\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>2.1.<br>_Provincial government_<br>4.3.2.<br>" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 530, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "<br>\"The Kofun period is commonly regarded as the state formation phase.\"§REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 26) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"it is difficult to see any evidence for a political unification of a large part of Japan as early as A.D. 369, or shortly thereafter. Yamao (1977) argues, on documentary grounds, that unification was not achieved until about A.D. 531.\" §REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>\"the administrative devices of the central state in the Nara were imported from the continent\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>5. Emperors §REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32-33) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>Period noted for having \"ruling dynasties\" and built large tumuli mounds. Possibly more levels than 2, especially in mound building activity.<br>\"it is only after about A.D. 600 that palaces have been found where increasingly greater space was allotted for the administrative work of bureaucrats (Yokoyama 1978).\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>4.The earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§<br>by 600 CE \"a well-developed bureaucracy in the Nara basin was exerting its authority and promoting Buddhism as a unifying ideology for the new regime, thus replacing the ritual authority vested in earlier individual rulers.\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>3. Different departments <i>inferred</i>first imperial chronicles by 712 CE and historical records before this time §REF§(Mizoguchi 2013, 32) Mizoguchi, Koji. 2013. The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"the administrative devices of the central state in the Nara were imported from the continent in order to consolidate the power of that state vis a vis the competing polities in the surrounding areas within Japan.\"§REF§(Ikawa-Smith 1985, 396) Ikawa-Smith, Fumiko in Misra, Virenda N. Bellwood, Peter S. 1985. Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Poona, December 19-21, 1978. BRILL.§REF§<br>2.1.<br>_Provincial government_<br>4.3.2.<br>" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>'The government was run by a system of offices ranging from those closest to the emperor to others at more distant places and at lower levels. These offices had histories of their own, coming into existence at different times with different names and functions. Here we shall survey merely the ones that were probably named and defined in the Taiho administrative code of 701 and the Yoro code of 718.§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.232-233§REF§<br>'Down through the administrative structure - from the heads of offices around the emperor to those in charge of local offices in distant regions - ran a hierarchy of office titles and ranks. Heads of the highest offices held the title of director (kami) who had assistants (suke), secretaries (jo), and clerks (sakan). (These four office titles were written with different characters but pronounced in the same way when held by officials serving in different ministries and agencies.) According to the Yoro adminstrative code of 718, the number of officials in the two councils and eight ministries totaled 331. If lower-ranking officials are added, the total was 6,487. Ranks provided a more precise indication of status than titles did, for officeholders with the same title had different ranks yielding different stipends and perquisites. The Taiho code set aside four imperial ranks (hon) for princes and near relatives of the emperor and thirty court ranks (kurai) for persons lower in the aristocratic order. The son or grandson of a nobleman holding the highest imperial rank was automatically awarded a junior fifth rank lower grade court rank when he reached the age of twenty-one. Special treatment for anyone with a fifth rank or above - apart from the rights that their sons had to a high rank when they turned twenty-one, irrespective of ability - is revealed by the generous stipends and retainers they received'§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.236§REF§ 'The structure of the imperial court was a complex affair. The following chart depicts the basic outline, but each division and ministry contained a hierarchy of officials. Some divisions also included subdivisions. Despite the formality of this structure, the operation and functionality of any particular ministry fluctuated depending on the particular time period. There were also aristocratic families who came to dominate a particular court function through the use of heredity.' §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.89§REF§<br><b>5.Emperor </b>'At the apex of the structure was the emperor, whose will was expressed in decrees (mikotonori) and edicts (semmyo). Important decisions, such as those pertaining to appointments and promotions of high-ranking officials, were recommended at meetings of the Council of State but were carried out only with imperial approval. The two codes placed no limitations on imperial authority, thus giving the emperor, legally at least, despotic control. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.232-233§REF§<br><b>4[a]. Council of Kami Affairs</b>'Under the emperor were two councils that had equal standing: the Council of State, generally overseeing secular affairs, and the Council of Kami Affairs, running affairs in the area of kami worship. Although the two councils were organizationally at the same level, the Council of State's highest minister (the chancellor) held a higher rank than did the highest official of the Council of Kami Affairs. But the chancellor also had some responsibilities that lay outside the bounds of secular administration: He served as the emperor's guide and teacher and was given the task of harmonizing movements of the world with Chinese principles of yin and yang.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>4[b]. Council of State</b>'Under the emperor were two councils that had equal standing: the Council of State, generally overseeing secular affairs, and the Council of Kami Affairs, running affairs in the area of kami worship. Although the two councils were organizationally at the same level, the Council of State's highest minister (the chancellor) held a higher rank than did the highest official of the Council of Kami Affairs. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>4[b].1. Chancellor</b>the chancellor also had some responsibilities that lay outside the bounds of secular administration: He served as the emperor's guide and teacher and was given the task of harmonizing movements of the world with Chinese principles of yin and yang.' §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.233§REF§<br><b>3[a] Minister of the Left</b><b>3.1[a] Central affairs</b>’The Ministry of Central Affairs (the Nakatsukasa-sho) ranked above all other ministries and was the main link between the emperor and the Council of State. Its minister gave advice on numerous court matters, supervised the court chamberlains, and drafted imperial edicts. Under him were ten secretariats, including the Secretariat for the Empress's Household (Chugushiki).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.2[a] The Ministry of Personnel</b>'The Ministry of Personnel(Shikibu-sho) supervised personnel affairs. Within it were two important bureaus: one for higher learning (Daigaku-ryo) and another for nobles who held a court rank but occupied no office (Sammi-ryo).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.3[a] Civil affairs</b>‘The Ministry of Civil Affairs (Jibu-sho) had two important bureaus: one for Buddhist priests and nuns and aliens (Gemba-ryo) and another for court music (Gagaku-ryo).’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3.4.[a] Popular affairs</b>‘The Ministry of Popular Affairs (Mimbu-sho) was responsible for administering household registers, taxes, irrigation, paddy fields, and the budget.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b] Minister of the Right </b><b>3[b].1 The Ministry of War</b>‘The Ministry of War (Hyobu-sho) took care of personnel matters pertaining to soldiers and other military affairs.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].2 The Ministry of Justice</b>‘The Ministry of Justice (Gyobu-sho) handled legal affairs.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].3 Treasury</b>‘The Ministry of the Treasury (Okura-sho) dealt with state property, weights and measures, prices, and related matters.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>3[b].4 Imperial household</b>‘The Ministry of the Imperial Household (Kunai-sho) managed food, clothing, and personnel problems of the imperial household. Inside each ministry were several, often several tens of, administrative organs of three types: secretariats (shiki), bureaus (ryo), and offices (tsukasa)’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>2.Four senior counselors</b>'Below the chancellor, the minister of the left, and the minister of the right were four senior counselors. §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.233-234§REF§<br><b>1 Council of State's three departments</b>‘Under these six men were the heads of three administrative offices, referred to as the Council of State's three departments: the Department of Junior Counselors (Shonagonkan), the Department of the Controller of the Left (Sabenkan), and the Department of the Controller of the Right (Ubenkan). The first included three junior counselors authorized to serve as custodians of the imperial and Council of State seals, and the last two were responsible for transmitting imperial orders (senji), distributing orders issued by the Council of State (kampu), and handling communications between the council and its eight ministries.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>1.1 the Department of Junior Counselors (Shonagonkan)</b><br><b>1.2 the Department of the Controller of the Left (Sabenkan)</b><br><b>1.3 the Department of the Controller of the Right (Ubenkan)</b><br>___Other offices___<br>‘Outside the ministerial structure were a number of important boards and administrative units’§REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>Censors</b><br>‘the Board of Censors (Danjodai) that was engaged in exposing the illegal activities of officials and upholding standards of correct bureaucratic behaviour.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.234§REF§<br><b>Guard units</b><br>‘there were the headquarters of the various guard units, beginning with the five that guarded the imperial palace: the gate guards (emon-fu), the left guards (saeji-fu), the right guards (neji-fu), the left military guards (sahyoe-fu), and the right military guards (uhyoe-fu). The central government had, in addition, a right and left bureau of cavalry and a right and left bureau of armories. Other offices outside the eight ministries included two that were responsible for the left and right sectors of the capital.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.235§REF§<br><b>Capital section Dazaifu</b><br>‘ Organs of government outside the capital included, first of all, the Dazai headquarters (Dazai-fu) located near the harbor of Na in Kyushu from which the nine provinces of Kyushu, as well as the islands of Iki and Tsushima, were administered. Each of the country's sixty or more provinces 16 was headed by a governor who usually had under him ten or more districts headed by district supervisors. Each district contained between two and twenty villages (sato) made up of fifty households each. A governor was appointed for a six-year term, but the district supervisors, usually selected from the local gentry, had no fixed term of office. The Taiho administrative code contained no<br>articles dealing with village heads, but it is assumed that they were influential farmers.’ §REF§Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.235§REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"... these structures were not rigid systems. Retainers might be killed in battle or just died of old age. New followers were often acquired, prompting changes both in structure and function. As a result any diagram showing a vassal structure represents only a snapshot in time of a dynamic entity.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>Example<br>\"The Kashindan of Oda Nobunaga c.1570\" had at most 4 levels. 1. Oda Nobunaga. 2. Shukuro (Shibota Katsuie (1530-1583 CE) 3. Roshin (senior retainers) 4. Bugyo (commissioners). §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>1. Daimyo (ruler) of a kokka<br>\"No longer was a shugo merely the shogun’s ‘deputy for such-and-such province’; he was now, simply, the province’s daimyo - its ruler.\" §REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>\"a few shugo were even murdered and had their places taken by opportunists\" §REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>\"The word used for the territory a daimyō controlled as a mini-state was kokka, a contiguous geographical unit that often bore no relationship to the traditional borders of the Japanese kuni (provinces), and was defined simply by what could be defended.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>2. Relatives\"Closest of all to the daimyō were his blood relatives, identified by the expressions ichimon, kamon, ichizoku or shōke, all of which can be translated as ‘kinsmen’.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>2. Vassal of a fiefa kokka \"consisted of a composite of separate fiefs either held directly by the daimyō or indirectly by his followers, for whom the European term ‘vassal’ is customarily employed\"§REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>3. Roshin (senior retainers)\"We usually find an elite group called variously karō, rōshin or shukurō (elders or senior vassals) who were drawn from the daimyō’s family or from his most powerful vassals and used as an inner council for administration and military policy.\" §REF§(Turnbull 2008)§REF§<br>4. Bugyo (commissioners)<br>5. Scribe?<br>1. Emperor<br><br>2. Central governmentAs a result of the Onin war 1467-1476 CE \"Most of the centre of the ancient capital was reduced to a charred wasteland\"§REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>3. : ?. Provinces (Shugo)\"Some of the provincial shugo tried loyally and vainly to assert the shogun’s authority, but they were pushed aside.\"§REF§(Turnbull 2002)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "'For the nearly 700-year span of Japan’s medieval and early modern periods, warriors-with varying levels of effectiveness and hegemony-ruled the country. Although the fortunes of particular extended warrior families waxed and waned, only members of the warrior class could serve as shoguns, the military rulers. Their governments, known commonly as shogunates, were often challenged by the interests of other powerful warrior families in various parts of Japan and by the imperial family in Kyoto. Although the warrior bureaucracy largely controlled the affairs of the state, the emperor and the imperial court were still the formal head of government. Warrior governments typically sought out- or forced-the formal imperial decrees that gave legitimacy to the shoguns. Occasionally emperors would attempt to reassert direct imperial rule. They were, however, always suppressed in favor of warrior rule... Warrior governments functioned as a lord-vassal system of loyalty. This is reflected in the political structures of the different shogunates. Although they varied greatly in their organization, the notion of loyalty, whether earned or forced, always laid the foundation on which the warrior government was built.'§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.88.§REF§ List derived from ‘Administrative Structure of the Tokugawa Shogunate’.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.97.§REF§ ‘The neat table of organization charts of the Edo bakufu, which list upwards of four hundred posts in chain-of-command order, mask the problems of competition for control of policy and enforcement authority that plagued Edo bakufu politics.’ §REF§Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. p.164§REF§<br>1. Shogun<br>\"The Shogun was a hereditary military leader, in this period a member of the Tokugawa family. ‘the shogunate maintained control over the court and aristocrats by enacting legal regulations that set strict limits on their activities. As in the medieval period, the emperor was largely a figurehead whose main function was to perform public rituals.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.89§REF§<br>2. Samurai retainers (Hatamoto)\"Edo city commissioners were selected from among those of hatamoto (“bannerman”: direct samurai retainers of the shogunate) rank.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>2. Envoys to the Court (Kinrizuki)\"Imperial palace inspectors.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>2. Masters Of Shogunal Ceremony (soshaban)\"protocol officials who reported directly to the shogun. The 20-some soshaban were responsible for such tasks as keeping the shogun’s schedule and organizing shogunal ceremonies.\" §REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>2. Grand Chamberlain (sobayonin)\"responsible for transmitting messages between the Tokugawa shogun and the roju, the shogun’s senior councillors. This position was created in 1681.\"<br>_Central government_<br>2. Great Elder (Tairo)\"Although the position of tairo ranked just below shogun in the Edo period’s administrative structure, it was in fact an office rarely filled.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.96.§REF§<br>2. Senior Councillors (Roju)‘Roju were senior officials of the Tokugawa shogunate who watched over the entire government structure and the functioning of its many offices. In short, they administered the affairs of state, both domestic and foreign, for the shogunate. Senior councillors—usually four or five in number—were appointed from among the fudai (hereditary vassals) daimyo.’§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Junior Councillors (wakadoshiyori)\"Junior councillors, or “young elders” assisted the roju and surveyed the hatamoto and gokenin. Additionally, they supervised artisans, artists, physicians, palace guards, and construction work. In case of a war, the wakadoshiyori led the hatamoto into battle. The position was created in 1633 and chosen from the fudai daimyo.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.100.§REF§<br>4. Captains of the Bodyguard, Inner Guard, And New Guard (shoimban-gashira koshogumiban-gashiraThe various bodyguards operated under the command of the junior councillors during war.<br>3. Chamberlains (sobashu)\"The office of sobashu was established in 1653 by the fourth shogun, Tokugawa Ietsuna. Chamberlains were in direct service to the shoguns and, bureaucratically, reported to the roju.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Commissioners Of Finance (Kanjo bugyo)\"officials accountable for financial matters. Kanjo bugyo reported directly to the senior councillors (roju). These commissioners—usually only four in number but overseeing a large number of assistants—were appointed from those of hatamoto rank.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Intendants (daikan)\"These local government officials supervised and managed the shogunate’s personal landholdings (tenryo).\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Comptrollers (Kanjo gimmiyaku)\"This office, created in 1682, was charged with investigating, and otherwise overseeing, the operations of the kanjo bugyo (commissioners of finance). Although comptrollers were structurally lower than the commissioners of finance, they functioned as a control over the higher office’s activities. Kanjo gimmiyaku reported to the senior councillors (roju).\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Inspectors General (ometsuke)\"This office originated in 1632 when the third shogun, Tokugawa Iemitsu, appointed four people of hatamoto (bannerman) rank to oversee activities and places of potential trouble to the shogunate. Those who served as ometsuke were often senior officials with extensive government service scrutinized by the ometsuke were the road system, daimyo activities, and groups troublesome to the shogunate such as Christian missionaries and their Japanese followers. Inspectors general reported to the senior councillors (roju).\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>4. official involved in road system <i>inferred</i>5. manager of road maintenance works <i>inferred</i>6. worker on road maintenance <i>inferred</i><br>3. Masters of Court Ceremony (koke) -- <i>how are these related to the Masters Of Shogunal Ceremony (soshaban)?</i>\"Literally, “elevated families,” koke were hereditary government officials responsible for carrying out official ceremonies and rituals for the shogunate. In addition, masters of court ceremony were used as shogunal representatives at court, temple, and shrine functions.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>3. Commissioners of Temples and Shrines (jisha bugyo)\"usually four in number, supervised temple and shrine affairs, including matters involving religious hierarchies and the landholdings of these institutions. Among other responsibilities, they also held subsidiary duties involving legal matters in regions outside of the Edo area.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.99.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Edo City Commissioners (Edo muchi bugyo)\"charged with overseeing matters of city life concerning the chonin (townspeople and merchants). Edo city commissioners were selected from among those of hatamoto (“bannerman”: direct samurai retainers of the shogunate) rank.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>2. Commissioners of Distant Provinces (ongoku bugyo)\"The post of ongoku bugyo was similar in duty to the Edo machi bugyo ... except that these commissioners served in localities other than Edo, including Kyoto and Osaka. Like the Edo machi bugyo, they were selected from among families of hatamoto (bannerman) rank.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.98.§REF§<br>2. Kyoto Deputy (Kyoto shoshidai)\"The post of Kyoto deputy was first established by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, during the Azuchi-Momoyama period, to oversee the affairs of Kyoto, especially the activities of the imperial court and nearby territories. This office became formalized within the administrative structure of the Tokugawa shogunate.’§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.99.§REF§<br>2. Keeper of Osaka Castle (Osaka jodai)\"the senior military officer in central Japan. As the primary administrator in the region, the Osaka jodai maintained the military strength of Osaka Castle. During the Edo period, jodai, including the Osaka jodai, served as the proxy of the Tokugawa shogun in commanding the respective castle. This rank was reserved for middle ranking daimyo, and holders of this rank were frequently promoted to posts of Kyoto deputy (Kyoto shoshidai) and senior councillor (roju).\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.99.§REF§<br>Posts not yet positioned:<br>- Chiefs of the Pages and Attendants (kosho todori/ konando todori)<br>- Inspectors (metsuke) \"performed police and enforcement duties at numerous levels. Not only did they serve as high-level spies for their military rulers, but they also evaluated other shogunal officials and staff as well.\"§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.100.§REF§<br>- Magistrates, Accountants, Tax Collectors, Policemen§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.100.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "2. leader/chief of the local chiefdom.<br>1. leader of a small village?<br>Note that the earliest evidence for a “bureaucratic machinery” appears to date to the late fifth century CE §REF§(Steenstrup 2011, 11)§REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Central government may have had 6 levels as it was based on Samanid/Abbasid administrations.<br>-- from 999 CE<br>Early Kara-Khanid state: appanages.<br>\"Typical of nomadic families, all the sons of the founder demanded their share of his patrimony. After they settled into urban life, this meant that each one appropriated for himself a capital city and a territory to go with it. By the time Mahmud Kashgari set out for Baghdad, there were no fewer than four Karakhanid capitals: the oldest at Kashgar; a second at the ancient city of Samarkand; and two others at Uzgend and Balasagun, both in present-day Kyrgyzstan.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>\"Ibrahim waged a successful struggle against the appanage system, which had been the cause of endless fratricidal strife, and the reassignment of towns and regions.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 137) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>-- from c1040 CE<br>\"the east ... has connotations of seniority in Turkic culture: with both the Gok turks and the Qarakhanids, the rulers of the eastern divisions of the empire, considering it to be superior.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh.§REF§<br>1. Western Khanate ruled by Alid dynasty§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 135) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>\"In Inner Asian fashion, the new rulers divided their domains into a western khanate that ruled Transoxania until 1211 and an eastern khanate for Farghana and Kashgaria.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 230) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Eastern Khanate ruled by Hasanid dynasty§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 135) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. VizierIn Balasaguni's \"Wisdom of Royal Glory\" the Khan has a vizier.§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br>3. Diwans?4.5.6<br>Continuity with Samanids: \"Certain leading representatives of the military and bureaucratic class assisted the Karakhanids, and the dihqans (major landowners) also took their side.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 129) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>_Vassals_<br>2. dihqans ruled Ilaq directly under the Kara-Khanids§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 129-130) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>-- Late 12th Century<br>2. Ra'is of Bukhara (headman of Bukhara)Thus Bukhara was held on a hereditary basis by members of a clerical line, the Al-i Burhan, upon whom was conferred the title of sadr-i jahan (Pillar of the World) and the office of ra'is<br>(headman) of Bukhara. They themselves collected the taxes, and the Kara Khitay sent a special envoy to receive the town’s tribute. The local rulers did not issue coins in their own names (we know only of Karakhanid coins in Bukhara during this time), but were otherwise independent.\"§REF§(Davidovich 1997, 146) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) the overall ruler (raja),(2) leaders of regional power bases (terms vary),(3) provincial (visaya) leaders,(4) officials of the settlement (maichiech),(5) village elders (gramavrddha).<br>'At any rate, administrative divisions were standardized. On one widely shared interpretation the designation of many territories as visa where previously there had been praam indicated that formerly autonomous princely fiefs were integrated as provinces. It appears that the former was primarily a geographical term, while the latter came to refer to a specific administrative division, possibly equivalent to a province.' In the thirteenth century, Chou Ta-kuan writes that there were over ninety provinces, each with a fortified citadel. At the level of the locality, there officials whom he called maichiech in the villages, possibly equivalent to me grok, custodians of settlements. Village elders, gramavrddha, are mentioned in the epigraphy, and appear to have had official responsibilities such as delivering criminals, suitably caged, into the custody of royal officials.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.167)§REF§ 'Classic Angkor was the centre of an empire, the huge territory of which was divided into provinces. [...] There are two words for 'province': probably both synonyms. Each of these was in turn divided into villages (souk or drama). At every level there were mandarin bureaucrats (khlon, chiefs) representing the central administration, and who ensured that revenues (rice, goods, corvee labour, and the like) flowed smoothly upwards through the system.' [...] The khlon visa was the provincial chief, overseeing the fiscal officers responsible for tax collections, as well as pretor transactions and the fixing of boundaries. Each village had its headman (khlon souk), in reality a royal agent; the actual representatives of the Cambodian village were the gramavrddha, the village elders, who acted as a link between the local and central administrations.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 141)§REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) the overall ruler (raja),(2) leaders of regional power bases (terms vary),(3) provincial (visaya) leaders,(4) officials of the settlement (maichiech),(5) village elders (gramavrddha).<br>'At any rate, administrative divisions were standardized. On one widely shared interpretation the designation of many territories as visa where previously there had been praam indicated that formerly autonomous princely fiefs were integrated as provinces. It appears that the former was primarily a geographical term, while the latter came to refer to a specific administrative division, possibly equivalent to a province.' In the thirteenth century, Chou Ta-kuan writes that there were over ninety provinces, each with a fortified citadel. At the level of the locality, there officials whom he called maichiech in the villages, possibly equivalent to me grok, custodians of settlements. Village elders, gramavrddha, are mentioned in the epigraphy, and appear to have had official responsibilities such as delivering criminals, suitably caged, into the custody of royal officials.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.167)§REF§ 'Classic Angkor was the centre of an empire, the huge territory of which was divided into provinces. [...] There are two words for 'province': probably both synonyms. Each of these was in turn divided into villages (souk or drama). At every level there were mandarin bureaucrats (khlon, chiefs) representing the central administration, and who ensured that revenues (rice, goods, corvee labour, and the like) flowed smoothly upwards through the system.' [...] The khlon visa was the provincial chief, overseeing the fiscal officers responsible for tax collections, as well as pretor transactions and the fixing of boundaries. Each village had its headman (khlon souk), in reality a royal agent; the actual representatives of the Cambodian village were the gramavrddha, the village elders, who acted as a link between the local and central administrations.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 141)§REF§ 'Seventh-century inscriptions focus on officials called pon, who ob- tained high status by founding temples and controlled trawang, artifi- cial reservoirs. Some pon were chiefs of small villages around ponds, while others had influence over broader areas. The societies of these small pon-doms were highly stratified, with numerous levels: officials entitled pon or mratan occupied the summit, followed by females who had important ritual functions; then dancers, singers, and musicians; craft specialists; and at the bottom, agricultural workers.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 82)§REF§ 'Not until the mid-10th century - at roughly the same time as Pagan apparently began to extend its power in Upper Burma - did the notion of a single Khmer kingdom gain stable expression. Starting with Rajendravarman (r. 944-968), we encounter what Ian Mabbett termed “one of the major discontinuities” of Khmer history, arguably more significant than that represented by Jayavarman’s 802 consecration or the establishment of a long-lived capital at Yasodharapura.11 From the mid-10th through the 11th centuries, the following developments point to a truly novel phase. Local dynasts of ancient principalities were increasingly absorbed into a central apparatus, more officials were dispatched to the provinces, and administrative divisions were to some extent standardized. The core population around Angkor expanded markedly, facilitating the construction of unprecedentedly grand hydraulic projects and religious buildings. Shortly before Pagan expanded from Upper Burma to conquer the coast, the Khmer empire itself expanded from the Mekong and around the Great Lake to in- corporate the Mun and Chi valleys to the north and the rich region around Lopburi to the west. A more shadowy authority extended over the upper peninsula.12 Ecclesiastical foundations spearheaded frontier colonization, particularly west and northwest of Angkor in what is now eastern and central Thailand, where Khmer culture and language exer- cised growing influence.13 As the economy grew more complex, it has been suggested that the number of urban sites in the empire more than doubled.14 By the reign of Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1145/1150), builder of Angkor Wat, the empire was arguably at its height, with varying de- grees of authority over the Chaophraya basin, Champa, and much of what is now northern and southern Thailand and Laos.;(Lieberman 2003, pp. 218-219);" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) the overall ruler (raja),(2) leaders of regional power bases (terms vary),(3) provincial (visaya) leaders,(4) officials of the settlement (maichiech),(5) village elders (gramavrddha).<br>'At any rate, administrative divisions were standardized. On one widely shared interpretation the designation of many territories as visa where previously there had been praam indicated that formerly autonomous princely fiefs were integrated as provinces. It appears that the former was primarily a geographical term, while the latter came to refer to a specific administrative division, possibly equivalent to a province.' In the thirteenth century, Chou Ta-kuan writes that there were over ninety provinces, each with a fortified citadel. At the level of the locality, there officials whom he called maichiech in the villages, possibly equivalent to me grok, custodians of settlements. Village elders, gramavrddha, are mentioned in the epigraphy, and appear to have had official responsibilities such as delivering criminals, suitably caged, into the custody of royal officials.'§REF§(Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.167)§REF§ 'Classic Angkor was the centre of an empire, the huge territory of which was divided into provinces. [...] There are two words for 'province': probably both synonyms. Each of these was in turn divided into villages (souk or drama). At every level there were mandarin bureaucrats (khlon, chiefs) representing the central administration, and who ensured that revenues (rice, goods, corvee labour, and the like) flowed smoothly upwards through the system.' [...] The khlon visa was the provincial chief, overseeing the fiscal officers responsible for tax collections, as well as pretor transactions and the fixing of boundaries. Each village had its headman (khlon souk), in reality a royal agent; the actual representatives of the Cambodian village were the gramavrddha, the village elders, who acted as a link between the local and central administrations.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 141)§REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 8, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": "According to Coe§REF§(Coe 2003, pp. 217-218)§REF§, the Post-Classic administration was organised as follows:<br>1:King (raj/sdach)2::the four great Houses: Abdicated King (upayuvraj) 7 provinces; House of the King 42 provinces; Heir Presumptive (uparaj) 5 provinces; Queen Mother (brah varrajjini) 3 provinces3:::Council of Senapati: Prime Minister (samtach chauva4::::Council of Senapati: v, Superintendent of Palace and Finance (van), Naval Chief (krahlahom); Minister of War and Ground Transport (chakri)5:::::Guardians of the Kingdom (nagar pal), who answers to the Great Judge (yomaraj) and the Masters of Royal Chariots and Elephants, who answer to the Minister of War and Ground Transport (chakri) and the6:::::(equivalent to the level above) Master of Royal Secretaries (akara chinta), Master of Metal Stores (1. kosadhipati; 2. bra ghian adhipati), Master of Textiles, Wardrobe, etc. (1. para nayak), and Masters of Rice Granaries (1. abdimak mantri), who answer to the Superintendent of Palace and Finance (van)7::::::\"okna\", the leader of one of Cambodia's \"five lands\"8:::::::lesser \"okna\" or governors, whose duties were to administer justice, to supervise the collection of taxes and rents, and to watch over the levying of core labour and the military call-up9::::::::an army of civil servants<br>'Post-Classic Cambodia was an absolute monarchy, headed by the king (raj in Sanskrit and Plai, scads in Khmer), whose power in theory had no limit, only the monks being exempt from his authority. On this individual were bestowed numerous titles, such as 'Raised above Heads', 'Supreme Refuge', 'the Master of the Lower Surface', and so on. The king was the supreme landowner, and all the holdings of those who died went to him by escheat; but the real wealth of his royal domain lay among the alluvial margins of the main rivers and their islands, where rice fields were annually fertilized by rich deposits of mud (the some kind of situation on which the economic power of the pharaohs of Egypt and the Olmec rulers of Mexico had depended). Once crowned, the sdach was a sacred being, filled with what anthropologists call mana. Etienne Aymonier tells us: \"Inviolable, he is henceforth the object of a cult pushed to adoration. No one is permitted to address a word to him or lay a hand on his sacred person; only his principal wives, by softly caressing his feet, dare to awaken him on urgent matters. His personal name which is never again pronounced is replaced by an equivalent which had been, according to custom, borrow from the ordinary tongue. He eats alone, surrounded outside by young pages, the sons of mandarins, and inside, by some favourites who serve him and who are in attendance at his meal, while keeping a respectful distance. At his audiences, which he gives seated cross-legged, princes, mandarins, and subjects remain crouching on their knees and elbows, their hands joined at the height of the forehead, which they knock on the ground three times at the beginning and end of the season.\"'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 214)§REF§" } ] }