Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 51, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i>, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles -their number varies from 3 to 10- elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i>, the body of free male citizens. The council of elders, the <i>Gerousia</i>, whose members were chosen among the best <i>Kosmoi</i>, had legislative and juridical authority. The most senior member of the <i>Kosmoi</i> bore the title of \"protokosmos\". §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72.§REF§" }, { "id": 52, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Political, military and religious control in city-states was exercised by the <i>Kosmoi</i> (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the <i>Ecclesia</i> (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. One of them was the president of the board (he was called <i>πρωτόκοσμος, στραταγέτας, κόσμος ο επί πόλεως</i>). The council of elders, the <i>Gerousia</i> (<i>Γερουσία</i>), whose members were chosen among the best <i>Kosmoi</i>, had legislative and juridical authority. The most senior member of the <i>Kosmoi</i> bore the title of <i>protokosmos</i>. <i>Kosmoi</i> were assisted by a secretary, the <i>μνάμων</i> or <i>γραμματεύς των κόσμων</i>. §REF§Willetts, M. A. 1955. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 192-203.§REF§" }, { "id": 53, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " level. Crete was divided into forty districts and it was ruled by an emir who only nominally recognized the Caliph of Baghdad.§REF§Christides, B. <i>The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam</i>, Athens, 114-15.§REF§ These emirs were Abu Hafs descendants and issued their own coins. §REF§Miller, G. C. 1970. <i>The Coinage of the Arab Amirs of Crete</i>, New York.§REF§ The Arabs emirs of Crete were: Abu Hafs Umar I al-Iqritishi (827/828 - ca. 855CE); Shu'ayb I ibn Umar (ca. 855-880CE); Umar II ibn Shu'ayb Babdel (ca. 880-895CE); Muhammad ibn Shu'ayb al-Zarkun (ca. 895-910CE); Yusuf ibn Umar (ca. 910-915 CE) ;Ali ibn Yusuf (ca. 915-925CE); Ahmad ibn Umar (ca. 925-940 CE); Shu'ayb II ibn Ahmad (940-943 CE); Ali ibn Ahmad (943-949CE); and And al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb (949-961 CE)." }, { "id": 54, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Political, military and religious control in city-states was exercised by the Kosmoi (<i>Κόσμοι</i>), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia (<i>Εκκλησία</i>), the body of free male citizens. One of them was the president of the board (he was called <i>πρωτόκοσμος</i>, <i>στραταγέτας</i>, <i>κόσμος ο επί πόλεως</i>). The council of elders, the Gerousia (<i>Γερουσία</i>), whose members were chosen among the best Kosmoi, had legislative and juridical authority. The most senior member of the Kosmoi bore the title of \"protokosmos.\" §REF§Willetts, R. F. 1965. <i>Ancient Crete. A Social History</i>, London and Toronto, 56-75§REF§ §REF§Chaniotis, A. 1897. \"Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 196-99.§REF§ Kosmoi were assisted by a secretary, the <i>μνάμων</i> or <i>γραμματεύς των κόσμων</i>." }, { "id": 55, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " 1-5 The supreme leader of the state was the king, he was called <i>wanax</i>. §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. \"12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 292-95.§REF§ He presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy. It is not certain thought if he had any military and judicial duty. Ranked second was the <i>lawagetas</i>, a military leader. §REF§Nikoloudis, S. 2008. \"The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,\" in Sacconi, A, del Freo, M., Godart, L., and Negri, M. (eds), <i>Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale de Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006</i>, vol. 2, Rome, 587-94.§REF§ Below these leaders were the <i>hequetai,</i> followers, who accompanied military contingents and may also performed other functions. Other officials, the so-called collectors, were involved in acquiring and distributing exchange commodities. Among the figures at a lower level were the <i>qasireu</i> who served as overseer of group of workers -the predecessor of the word known from ancient Greek as the word for the king (baseless) - the <i>telestas</i> , officials, the <i>korete</i> and <i>porokorete</i>, mayor and vice-mayor, and scribes." }, { "id": 56, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 57, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. [1-5] 1: village heads; 2: town heads; 3: district heads; 4: regional governors; 5: central government. As for many other facets of Neopalatial societies, evidence for administration is limited and consists mostly of clay archival documents. §REF§e.g. Hallager, E. 1996. <i>The Minoan Roundel and Other Sealed Documents in the Neopalatial Linear A Administration</i> (<i>Aegaeum</i> 14), Liège§REF§ §REF§Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca§REF§ §REF§Weingarten, J. 2010. \" Minoan seals and sealings,\" in Cline, E.H. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC)</i>, Oxford, 317-28§REF§ We may assume that villages and town were controlled by local leaders whose in their turn were under the administration of high ranking government officials. It seems likely that the control was local and related to small territorial units. Texts deal mostly with agricultural staples (cereal crops, olive oil and olives, wine, figs and some other unidentified goods) and occasionally with dependent work-force, livestock, craft products, wool, and pottery. §REF§Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca, 178-89.§REF§ The cornerstone of political economies was the exploitation of agricultural wealth. Staples were kept in central stores and were used for the needs of a limited number of individuals §REF§Christakis, K. S. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i> (<i>Prehistory Monographs</i> 25), Philadelphia§REF§ §REF§Christakis, K. S. 2011. \"Redistribution and political economies in Bronze Age Crete,\" <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 115, 197-205.§REF§ They sustained elite and dependent craftsmen and laborers, financed state enterprises, and were consumed in large-scale ceremonial events in order to project political and social power and reaffirm social status. Archival data shows that goods were collected thought taxation. Whether they were produced in land owned by the central administration or land that was privately owned cannot be determined. §REF§Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca, 190.§REF§ The preserved documents only record the transactions in which the central administration was directly interested, and thus do not provide a complex picture of all economy and administrative aspects of a given sociopolitical setting. The juxtaposition of archaeological material excavated in sites where archival documents were found with goods recorded in the tables shows that Linear A tablets cover only part of the administrative concerns §REF§c.f. Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca, 191.§REF§ Important craft goods and raw material (ingots, tusk of ivory, steatite ext.) used for the production of precious artifacts whose possession and display were critical to the state's ability to clay legitimacy and stored in the stores of the central administration §REF§e.g. Halbherr, F., E. Stefani, and L. Banti. 1977. “Haghia Triada bel period tardo palaziale,” <i>ASAtene</i> 55, 1-296§REF§ §REF§Watrous, L. V. 1984. “Ayia Triada: A New perspective on the Minoan villa,” <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 88, 123-34§REF§ §REF§Platon, L. 1993. \" Ateliers plateaux minoenes: use nouvelle image,\" <i>BCH</i> 117, 103-22§REF§ were not mentioned in tablets. According to Schoep \"the absence of any reference to such goods in the tablets is surprising and cannot be explained in terms of lack of interest on the part of administration in the production and/or aqcuisition of craft goods, since this is contradicted by the archaeological evidence. The possibility that documents other than tablets were concerned with craft goods must be seriously considered.\" §REF§Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca, 191.§REF§ The variety of sealed documents (single-holes nodules, two-hole hanging nodules, roundels, noduli and flat-based nodules) used for sealing perishables documents highlight the importance of documents written in perishable materials in the Neopalatial administration. Officials surveyed the countryside and brought back information to the central administration. Clay tablets \"were dealing with one kind of obligations, which mainly concerned agricultural commodities, while sealed documents related to other kind of transactions, involving a different, perhaps wider geographical scale and commodities and/or matters of a different administrative status. At the end of the administration cycle the information from the tablets was copied onto documents in perishable materials, to which single-hole hanging nodules may have been attached.\" §REF§Schoep, I. M. 2000. <i>The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and Their Role in the Administrative Process</i> (<i>Minos</i> Supplementary Volume 17), Salamanca, 197.§REF§" }, { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1: village heads; 2: town heads; 3: district heads; 4: central government. As for many other facets of Protopalatial societies, evidence for administration is limited and consists mostly of clay archival documents. §REF§e.g. Weingarten, J. 2010. \" Minoan seals and sealings,\" in Cline, E.H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 317-28§REF§ §REF§Tomas, H. 2010. \" Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A,\" in n Cline, E.H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 341-55§REF§. We may assume that villages and town were controlled by local leaders whose in their turn were under the administration of high ranking government officials. It seems likely that the control was local and related to small territorial units." }, { "id": 59, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " 1-4 The only centre which provided evidence for Linear B administration during the Late Minoan IIIB period is Kydonia (Chania). It is very likely that administration was organized as in the Mycenaean states. The supreme leader of the state was the king (<i>wanax</i>). §REF§Shelmerdine, C. W. and Bennet, J. 2008. \"12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 292-95.§REF§ The reference to a <i>wanax</i> (king) in the inscription painted on the shoulder of some inscribed stirrup jars, produced in the area of west Crete, prompting the speculation for the presence of a \"palatial\" authority. §REF§Andreadaki-Vlazaki, M. and Hallager, E. 2007. \"New and unpublished Linear A and Linear B inscriptions from Khania,\" <i>Proceeding of the Danish Institute at Athens</i> V, 7-22.§REF§ He presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy. It is not certain thought if he had any military and judicial duty. Ranked second was the <i>lawagetas</i>, a military leader. §REF§Nikoloudis, S. 2008. \"The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,\" in Sacconi, A, del Freo, M., Godart, L., and Negri, M. (eds), <i>Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale de Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006</i>, vol. 2, Rome, 587-94.§REF§ Below these leaders were the <i>hequetai</i>, followers, who accompanied military contingents and may also performed other functions. Other officials, the so-called collectors, were involved in acquiring and distributing exchange commodities. Among the figures at a lower level were the <i>qasireu</i> who served as overseer of group of workers -the predecessor of the word known from ancient Greek as the word for the king (baseless) - the <i>telestas</i> , officials, the <i>korete</i> and <i>porokorete</i>, mayor and vice-mayor, and scribes. Administration also occurred in the other major regional centers of the period (e.g. Hagia Triada) and probably followed these established during the Monopalatial period (1450-1300 BCE). Data, however, is rather meagre." }, { "id": 60, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 1: village heads and 2: town heads. It is generally argued that administration and writing were directly connected with the emergence of the first political institutions in 1900 BCE. §REF§e.g. Weingarten, J. 1990. \"Three upheavals in Minoan sealing administration,\" in Palaima, T. (ed.), <i>Aegean Seals and Sealings</i> (<i>Aegaeum</i> 5), Liège, 105-20.§REF§ The direct object sealing from Myrtos Phournou Korifi and the discovery of dealings at Khania (2400-2200 BCE or 2200-2000 BCE), Khamalevri (2200-1900 BCE), Trypiti (2400-2200 BCE or 2200-2000 BCE), Malia (2400-2200 BCE), Psathi (2400-2200 or 2200-1900 BCE) and Mochlos shows that some kind of accounting system existed on Crete since the 2400-2200 BCE period. §REF§Vlasaki, M. and Hallager, E. 1995. \"Evidence for seal-use in pre palatial western Crete,\" in Poursat, J.-C. and Müller, W. (eds), <i>Sceaux Minoenes et Mycéniens: chronology, function et interprétation</i> (<i>CMS</i> 5), Berlin, 251-70§REF§ §REF§Pelon, O. 1993.\"La sale a pillars de Malia,\" <i>BCH</i> 117, 523-46§REF§ §REF§Soles, J. and Davaras, K. 1992. \"Excavation at Mochlos\" <i>Hesperia</i> 61, 413-45.§REF§ Administrative systems, however, were less sophisticated that these adopted in Mainland Greece during the Early Helladic period (2700-2000 BCE). §REF§For Early Helladic administration see Krzyszkowska, O. 2005. <i>Aegean Seals. An Introduction</i>, London, 36-56.§REF§ Administration should be of a relatively low-level and locally relevant nature.§REF§Sbonias, K. \"Social development, management of production, and symbolic representation in Prepalatial Crete,\" in Chaniotis, A. (ed.), <i>From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders. Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete</i>, Stuttgart, 25-51.§REF§" }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " This number equal to the levels in the provincial administration, plus the ali'i nui.<br>1. Ali'i nui\"At the apex of the polity sat the king, the ali'i nui or 'great ali'i,' [...]. The al'i nui ruled over the entire mokupuni [island], assisted by various administrative aides.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>__Central administration__<br>2. Kalaimoku\"The kālaimoku was charged with advising the king on all secular affairs, including war. Among his chief duties was to oversee the royal storehouses 'in which to collect food, fish, tapa [barkcloth], malo [loincloths], pa-u [female skirts], and all sorts of goods' (Malo 1951:195). Only the kālaimoku had the regular privilege of holding secret meetings with the king, and he controlled the access of other al'i to royal audiences.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 50)§REF§<br>2. Kahuna nuiThe kahuna nui \"carried the responsibilities for the king's religious duties and looked after his temples and main gods.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 57)§REF§<br>__Provincial administration__<br>2. Ali'i-'ai-moku\"The districts (moku) into which the kingdom was divided were each under the control of a major chief of high rank, called the ali'i-'ai-moku. The operative term 'ai in this compound term has the core meaning of both 'food' and 'eat' but with metaphoric extensions connoting to 'consume,' 'grasp,' or 'hold onto' (Pukui and Elbert 1986:9). Thus the figurative extension of 'ai includes 'to rule, reign, or enjoy the privileges and exercise the responsibilities of rule.' The term ali'i-'ai-moku might thus be simply translated 'ruler of the moku,' but as in many Hawaiian expressions there are layers of kaona, 'hidden meanings', folded in. He is as well the chief who 'eats' the district (recall the metaphor of the chief as land shark), and literally 'eats from' its productions.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>3. Ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a\"[T]he more numerous ahupua'a territories were apportioned to chiefs who were called the ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a, the chiefs who “ate” the ahupua'a. Low-ranked chiefs might hold just a single, marginal land unit, but more powerful and higher-ranked ali'i frequently held more than one ahupua'a.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 48)§REF§<br>4. Konohiki\"The three tiered hierarchy of land rulers, beginning with the ali'i nui who had the power to reallocate lands to the ali'i-'ai-moku and ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a under him, did not extend down below the level of the largely self-sufficient ahupua'a territories. Rather, the administration of the ahupua'a, including its various ̒ili subdivisions, was put into the hands of a konohiki, a resident “land manager” who acted on behalf of the ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a. Konohiki were, in fact, often lower-ranked members of the al'i class (such as kaukau ali'i), frequently junior collaterals of the ahupua'a chiefs themselves.\" §REF§(Kirch 2010, 49)§REF§" }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Village Headman (TUAI RUMAH)<br>Iban social organization was relatively egalitarian: 'The economic self-sufficiency of the bilik -family is reflected in other areas of Iban social life. Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 159§REF§ Longhouse communities are headed by informal leaders doubling as village functionaries: 'In every Iban long-house there are two offices of great importance--one secular and the other ritual. They are the positions of tuai rumah and tuai burong . In most long-houses they are held by different individuals, but it is perfectly permissible for one man to hold both offices, and in some communities this does happen. Neither position is ever held by a woman. (c.f. Footnote No. 22). When used as an adjective, the word tuai means old, or mature, but as a noun it refers to any senior and influential member of a community. Here, the emphasis is not primarily on age, but on the personal qualities of the individual concerned. Thus, a party of young men setting off on an expedition ( bejalai ), to gather jungle produce, always has its leader, or tuai , though he may be no more than in his early twenties. And in long-house communities, able, though only middle-aged men often come to exert very considerable authority and influence. In all contemporary long-houses however, there is one man who holds the title of tuai rumah , or house headman.' §REF§Freeman, Derek 1955. “Report On The Iban Of Sarawak: Vol. 1: Iban Social Organization”, 46§REF§ Only in the colonial period did rulers superimpose an administrative system of regional chiefs onto the village-based social structure of autonomous longhouse communities: 'Prior to the arrival of the British adventurer, James Brooke, there were no permanent leaders, but the affairs of each house were directed by consultations of family leaders. Men of influence included renowned warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists. Brooke, who became Rajah of Sarawak, and his nephew, Charles Johnson, created political positions -- headman (TUAI RUMAH), regional chief (PENGHULU), paramount chief (TEMENGGONG) -- to restructure Iban society for administrative control, especially for purposes of taxation and the suppression of head-hunting. The creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s have profoundly changed the Iban.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to the Ethnographic Atlas' variable 33 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' was 'No levels (no political authority beyond community) (.0)'. SCCS variable 76 'Community Leadership' is coded as 'Single local leader and council' SCCS variable 237 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' is coded as 'Two levels (e.g., larger chiefdoms)'. SCCS variable 237 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' is coded as 'No levels (no political authority beyond community)'<br>[(4) Brooke Raj Administration;] (3) Paramount Chief (TEMENGGONG); (2) Regional Chief (PENGHULU); (1) Village Headman (TUAI RUMAH)<br>Colonial rulers superimposed an administrative system of regional chiefs onto the village-based social structure of autonomous Iban longhouse communities: 'Prior to the arrival of the British adventurer, James Brooke, there were no permanent leaders, but the affairs of each house were directed by consultations of family leaders. Men of influence included renowned warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists. Brooke, who became Rajah of Sarawak, and his nephew, Charles Johnson, created political positions -- headman (TUAI RUMAH), regional chief (PENGHULU), paramount chief (TEMENGGONG) -- to restructure Iban society for administrative control, especially for purposes of taxation and the suppression of head-hunting. The creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s have profoundly changed the Iban.' §REF§Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ Iban social organization nevertheless remained relatively egalitarian: 'The economic self-sufficiency of the bilik -family is reflected in other areas of Iban social life. Unlike the Kayan, Kenyah, pagan Melanau and several other Bornean peoples, the Iban are not divided into social classes. Nor is there any form of institutionalized leadership based upon hereditary succession, or some other socially divisive principle. Instead Iban society is characterized by a strongly egalitarian ethos. In this respect, each bilik -family jurally constitutes a discrete and autonomous social unit, which manages its own affairs and recognizes no higher authority than that of its own household head.' §REF§Davison, Julian, and Vinson H. Sutlive 1991. “Children Of Nising: Images Of Headhunting And Male Sexuality In Iban Ritual And Oral Literature”, 159§REF§ Longhouse communities are headed by informal leaders doubling as village functionaries: 'In every Iban long-house there are two offices of great importance--one secular and the other ritual. They are the positions of tuai rumah and tuai burong . In most long-houses they are held by different individuals, but it is perfectly permissible for one man to hold both offices, and in some communities this does happen. Neither position is ever held by a woman. (c.f. Footnote No. 22). When used as an adjective, the word tuai means old, or mature, but as a noun it refers to any senior and influential member of a community. Here, the emphasis is not primarily on age, but on the personal qualities of the individual concerned. Thus, a party of young men setting off on an expedition ( bejalai ), to gather jungle produce, always has its leader, or tuai , though he may be no more than in his early twenties. And in long-house communities, able, though only middle-aged men often come to exert very considerable authority and influence. In all contemporary long-houses however, there is one man who holds the title of tuai rumah , or house headman.' §REF§Freeman, Derek 1955. “Report On The Iban Of Sarawak: Vol. 1: Iban Social Organization”, 46§REF§ Some Iban may have joined the civil and military administration early on, but expert feedback is needed on the matter." }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Increasingly hierarchical state administrative structure. By the tenth and eleventh centuries, royal command passed from the monarch through 'expansive networks of individuals with state and local titles of authority'. §REF§(Hall 2000, 55)§REF§<br>1. King<br>\"The capital, where the king abided in his palace, was called nagara, and the palace itself was called kadatwan. The denomination of the capital may, occasionally, be used as a synonym for the whole country. Based on the location where inscriptions issued by authorities of the Kadiri kingdom have been found, the territory of this kingdom can be identified as within the present-day East Java Province.\" §REF§(Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries<br>3. mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours<br>4. Storehouse manager for rice5. Storehouse worker<br>village officials managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Several villages (wisaya)\"It was the first kingdom known in Indonesia to have developed a stratified territorial administration, consisting of three levels: the village (called thani, which itself consisted of several subdivisions, each having its own name); the coordinated unity, made up of several villages (called wisaya); and the state or kingdom (called bhumi).\" §REF§(Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)§REF§<br>3. Village (thani)<br>4. officials at central village level<br>both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§<br>4. Subdivision of village<br>" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>King; upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries; mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours; officials at village level; officials at central village level, both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges. Kinney suggests that this administrative structure was carried through to the Majapahit era.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§<br>1. King.<br>_Central government_<br>2. upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries<br>3. mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours<br>4. Storehouse manager for rice5. Storehouse worker<br>village officials managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Several villages (wisaya) <i>Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom</i>Kediri \"was the first kingdom known in Indonesia to have developed a stratified territorial administration, consisting of three levels: the village (called thani, which itself consisted of several subdivisions, each having its own name); the coordinated unity, made up of several villages (called wisaya); and the state or kingdom (called bhumi).\" §REF§(Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)§REF§<br>3. Village (thani) <i>Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom</i><br>4. officials at central village level <i>Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom</i><br>both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.§REF§(Kinney 2003, 49)§REF§<br>4. Subdivision of village <i>Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom</i><br>" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. 5 levels inferred continuity with previous polity in region.<br>1. King<br>_Central government_<br>2. Top functionaries<br>3.<br>4.<br>5.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2.powerful coastal regions, and administrative structures within these regions§REF§(Schrieke 1957, 190-207)§REF§<br>3.<br>4.<br>Information on the administration of the Mataram Sultanate is very scarce. It seems that the Majapahit structure of the ruler and a few top functionaries with varying influence was retained. There were various different titles for functionaries, but it is unclear whether there was a particular hierarchical structure between them, and moreover the relationship of these functionaries to powerful coastal regions, and the administrative structures within these regions, is far from clear and there was probably much fluidity and development over time.§REF§(Schrieke 1957, 190-207)§REF§ Moertono shows that in later Mataram (possibly after the VOC came to dominate) there was a ligion including rendering justice in disputes under the jurisdiction of Islamic law. Thseparate and more independent department, the reh pangulon, which was responsible for matters of ree institution of the penggulu (head of the clergy in the main mosque in the king's capital) was gradually incorporated into the administrative system as head of a special division. The penggulu had his say about appointing lower penggulu naibs, who each administered the religious affairs of a certain number of villages. These lower officials were not thought of as belonging to the king's administration, for unlike other royal officials they did not receive income from the king.§REF§(Moertono 2009, 84)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Central / urban institutions3. Mint4. Village chiefs<br>\"The Mauryan penetration into certain subregions of the Deccan was based on their interaction with the allready existing kin-based organizations, through its links with the political power of the indigenous chiefs.\"§REF§(Parasher-Sen 2000, 242) Parasher-Sen, Aloka. \"Origins of Settlements, Culture and Civilization in the Deccan\" Gupta, Harsh K. Parasher-Sen, Aloka. Balasubramanian, D. eds. 2000. Deccan Heritage. Indian National Science Academy. Universities Press (India) Limited. Hyderabad.§REF§<br>Kotalingala is 200 km NE of Bellary: \"Two aspects of the pre-Satavahan situation need to be emphasised in the development of the early historical sites in the Central Deccan... One was the particular natural of the economy which rested on the small-scale production of iron-related artefacts. The other was the substantial evidence found from sites like Kotalingala of pre-Satavahana coinage (Krishnasastry, 1983), indicating that there was a mobilization of resources at a local level, which meant that the political elite had the ability to issue their own coins. Though this is most striking in the Central Deccan because these coins are found along with the early coins of the Satavahana\"§REF§(Parasher-Sen 2000, 242) Parasher-Sen, Aloka. \"Origins of Settlements, Culture and Civilization in the Deccan\" Gupta, Harsh K. Parasher-Sen, Aloka. Balasubramanian, D. eds. 2000. Deccan Heritage. Indian National Science Academy. Universities Press (India) Limited. Hyderabad.§REF§<br>Western Deccan: \"The earliest organized state in the region was that of the Satavahanas evolving out of the declining Mauryan power. The presence of the state is suggested by the evidence of political control and the use of an adminsitrative structure. References to units of adiministration and of what appear to be official designations point to a monarchical system. The title of mahamatra is suggestive of the Mauryan designation. The mahabhoja and maharathi as officials may in origin have been associated with high office in the Bhoja and Rathika clans and made the transition to administrative office when the requirements of the state demanded it. The constituents of the seven limbs of the state, the saptanga, are reflected in these and other indications such as the reference to Satavahana armies in action against the ksatrapas, to allies and enemies, to the treasury from the existence of Satavahana coins and revenue collection, to the capital from references to Pratishana and finally to the recognition of territory under Satavahana control.\"§REF§(Thapar 1996, 23) Thapar, Romila. \"Significance of Regional History with reference to the Konkan.\" Kulkarni, A R. Nayeem, M A. de Souza, T R. eds. 1996. Mediaeval Deccan History. Commemoration volume in honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. Bombay.§REF§<br>In Andhra region post-Mauryans: \"This appearance of kingship, currency and writing indicates that the basic infrastructures of a state system, which had been introduced in the Maurayn period, started functioning at the local level and transforming the megalithic/tribal society into proto or early states, basically characterized by centralized administration, stable kingship and social stratification.\"§REF§(Shimada 2012, 118-119) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL.§REF§<br>Post-Mauryans in Krishna valley: \"Amaravati inscription of this period records the existence of a royal scribe (rajalekhaka). This may indicate that record-keeping started to play an integral part in local political administration as well as in commercial activities in this period.\"§REF§(Shimada 2012, 118) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL.§REF§<br>In Andhra region post-Mauryans: \"Along with local kingships, inscriptions of this period mention other socio-political and socio-economic institutions, particularly as nigama and gothi. Although it is not possible to comprehend the precise nature of these institutions in this period of coastal Andhra, textual and epigraphic evidence indicates that a nigama was an imporant economic and social unit larger than a village (gama), and was composed of integrated members of kin groups and occupational or professional groups. A gothi (skt. gosthi), was another important economic and social institution particularly for urban elites. Bhattiprolu inscriptions also show that these urban institutions and local kings were closely connected, as the inscriptions describe the king Kuberaka as the chief (pamukha=skt. pramukha) of a nigama and a gothi. This seems to indicate that the kings in this period of Andhra were not absolute rulers with invincible powers, but were close to chiefdoms or, in Chattopadhyaya's word, 'localities' that derived possibly from the foundations of megalithic chiefs. These 'localities' seem to have consolidated their powers in close association with urban elites that also started appearing in this period.\"§REF§(Shimada 2012, 117) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL.§REF§<br>\"The political and economic development in the post-Mauryan period progressed further under the Sadas, a regional dynasty which ruled the larger part of coastal Andhra for at least a century ... Although the historical evidence on this recently-found dynasty is still meagre, a few epigraphic records indicate the presence of a regular administrative structure indicated by titles such as an irrigation officer (?) (paniyagharika) and a scribe (lekhaka). There is also little doubt that the dynasty maintained royal coinage. Unlike the post-Mauryan coinage, which was basically uninscribed, the Sada coins were consistently inscribed with the ruler's name and kept the same design, a standing lion facing a tree ...\"§REF§(Shimada 2012, 125) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL.§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Village Headmen (Nokma) and Councils;<br>Clans and lineages exercised social control on the village and local levels: ‘In Garo society the most important social group is the clan known as MACHONG. A machong is an exogamous matrilineal descent group wherein a Garo is automatically assigned by birth to the unilineal group of his mother. A CHATCHI (moiety) is divided into many machong. Each married couple chooses one daughter--or, if they have none, they adopt a close relative of the mother--to be heiress (NAKNA DONQIPIKA MECHIK) of the family. Her husband traditionally is selected from the lineage group of the father and is accepted as the NOKROM of the house. He resides with his wife in her parents' house. He has to take on the responsibility of looking after his parents-in-law during their old age, and his wife inherits the property.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ Local authority was exercised by lineage elders: ‘The authority within a lineage is exercised according to age, the older member always being allowed to direct and punish the younger members. The age differences are otherwise symbolized in only one way-the order in which rice beer is served. When beer is first passed out at a gathering, the people should be served in order of formal seniority. A maternal uncle should be served before his nephew, and an older brother before a younger one. Even an older sister may precede a younger brother, though generally men and women do not drink together. [...] In spite of this formal deference, older people do not monopolize positions of power, and an old person cannot exercise authority outside his lineage simply because of his age. One defers to one’s lineage seniors, but not to old people in general.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 177§REF§ Village headmen acted as intermediaries in local disputes: ‘Among the Garos most disputes arise over the issues of property, inheritance, and domestic quarrels within the family. Such problems are to a large extent settled by the MAHARI (lineage) of the offended and the offender. A new situation develops when someone's cattle cause damage to another's crops. Under such situation the NOKMA (village headman) acts as an intermediary only. If he fails to settle the dispute, the matter can go to the civil court of the district council.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ ‘Traditionally, the nokma’s position was connected with the indigeneous customary rites. His temporal and ritual powers in a traditional society were linked with his position. The conversion of a nokma to Christianity automatically led to the loss of his ritualistic role. When the nokma’s were endowed with real temporal power, the resistance was great as Nokmas were non-Christians. But when the Nokma accepted Christianity, nokmaship passed to another person who could act as a nokma in performing rites and rituals. However, the Government still recognized the converted persons as nokmas. This created dislocation in the traditional system, one looking after the customary right and other ritual responsibilities. As the author has tried to show that in the traditional system the two roles cannot be separated, the two roles are enmeshed into each other.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 163§REF§ Nokmas also formally held titles to land: ‘In a Garo village very little difference of status is seen. A particular clan holds right of ownership of the village homestead and shifting cultivation lands, and the title of ownership is inherited by a particular household. The head of the land-owning household is known as the nokma, and the particular area under which he holds ownership right is known as a’king. He also acts as the religious head of the village, and he is to perform the ceremonies for the general well-being of the village. He is called upon to settle disputes between villagers. But in all his decisions he is guided by the elders of the village. He is not entitled to any tribute from the villagers, and he has no special paraphernalia to indicate himself as the nokma. However, in the village a rich man gets respect, because in times of need people have to seek help from him. But in a Garo village it is usually very rare to find an extremely rich man. To a Garo wealth consists of a number of brass gongs called rang and some ornaments made of silver or some such metal. Now-a-days a gun is also regarded as the status symbol of a wealthy man.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 22§REF§ While village headmen were acknowledged later by the British administration, the imposition of appointed officials led to a loss of political power among Nokmas: ‘There was a move for retention of the old institution of nokmaship which could not function with authority since the British administration had appointed the laskars and sardars for the smooth running of their administration from 1824 onwards. The nokmas became only the clan chief and custodian of the clan land a’king. The nokma could not administer effectively as he used to do prior to the British administration in the district. The nokmas were supposed to be well versed with their functions and duties in the villages. The British administration enforced the Rules of Administration of Justice in the Garo Hills both Civil and Police in 1937. These rules have been renewed again and again. They are in use till the present day. The head of the district administration was the Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants and it has never been changed.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 170§REF§ The 'colonial era' data sheet was coded for the British administrative system; accordingly, this datasheet reflects the pre-colonial situation of village autonomy. The potential role of Zamindars remains to be confirmed (see also above)." }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels. According to the Ethnographic Atlas' variable 33 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' there are 'One levels (e.g., petty chiefdoms)' of administrative control-petty chiefs and local leaders. SCCS variable 76 'Community Leadership' is coded as 'Single local leader and council' SCCS variable 237 'Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community' is coded as 'One level (e.g., petty chiefdoms)'. (3) Petty chief, (2) Local leader, (1) Local Councillors.<br>[(3) Executive Officials and Courts associated with District Governance at Tura;] (2) Executive Officials (Laskar, Sordar etc.) associated with village clusters; (1) Village Headmen (Nokma) and Councils;<br>During colonial rule, supralocal executive offices were superimposed onto village- and lineage-based A’chik structures: ‘When the Britishers took over the administration of this district, one witnessed an imposition of hierarchy of new political and administrative units in the district over the traditional democratic village set-up. The British Government, being actuated with the desire to have effective control over the villages and to facilitate the collection of revenues and house tax introduced the office of laskar with limited police, civil and criminal powers. Accordingly there was a laskar over a circle of villages; each having jurisdiction covering ten or twelve of villages. Although, the villagers were left to settle all disputes through the nokma and the village courts, they had right to appeal to the court of laskars against the decisions of the village councils.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 52§REF§ ’In the same way the introduction of offices of sardar, hill mandal and hill mauzadar curtailed the powers and authorities of the nokmas and their village councils. The new offices were created for the effective administration over the Garo with the idea of village self-government under the direct control of Deputy Commissioner at the centre.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 52§REF§ Clans and lineages associated with village clusters nevertheless continued to exercise social control on the local level: ‘In Garo society the most important social group is the clan known as MACHONG. A machong is an exogamous matrilineal descent group wherein a Garo is automatically assigned by birth to the unilineal group of his mother. A CHATCHI (moiety) is divided into many machong. Each married couple chooses one daughter--or, if they have none, they adopt a close relative of the mother--to be heiress (NAKNA DONQIPIKA MECHIK) of the family. Her husband traditionally is selected from the lineage group of the father and is accepted as the NOKROM of the house. He resides with his wife in her parents' house. He has to take on the responsibility of looking after his parents-in-law during their old age, and his wife inherits the property.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ Local authority is exercised by lineage elders: ‘The authority within a lineage is exercised according to age, the older member always being allowed to direct and punish the younger members. The age differences are otherwise symbolized in only one way-the order in which rice beer is served. When beer is first passed out at a gathering, the people should be served in order of formal seniority. A maternal uncle should be served before his nephew, and an older brother before a younger one. Even an older sister may precede a younger brother, though generally men and women do not drink together. [...] In spite of this formal deference, older people do not monopolize positions of power, and an old person cannot exercise authority outside his lineage simply because of his age. One defers to one’s lineage seniors, but not to old people in general.’ §REF§Burling, Robbins 1963. “Rengsanggri: Family And Kinship In A Garo Village”, 177§REF§ Village headmen act as intermediaries in local disputes: ‘Among the Garos most disputes arise over the issues of property, inheritance, and domestic quarrels within the family. Such problems are to a large extent settled by the MAHARI (lineage) of the offended and the offender. A new situation develops when someone's cattle cause damage to another's crops. Under such situation the NOKMA (village headman) acts as an intermediary only. If he fails to settle the dispute, the matter can go to the civil court of the district council.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ ‘Traditionally, the nokma’s position was connected with the indigeneous customary rites. His temporal and ritual powers in a traditional society were linked with his position. The conversion of a nokma to Christianity automatically led to the loss of his ritualistic role. When the nokma’s were endowed with real temporal power, the resistance was great as Nokmas were non-Christians. But when the Nokma accepted Christianity, nokmaship passed to another person who could act as a nokma in performing rites and rituals. However, the Government still recognized the converted persons as nokmas. This created dislocation in the traditional system, one looking after the customary right and other ritual responsibilities. As the author has tried to show that in the traditional system the two roles cannot be separated, the two roles are enmeshed into each other.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 163§REF§ Nokmas also formally hold titles to land: ‘In a Garo village very little difference of status is seen. A particular clan holds right of ownership of the village homestead and shifting cultivation lands, and the title of ownership is inherited by a particular household. The head of the land-owning household is known as the nokma, and the particular area under which he holds ownership right is known as a’king. He also acts as the religious head of the village, and he is to perform the ceremonies for the general well-being of the village. He is called upon to settle disputes between villagers. But in all his decisions he is guided by the elders of the village. He is not entitled to any tribute from the villagers, and he has no special paraphernalia to indicate himself as the nokma. However, in the village a rich man gets respect, because in times of need people have to seek help from him. But in a Garo village it is usually very rare to find an extremely rich man. To a Garo wealth consists of a number of brass gongs called rang and some ornaments made of silver or some such metal. Now-a-days a gun is also regarded as the status symbol of a wealthy man. In recent days they have started to acquire landed property, because in areas where permanent cultivation is practised individual ownership of land has gradually come to be recognized. Among the Chisak and the Matchi, however, a wealthy man can perform a status giving ceremony, called jaksil gana, in which along with a set of religious rites the aspirant is to give a liberal feast to all the villagers, and in return he is entitled to wear an armlet called jaksil, which is considered as a status symbol and the wearer is designated as nokma though he may not have to do anything with an a’king.’ §REF§Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 22§REF§ While village headmen were acknowledged by the British administration, the imposition of the above-mentioned administrative structure led to a loss of political power among Nokmas: ‘There was a move for retention of the old institution of nokmaship which could not function with authority since the British administration had appointed the laskars and sardars for the smooth running of their administration from 1824 onwards. The nokmas became only the clan chief and custodian of the clan land a’king. The nokma could not administer effectively as he used to do prior to the British administration in the district. The nokmas were supposed to be well versed with their functions and duties in the villages. The British administration enforced the Rules of Administration of Justice in the Garo Hills both Civil and Police in 1937. These rules have been renewed again and again. They are in use till the present day. The head of the district administration was the Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants and it has never been changed.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 170§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 405, "name": "in_gahadavala_dyn", "long_name": "Gahadavala Dynasty", "start_year": 1085, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Range estimated from previous and subsequent polities in the region<br>\"Even before the Muslim invasion of India, the Middle Ganga Valley was the arena of the internal migration of Rajput clans in 11th and 12th centuries. The various Rajput clans started migrating eastward from their home territories and on the way exterminated the aboriginals. They dominated in the area under study for a long time which is called the Rajput period.\"§REF§(Ansari 1986, 60) Saiyad Hasan Ansari. 1986. Evolution and Spatial Organization of Clan Settlements: A Case Study of Middle Ganga Valley. Concept Publishing Company. New Delhi.§REF§<br>Under chapter 9 \"The Rajput Administration\" pages 389-403 covering revenue administration, territorial administration, local government, police and judiciary.§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§<br>From an essay on \"The Rajput Administration\". The Gahadavala dynasty are sometimes considered Rajputs or perhaps proto-Rajputs as strictly speaking the Rajputs date from a later time in this location: In the Pratihara empire \"Extensive tracts ... were under feudatories bound to their overlords by ties and terms of service ... The rest of the empire can be grouped under the heads bhuati, mandala, zisaya, pathaka, chuturasitika and dvadesaka, bhukti was the biggest division. Next to it was the mandala. It was sub-divided into visayas; subdividion that we find also in feudatory States like Sakambhari. The pathaka stood next to it. The Varanasi Visaya had a division called Kasiparapathaka. .... it can be further concluded that the pathaka was a union of villages, the number of which could vary.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 398) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§ \"The kotta or durga may be regarded as a representative of the durga constituent of a saptanga rajya. It included not the fort alone but also the territory adjoining it.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 398) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§ \"The smallest administrative unit was of course the village.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 399) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§ \"The defence of the town and its overal supervision fell within the jurisdiction of the Kottapala; but the management of civil affairs was left to a non-official body, the members of which had their turn in the management of the sthana, and were therefore known as varikas. Attached to it must have been a permanent office like the one a Pehoa which kept a record of transactions and agreements ... Its secretary might have been designated Karanika.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 399) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§ An imperial officer, called tantrapala in a Harsa inscription of Vigraharaja II and some others, probably was tasked with \"keeping the feudatories in check, looking after the interests of his master on the borders of his empire, and using diplomacy as well as force, to gain his objective. He was authorised also to make grants and sign important documents on behalf of his master.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 399) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§ \"The head of a visaya might have been known as the vasayapati but we have no idea of the titles used for the heads of the divisions lower than a visaya.\"§REF§(Bakshi, Gajrani and Singh eds 2005, 399) S R Bakshi. S Gajrani. Hari Singh. eds. 2005. Early Aryans to Swaraj. Volume 3: Indian Education and Rajputs. Sarup & Sons. New Delhi.§REF§<br>Bhukti - Mandala - Visayas - Pathaka (union of villages) - Kotta/Durga? - Village<br>" }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": null, "description": " levels. NB: Though many of the following codes are taken from a book about Harsha's empire in the seventh century, the author reconstructed the latter polity's administration based on what is known or inferred about Gupta administration, as well as smritis, contemporary general texts on law, conduct and polity; moreover, Gupta administration was taken as a model for seventh-century governments§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 2, 169-170) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2. Rahasi-niyukta\"In the inscriptions of the Gupta period we meet an officer called the rahasi-niyukta. [...] The kings gave oral orders which were taken down by rahasi-niyuktas or private secretaries, who passed them on for recording and execution to the appropriate departments.\"§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 176-177) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>2. Sarv-adhyaksha\"There appears to have been a general superintendent of the offices who with his various assistants carried out multiple liaison tasks. He maintained rapport among various departments, between the King and the departments, between the centre and the directly administered provinces, and between the centre and the various close and distant members of the mandala. South-Indian inscriptions mention an officer by the title of sarv-adhyaksha, over-all supervisor, whose duty was to convey orders of the central government to the provincial and district officers through 'carriers of royal commands'.\"§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 171) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>2. Central council of ministers\"While most members of the central ministry may also have been heads of departments such as army, revenue, public welfare, etc., some, esteemed for their experience, learning, or wisdom, may have acted only as mantrins or counsellors.\"§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 173) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>2. DauvanikaSuperintendent of pratiharas§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 177) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§.<br>3. Assistants to the sarv-adhyaksha\"There appears to have been a general superintendent of the offices who with his various assistants carried out multiple liaison tasks.\"§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 171) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>3. Sandhi-vigrahikasAssistants to the heads of departments§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 174) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§.<br>3. Maha-pratiharasHigh-ranking pratiharas. Officers of high status§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 177) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§.<br>4. PratiharasLesser pratiharas. Officers of high status§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 177) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§.<br>5. Scribes?\"The kings gave oral orders which were taken down by rahasi-niyuktas or private secretaries, who passed them on for recording and execution to the appropriate departments. [...] although we do not come across the designation in contemporary records, the familiar Gupta office associated with such tasks is very likely to have existed in Harsha's time as well.\"§REF§(Devahuti 1970: 176-177) Deva Devahuti. 1970. Harsha: A Political Study. Oxford: Clarendon Press.§REF§<br>__Provincial government__<br>3. UparikaRoyal officers in charge of core area§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 83, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§<br>3. Border kings\"These border kings paid tribute and were obliged to attend Samudragupta's court. In contrast with medieval European vassals they were obviously not obliged to join Samudragupta's army in a war. Thus they were not real vassals but, at the most tributary princes. In subsequent centuries these tributary neighbours were called Samantas and rose to high positions at the imperial court thus coming closer to the ideal type of a feudal vassal.\"§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 83-84) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§<br>4. VishayapatisOfficers in charge of smaller territorial subdivisions§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§.<br>5. Ayuktakas\"Bigger cities had Ayuktakas at their head who were appointed by the governor.\"§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§<br>6. Pustapala, nagarashreshthin, kulika<br>\"These Ayuktas were assisted by town clerks (pustapala). The head of the city guilds (nagarashreshthin) and the heads of families of artisans (kulika) advised the Ayuktaka§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§.<br>7. GramikaVillage headman§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§.<br>8. Scribes and heads of peasant families§REF§(Kulke & Rothermund 1998, 89) Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. 1998. A History of India. London: Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King - the overall ruler §REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 136-7§REF§, who concentrated in his hands the executive, legislative and judicial functions of the state§REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 123§REF§.<br>_Central government or court?_<br>2. Sandhivigrahi (foreign minister)The king was assisted in administration by his ministers: <i>Sandhivigrahi</i> was the foreign minister, <i>Sarvadhikari</i> was an official with powers to supervise all departments, <i>Bahataaraniyogadhipati</i> was an official who headed 72 departments, <i>Mahabhandari</i> was the senior treasurer, and <i>Dharmadhikari</i> was the minister of justice. <i>Paramavishvasi</i> or personal secretary of the king and <i>Mahapasayita</i> or chief master of the robes were other senior officials. At times, these officials held their office hereditarily. The ministers also held military office§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 137§REF§<br>2. Sarvadhikari (supervised all departments)<br>2. Mahabhandari (senior treasurer)<br>2. Dharmadhikari (minister of justice)<br>2. Paramavishvasi (personal secretary of king)<br>2. Mahapasayita (chief master of the robes)<br>2. Bahataaraniyogadhipati (headed 72 departments)3. Department head <i>inferred</i>4.<br>5.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Governors - heads of provinces.The administration of the provinces was just the replica of the central administration. The governors charged both civil and military functions. They were made responsible not only for the peace, tranquility, law and order, but also for efficient administration§REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 124§REF§.<br>3. Dandanayaka - heads of a nadu.it has been argued that the nadu was looked after by a dandanayaka (who was an army commander), assisted by other officials - a mahapradhana, a bhandari (treasurer), a senabova (clerk) and several junior officials called heggades§REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 137-8§REF§<br>4. mahapradhana<br>4. bhandari (treasurer)<br>5. senabova (clerk)<br>4. Heggades - junior officials who perhaps looked after the smaller units of a nadu §REF§Suryanath U. Kamath, A concise history of Karnataka (1980), p. 138§REF§§REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 72§REF§." }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administration 'stereotyped' after c500 CE.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 137) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"The data from the latter half of the 7th century to the 11th century show that there could be some variations in the number, size and sphere of administrative departments, but there was no change of first-rate importance, or organic evolution in the period.\"§REF§(Mishra 1977, 137-138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"Our sources refer to mahamatya, maha-mantri, amatya, mantri and saciva. The first two designations stood for the chief minister; the last three terms were generally used as synonyms; but sometimes they denoted different categories of ministers.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 139) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"In the Kuvalayamala we are told that the cabinet of king Drdhavarman of Ayodhya consisted of eight members ... However, the strength of the ministry largely depended on the size of the state.\"§REF§(Mishra 1977, 139-140) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ Government ministers were not specialised in role and could hold more than one office.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 140-141) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"Big kingdoms were generally split into provinces where either a prince or some other important official was appointed.\"§REF§(Mishra 1977, 142) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ Districts (visayas) governed by visayapatis.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ Elders (nagaramahanta) lead the administration of a city.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"Bharuci explains samvida as the samiti of villagers whose functions included the protection of tanks and pasture-grounds, and renovation of temples. He adds that the king could exile from his kingdom that member of the samvida who resorted to transgression. Udyotana makes mention of the village elders (grama-mahattara) and their chief (jyestha-mahamahattara)\".§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ \"In the Deo-Barnark inscription we get a reference to 'talavataka' which has been translated by Bhagwan Lal Indraji as 'village accountant'. But this interpretation is doubtful.\"§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>1. King<br>_Central government_<br>2. Chief Minister§REF§(Mishra 1977, 139) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§3. Government ministers.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§4. Lesser officials.§REF§(Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br> ?. Mahapratihara (chief of the door-keepers).§REF§(Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ ?. Pratiharas / Pratiharis (male/female door-keepers).§REF§(Mishra 1977, 138) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Official or Prince of a province§REF§(Mishra 1977, 142) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>3. Visayapatis of a district§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>_Municipal government_<br> ?. Elders (nagaramahanta)§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ ?. City police§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§? City-guards§REF§(Mishra 1977, 143) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>_Village government_<br> ?. Village chief (jyestha-mahamahattara)§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§ ?. Village elder (grama-mahattara)§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br> ?. Samvida§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br> ?. talavataka§REF§(Mishra 1977, 144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"Although the family books [early Vedic texts] reflect differences in rank and some inequalities in wealth, these do not add up to distinct socio-economic classes in the sense of significant differences in access and control over basic productive resources. However, the absence of a class hierarchy does not mean that Rig Vedic society was egalitarian... the rajan stood at the top of the ladder of political and social power and status, the dasi [slaves] stood at the very bottom.\"§REF§Singh, U. (2008) A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley: Delhi. p191§REF§ Territorial states did emerge towards the end of this period, c.600 BCE, based on Later Vedic texts and other sources.§REF§Singh, U. (2008) A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley: Delhi. p200§REF§<br>1. Clan Chief or <i>rajan</i> (or king after c.600 BCE) - \"The word <i>rajan</i> (or <i>raja</i>) occurs many times in the family books of the <i>Rig Veda</i>. Since a full-fledged monarchical state had not yet emerged, this word is best translated as 'chieftain' or 'noble', rather than as 'king'. It is not always clear from the hymns whether the <i>rajan</i> was the chief of a tribe, clan, clan segment or several clans.\" §REF§Singh, U. 2008. A History of Early and Medieval India. London: Pearson Longman. p187§REF§2. Community or <i>jana</i> (made of many clans)§REF§Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.73.§REF§3. Clan (a group of villages)§REF§Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.73.§REF§4. Village headman (<i>gramani</i>)§REF§Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.73.§REF§ Below the village headman was the patriarch of the family (<i>kula</i>). §REF§Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.73.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King<br>\"all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy.\"§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://uhami.com/maurya_empire30802.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://uhami.com/maurya_empire30802.htm</a>§REF§<br>\"The existence of an elaborate network of royal spies bolstered the autocratic nature of Mauryan government.\"§REF§(McClellan III and Dorn 2015, 164) McClellan III, James E. Dorn, Harold. 2015. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. mantrin or Mahamatra (Great Councilor) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 216) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§Amatyas, Sachivas etc. were top officers and public servants.§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§ Are these titles for jobs or terms for a collective?<br>2. purohita (Chief Priest) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 216) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>2. sannidhatr or samnidhartru (Treasurer) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 216) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§3? Samaharti (chief collector of the revenue)§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§<br>3. Superintendent of Tolls§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II</a>§REF§Kautilya in the Arthashastra: \"Superintendent of Tolls shall erect near the large gate of the city both the toll-house and its flag facing either the north or the south. When merchants with their merchandise arrive at the toll-gate, four or five collectors shall take down who the merchants are, whence they come, what amount of merchandise they have brought and where for the first time the sealmark (abhijnánamudrá) has been made (on the merchandise).\"§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II</a>§REF§<br>4. Collector of Tolls<br>2. sandhivigrahika (Minister for Military Affairs) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 216) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§3. Superintendents of the Military Administration (e.g. Superintendent for Armories)\"The military system was controlled by high-ranking civilian superintendents who oversaw the operation of state armories where all military equipment and weapons were manufactured, as well as supply depots, cavalry, elephants, chariot corps, and infantry, including provisions, training, and general combat readiness.\"§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 217) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>4. Manager of one of the state armories (or Stables, Supply Depot etc.)5. Artisan in state armory<br>2. senapata (Chief General) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 216) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§<br>2. mahaksapatalika (Chief Secretary) in the Mantriparisad§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 217) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§3. Superintendent of a department§REF§(Gabriel 2002, 217) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group.§REF§ / Adhyakshah (large number of individual department heads)§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ including State Goldsmith, Itthijhakkamahatas (minister of women’s welfare)§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ and Dhamma-mahamatas (ministers in charge of spreading dhamma)§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§4. Goldsmith of the Mint§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II</a>§REF§5. ArtisanKautilya in the Arthashastra wrote: \"The State Goldsmith shall employ artisans to manufacture gold and silver coins (rúpyasuvarna) from the bullion of citizens and country people.\"§REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arthashastra/Book_II</a>§REF§<br><br>_Provincial government_<br>3. Viceroy or Kumaras of four large regions or provinces§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§\"The central administrative structure was generally replicated in the regions or provinces governed by viceroys. These were subdivided into divisions and districts.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>4. Council of Ministers5. Top officers and public servants<br>4. Divisions of regions / provinces§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>5. District officer Pradeshtri or Sthanika§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§6. Technical or clerical officials (Yuktas)§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>6. Sthaniya (800 villages) - sub-district official§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ - refers to fortress/forts (Arthasastra)<br>6. Dronamukhaa (400 villages) - sub-district official§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ - refers to fortress/forts (Arthasastra)<br>6. Karvatika (200 villages) - sub-district official§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ - refers to fortress/forts (Arthasastra)<br>6. Sthaniya (10 villages) - sub-district official§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§ - refers to fortress/forts (Arthasastra)<br>6. Village government under Gopa§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§Gramika (village headman), Grama-vriddhas (village elders)§REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, pp. 345-348§REF§<br>7.\"Village government\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>Loyalty and efficiency was achieved through \"an elaborate system of internal spying and inspection, the hard work and vigilance of the emperor and his cohorts, and thirdly through a skeletal monetary economy was cash payments.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>_Notes_<br>\"more recent scholarship has emphasized the discontinous geography of the empire and the internal variability in its administration ... In particular, Mauryan territories in the Deccan and south India appear to have been quite limited, restricted to areas near important mineral resources, especially gold sources along the Tungabhadra River and in the Kolar region of south India. Asokan inscriptions are rare in the western and eastern Deccan areas where the Satavahana polity emerged (... though Satavahana and Mauryan inscriptions co-occur at Sanchi, Amaravati, and Sannathi). Other than Asokan inscriptions and some rare trade wares, these areas contain little direct evidence of the Mauryan presence, and no evidence of the form that presence may have taken. ... claims for its universal status and highly centralized political structure appear to have been overstated.\"§REF§(Alcock 2001, 159) Alcock, Susan E. 2001. Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>\"We have a very detailed account of the structure and functions of Mauryan imperial bureaucracy in both Kautilya's Arthasastra and from the inscriptions of emperor Asoka. ... Arthasastra's first six \"books\" form probably the most detailed manual of monarchical administration in the ancient or medieval world, though more scholarly attention has been devoted to the last nine books, on war, diplomacy and international relations.\" §REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 78) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>The Mauryan empire was not a homogeneous whole. It was made up of three concentric areas. The administration consisted of a metropolitan centre, core territories undergoing state formation, and peripheral areas with a number of pre-state societies. It is therefore the case that the administrative levels and level of delegation most likely varied greatly, but in all cases was essentially exploitative. §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century. Pearson Education India, 2008. p. 341§REF§<br>Kautilya's Arthasastra and the Asoka inscriptions agree on \"about two or three top levels in central administration; a minister or ministers called Mantrin (Kautilya) or Mahamatra (Asoka); a council of ministers at the next level (Mantri parishad), and many top officers and public servants variously called Amatyas or Sachivas, in a clear hierarchy. These three levels were retained with slightly changed names in the later Gupta Empire in the fifth century A.D. and under Harsha in the seventh century. The general of the army was also a Mantri of equal status, as were the viceroys or Kumaras of the four large regions or provinces of the Mauryan Empire. ... The central administrative structure was generally replicated in the regions or provinces governed by viceroys. These were subdivided into divisions and districts. The district has continued to be the nerve center of field administration today. The district officer then called Pradeshtri or Sthanika seems to have been much the same as his present day counterpart. He combined revenue collecting and magisterial duties and supervised the work of other technical or clerical officials (Yuktas) as well as village government under the Gopa.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>_Notes for other polity sheets_<br>\"This bureaucratic system founded by Kautilya, Chandragupta, and Asoka was adopted by the successor empires of the Guptas, and Harsha with minor changes of name and substance.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>\"The Guptas in the North and the Cholas in the South made a sophisticated system of village self-government an integral part of the administrative system. But the overall structures of central and provincial administration were essentially modifications of the Arthasastra-Asoka model.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 80-81) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>\"Successive generations of scholars writing on statecraft replicated his ideas in a redefined adaptive manner keeping alive the same ideas of proper administration. Secondly, the general imperial administrative structure of Kautilya was adaptable for smaller empires after the 7th century, of the Vakatakas, Pratiharas, and Palas and they were also borrowed by the Mughal Empire later. But they could not be sustained in their fullness in a gemeinshaft society, without the total commitment of the intellectual elite.\"§REF§(Subramaniam 2001, 84) Subramaniam, V. in Farazmand, Ali. ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 76, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "Delhi Sultanate which \"had a powerful impact on small states and principalities that were formed after its disintegration as well as on the Mughal administration that would come into existence in the sixteenth century.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br><i>needs more work on central government</i><br>1. Emperor<br>Furthermore, the Zamindars belonged to the nobility and formed the ruling class. §REF§Barbara Daly Metcalf, Joint Committee on South Asia Moral conduct and authority: the place of adab in South Asian Islam, pp 269§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>2. WakilHighest administrative officer<br>3. Departments? <i>inferred</i>4.5.<br>_Provincial government_<br>3. Subahdar of several SarkarsA group of one or more villages constitutes a paragana, a few paragana a sarkar, and several sarkar's (or 'shiqqs') a subahdar. A wakil was the highest administrative officer.§REF§Farīd Bhakkari, Shaikh Farid Bhakkari, Ziyaud-Din A. Desai, A Biographical Dictionary of Mughal Noblemen, (1993) p 107§REF§<br>4. Sarkar of a few Paragana<br>5. Paragana of one or more villages<br>6. Muqqaddam (Village headman)Also of note are the Muqaddam and Patwari. The village head was a muqaddam - the sole link between government and village. Although not a government servant, he was responsible for maintaining law and order. Similarly a patwari, a record keeper, was not employed by the state but by the village community.§REF§Mughal Administration: Central, Provincial, and Local, p.22 <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://el.trc.gov.om/htmlroot/K12/tcolon/grade7/Social%20Studies/History/Creation%20of%20Empire%20The%20Mughal%20Empire/Notes/Mughal%20Administration.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">Link</a>§REF§ -- not a paid official but still took orders i.e. maintain law and order<br>7. Patwari (record keeper)<br>7. Employed by muqaddam to help maintain law and order <i>inferred</i><br>" }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Note: \"the Satavahana state was very loosely organized, with the local administration, even the maintenance of the royal army, being largely left to their feudatories, who even struck their own coins. This loose state organization was necessitated by the limited economic resources of the kingdom; the soil of their land being poor, the Satavahanas could not afford to maintain a large standing army or an elaborate administrative organization.\"§REF§(Eraly 2011, 56) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Viking. Penguin Books India Pvt, Ltd.§REF§<br>The rough hierarchy may have been as follows:<br>1. Emperor §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 25§REF§<br>_Court_<br>2. Royal officialsIncluding, among others, the king's attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> or army commander, the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering the king's documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 25§REF§§REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), pp. 32-33§REF§<br>3.4.<br>_Provincial Government_<br>2. <i>Mahabhojas</i> and <i>maharathis</i>Feudal lords who were blood relatives of the royal family §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 25§REF§.<br>2. <i>Rajas</i> Other feudal lords (specifically rajas, who struck coins in their own name, and mahasenapatis, military governors posted at outlying centres)Feudal lords who struck coins in their own name §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 25§REF§.<br>2. <i>Mahasenapatis</i>Army commanders were sometimes put in charge of governing outlying centres §REF§S. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 25§REF§.<br>3. Local administrators<i>Bhojakas</i>, <i>uparikas</i>, <i>gaulmikas</i>, <i>patipalakas</i> §REF§R. Thapar (?), South Asia from 200 BC to AD 300, in E. Condurachi, J. Hermann, E. Zurcher (eds), History of Humanity from the 7th Century BC to the 7th Century AD (1996), p. 381§REF§.<br>4. <i>Gramanis</i>Village officials in charge of five, sometimes ten villages §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 33§REF§.<br>5. Village assemblies §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 33§REF§.<br>NOTE: Sources are often unclear and describe the hierarchy in slightly different ways.<br>" }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "Longest chain was provincial government, probably in Iraq: 1. Caliph - 2. Governor - 3. kura (name of level) - 4. tassuj (name of level) - 5. rustaj (name of level) - 6. Village headman<br>1. Caliph<br>In Baghdad<br>_ Central government line _<br>2. wazir in BaghdadPresided over The Three Bureaus (Diwans)<br>3. diwan-al-rasa'il (Chancery)<br>Three types of services were departmentalized. These were called Diwans in Arabic. These departments were divided into three main areas of responsibility: the Chancery (diwan-al-rasa’il), the department responsible for tax collection (diwan al-kharif), and the department overseeing the army (diwan al-jaysh).<br>3. diwan al-kharif (tax collection)<br>4. Sub-heads within diwan al-kharifLapidus comments on the elaborate subdivisions within each department throughout the period, beyond what the simple three tiers implies. §REF§Lapidus, Ira A., History of Islamic Society, pp.58-59§REF§<br>5. Scribes<br>6. Tax collectors<br>3. diwan al-jaysh (army administration)<br>3. PensionsCourt expenses and pensions were handled by separate administrations.<br>3. Court expensesCourt expenses and pensions were handled by separate administrations.<br>2. BaridPostal and information service. Also used to inspect/spy on governors and local administrations.<br>3.<br>4.<br>_ Provincial line _<br>Direct control took place in territories closest to the imperial centre. Iraq, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, Western Iran and Khuzistan were governed directly. Other areas were largely autonomous. In some territories military governors were appointed while in others local elites paid tribute and maintained autonomy. These tributes would have been paid to one of the departments associated above. §REF§Lapidus, , History of Islamic Society, p.61§REF§ Beginning in 945 CE, the Caliphate lost substantial powers of authority and was reduced in its ability to control outlying territory. §REF§Lapidus, History of Islamic Society, p. 60§REF§<br>2. Governor of governors (839 CE-)al-Mu'tasim appointed Ashnas overal governor of the vast region of al-Jazirah, Syria, and Egypt (in practice, gubernatorial powers in these provinces were exercised by deputies while Ashnas himself remained in Iraq).§REF§p.178 Bosworth, C.E. trans. 1991. The History of al-Tarabi. Volume XXXIII. Storm and Stress along the Northern Frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate. State University of New York Press. Albany.§REF§<br>3. Governor4. Deputy Governor<br>4. Ruler of a district5. Kura (Iraq and Egypt) <i>chain of command or spatial division?</i>6. Tassuj (Iraq and Egypt) <i>chain of command or spatial division?</i>7. Rustaq (Iraq and Egypt) <i>chain of command or spatial division?</i>8. Village headmenra'is in Iran, shaykh al-balad in Egypt<br>4. Saheb al-sorta (city)5. Amir al-suq (city)<br>2. Governor (centrally governed provinces) §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 97§REF§Iraq, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, western Iran, Khuzistan. Officials on short term contracts, and rotated. Role often split between two officials: military commander and finance official. A third official was head of judiciary. All were inspected by the barid (information service).<br>Egypt had a governor §REF§(Raymond 2000, 24)§REF§<br>\"Under the caliphate ... provincial governments incorporating cities and towns were gradually established in Persia; the governors were nominated by the caliph.\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>3. Deputy GovernorDeputy governors existed, e.g. in Tabaristan.§REF§p.130 Bosworth, C E. trans. The History of al-Tabari. Volume XXXII. The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate. State University of New York Press.§REF§<br>3. Ruler of a district\"In every district of your governorship, you should appoint a trusted observer [amin] who will keep you informed of the activities of your local officials and will write to you regularly about their way of life and doings, in such a way that you will be, as it were, an eyewitness of every official's complete activities within his sphere of responsibility.\" Bosworth notes of 'amin': \"Here obviously the equivalent of the sahib al-barid, postmaster and intelligence officer, of the Abbasid caliphate and of the later mushrif al-mamlakah of eastern Iranian states\". §REF§p.123 Bosworth, C E. trans. The History of al-Tabari. Volume XXXII. The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate. State University of New York Press.§REF§<br>3. Saheb al-sorta in major cities.\"In each major city there was an official known as ṣāḥeb al-šorṭa, who was in charge of public order; his subordinate, the amīr al-sūq, regulated the bāzār (cf. Spuler, Iran, pp. 315-32).\"§REF§(Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a>§REF§<br>4. Amir al-suq<br>3. kuraLocal government: divided into a hierarchy of districts in Iraq and Egypt. These subdivisions were for assessing taxation. In Iraq settlements were divided into three categories: the Kura, the Tassuj, and the rustaq. In other areas the system varied. These payments would have passed to the provincial authorities.§REF§Lapidus, History of Islamic Society, p.61§REF§<br>Hierarchy of districts - kura; tassuj and rustaj - in Iraq, parts of Khurasan and western Iran. Similar hierarchy used for Egypt. Crown lands and some iqta's were not included in governed area.§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 99§REF§<br>3. or 4. tassuj<br>3. or 5. rustaj<br>this was the lowest unit. A market and administrative town surrounded by a number of villages.<br>4. or 6. Village headman§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 100§REF§ra'is in Iran, shaykh al-balad in Egypt<br>_Affiliated provinces_<br>2. Sometimes local dynastic rulers became \"governors of the caliphs.\" Khurasan was directly appointed until 820 CE after which it was controlled by the Tahirids (820-873 CE). Autonomous, government that was not inspected. Same true for Transoxania under the Samanids. Caliph al-Ma'mun (813-833 CE) named Samanids hereditary governors of Samarqand, Farghana, and Herat.<br>2. Affiliated provinces (provinces that were not-centrally governed) §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 98-99§REF§Caspian highlands (Jilan, Tabaristan, Daylam, Jurjan), Inner Asian provinces (Transoxania, Farghana, Ushrusana, Kabul), most of North Africa.<br>2. Often supervising military governor appointed, whilst the garrison received the taxes and tribute.<br>3. Actual collection of taxes done by local administration.<br>4. ... ? ..." }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Based on data for preceding polities of the Perso-Islamic type at least 5 levels.<br>1. Caliph<br><br>_Central government_<br>Totalitarian<br>The reign of al-Nasir \"was unprecedentedly totalitarian ... the caliph's spies were so efficient and the caliph himself so ruthless that a man hardly dared to speak to his own wife in the privacy of his home.\"§REF§(Bray 2015, xxi) Toorawa, Shawkat M ed. 2015. Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad. NYU Press.§REF§<br>Mercenary<br>Recruited mercenaries \"from across ethnic and tribal communities that they hoped would be more loyal. Among people they recruited were Turks ... The Abbasid plan backfired, however, and eventually their hired guns took over running the affairs of the state.\"§REF§(Volk 2015) Volk, Lucia ed. 2015. The Middle East in the World: An Introduction. Routledge.§REF§<br>Perso-Islamic<br>\"traditional Perso-Islamic administrative apparatus developed in late Abbasid times\".§REF§(Shaw 1976, 5) Shaw, Stanford J. 1976. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>2. Vizier<br>3. ???<br>4. ???<br>5. ???<br>_Provincial government_<br>2.<br>3. ???<br>4. ???<br>5. ???<br>" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Petty state king/ later Babylonian king, (2) city-king/ later district governor, (3) arbianum (head mayor), (4) chairman of assembly, (5) shibutum (elders), (6) puhrum (assembly)<br>In the first part of the Old Babylonian period, the petty kings were of fluctuating, but reasonably equal standing. After Babylon conquered Mesopotamia, the Babylonian king became superior to all other kings and district governors came into being.<br>The Head Mayor and Chairman of the Assembly were positions elected by the Assembly. It is likely that the council of Elders were members of the Assembly from the most important houses, or most prominent positions, they were certainly superior. It is probable that any freeman or citizen could be part of the Assembly. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.68§REF§§REF§Seri, A. 2005. Local Power in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. London: Equinox.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": " levels. (1) king, (2) governor (<i> saknu </i>) - Babylon was split into 20 provinces in this period, each with a governor. Some were city provinces, others were a tribal group lands with the title 'House of____(ancestor)'. The governor of Nippur was uniquely called <i> sandabakku </i> (3) functionaries - a heirarchy of functionaries served under the governors. Due to the changing population (hill tribes, foreigners, newly dependant farmers, self-ruling family states) the administration of the empire was an increasing challenge. §REF§Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370§REF§" }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. (1) King (2) Sanga/Shagun (3) Senior Temple Administrative Staff (4) Subordinate Temple Administrative Staff (5) Servants and slaves.<br>\"Rather than governors appointed by the kingdom, temples acted as the real centres of local resources and activities. Indeed, temples could rely on their millenary tradition, administrative structure, prestige, and ability to motivate the population. They therefore required and obtained from the kings (probably the weakest ones) a certain degree of autonomy and various exemptions from tributes and obligations (defined with the terms kidinnu in Kassite and zakûtu in Akkadian). They also had a certain degree of self-government for the administration of justice and of the cities’ internal affairs.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§<br>At the head of the temple hierarchy \"was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. [...] The administrative staff included managers, overseers, surveyors, foremen, scribes and archivists, servants and slaves.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. (1) King (2) Sanga/Shagun (3) Senior Temple Administrative Staff (4) Subordinate Temple Administrative Staff (5) Servants and slaves.<br>\"Rather than governors appointed by the kingdom, temples acted as the real centres of local resources and activities. Indeed, temples could rely on their millenary tradition, administrative structure, prestige, and ability to motivate the population. They therefore required and obtained from the kings (probably the weakest ones) a certain degree of autonomy and various exemptions from tributes and obligations (defined with the terms kidinnu in Kassite and zakûtu in Akkadian). They also had a certain degree of self-government for the administration of justice and of the cities’ internal affairs.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§<br>At the head of the temple hierarchy \"was the sanga / shangum (chief priest), whose role was as much administrative as religious. [...] The administrative staff included managers, overseers, surveyors, foremen, scribes and archivists, servants and slaves.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. At least three: (1) King, (2) Governors, (3) Functionaries.<br>\"Within the land of Sumer and Akkad, the administration of the dynasty of Isin continued along the same lines as in the Kassite period. We know of around twenty provinces ruled by a governor (šakin ma¯ti, then šakin te¯mi). Some of these provinces were named after their main city (Nippur, Isin, Dur-Kurigalzu, and so on). There were also other territorial entities and tribal ‘houses’ (defined with the term Bït plus the name of the ancestor). The ‘urban’ provinces were mainly in the north (in the former land of Akkad), and less in the south, where Ur seems to have been the most vital city. ‘Tribal’ provinces were mainly located in the area east of the Tigris. It is possible that, within the land, the traditional duties of the ‘governors’ were taking care of irrigation systems and temple architecture. In the provinces along the borders, these tasks were more military and governors had a more personal, rather than administrative, relationship with the king.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 462-463) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels. Copied from IqUrIII.<br>1. Ruler<br>_Palatial government_<br>2.3.4.<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Provincial/regional governors - <i>sukkalmah</i>3.4.<br>3. town mayors - <i>ensi</i>4. village heads - <i>hazannum</i>.§REF§Roux 1998, 149§REF§<br>\"The temple authorities, while still of great importance, now gave way politically to the king, who had full control of the state’s administration, as is vividly shown in anumber of surviving archives.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 84) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.The researchers assumed that the more complex level of social and administrative organization must have existed in the Ubaid. The differences in size and form of houses in the villages as well as their equipment, use of various type of stamp seals and erecting monumental temples suggest the higher level of social organization and system of social and political control and appearance of elite group, probably related at least partially to ceremonial structures and controlling the surplus of food. However, there is almost completely lack of any prestige or luxury or exotic goods which will support the hypothesis of social stratification among the Ubaid community. §REF§Stein 2010, Sieverstsen 2010, 201-203§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 8, "comment": null, "description": "<br>1. King of Kings<br>Hereditary kings who ruled from a royal court within a feudal Iranian milieu. Darius I was a slight exception as he was an Achaemenid who was elected by members of the Persian elite.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[6]</a>)§REF§<br>Dual kingship (father and son) possibly existed from Darius I to Artaxerxes II.<br>King of kings. \"However, unlike previous Near Eastern dynasties, they did not claim divine descent or nature.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>King ruled law by decree but 'bound by tradition to respect the views of elders and consult great nobles on important occasions; he had to marry from the great noble's families; he could not pass arbitrary judgement; and there was alway sthe fear of assassination if he went too far in autocracy.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>_Central government line_<br>Designed according to a Babylonian template.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[7]</a>)§REF§ Presumably via Elamties? Persians 'learned a good deal of Elamite culture, especially in administration and arts.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 122) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>2. Head of administration§REF§(Brosius 2006, 51) Brosius, Maria. 2006. The Persians. Routledge.§REF§ Steward of the House\"during Darius I's reign, Parnaka, the king's uncle, headed the administration, supported by a core of assistants ... and a battalion of lower administrators and scribes§REF§(Brosius 2006, 51) Brosius, Maria. 2006. The Persians. Routledge.§REF§<br>Steward of the House was viceroy of the empire.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 125) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>The very centre of the bureaucracy was the royal palace and an efficient chancellery.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[8]</a>)§REF§<br>3. Core of Assistants§REF§(Brosius 2006, 51) Brosius, Maria. 2006. The Persians. Routledge.§REF§4. Scribes<br>4. Lower administrators§REF§(Brosius 2006, 51) Brosius, Maria. 2006. The Persians. Routledge.§REF§5. Scribes<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Satrap (or king)\"As long as the subject nations obeyed the central authority and paid their taxes, they were free to follow their own laws and religious traditions, continue their artistic norms, retain their own languages, write in their own script, and maintain their own social system. In some cases, even local dynasties were left undisturbed and native kings retained their hereditary rights to kingship. Hence, the Persian king was called 'the Great King' or 'the King of Kings'.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 131) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Twenty taxation districts called satrapies that had a civilian governor, assisted by military commander and treasurer. These individuals were \"inspected by the most trusted envoys of the sovereign (called the 'King's ears and eyes'), who had full authority to reward meritorius deeds and punish unlawful ones.\"§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>Governor of a satrapy. Had an indefinite period of term. All the satrapies - except the Persians who were governed by the king directly - were responsible to the king's command and had to pay him tribute.<br>Before Darius the empire had been split into satrapies by Cyrus II but government was mostly at a local level according to local traditions. Darius, who expanded the empire to its peak territorial extent, implemented a more centralized organization.<br>525-404 BCE \"Egypt became a Persian satrapy, along with Libya, Cyrene and Barca (Herodotus 3.91), and was governed by a satrap in Memphis, who had to ensure the payment of tribute to the royal treasury. §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17)§REF§<br>Satraps appointed by king. The 'Medizing' Greek Themistocles left Greece after Greek-Persian war c479 BCE to become a Persian satrap.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 129) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>3. Satrap's court<br>3. Provincial sub-satrapsSatrapies were themselves divided into provinces which paid a tribute tax to the satraps.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[9]</a>)§REF§§REF§(Boardman et al. 2011 159)§REF§<br>4. Local districts.<br>5. Village headmen.<br>\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": 1339, "year_to": 1398, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>_1339-1398 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_1398-1471 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE \"had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy <i>inferred</i><br>4. Scribe <i>inferred</i><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br><br>_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_<br>Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and \"Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Vizier of the divan§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy<br>3. Sadr head of \"religious dignitaries\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§4.5.\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 89, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": 1399, "year_to": 1470, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>_1339-1398 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_1398-1471 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE \"had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy <i>inferred</i><br>4. Scribe <i>inferred</i><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br><br>_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_<br>Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and \"Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Vizier of the divan§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy<br>3. Sadr head of \"religious dignitaries\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§4.5.\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": 1471, "year_to": 1501, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>_1339-1398 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_1398-1471 CE_<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Head of bureaucracyQara Otman 1398 CE \"had at his command at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy <i>inferred</i><br>4. Scribe <i>inferred</i><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br><br>_1471-1501 CE (conquest of Iran)_<br>Conquest of Iran shifted Ak Koyunlu core to the east and \"Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>1. Head of Confederation (Sultan)<br>\"The confederation (il or ulus) was led by members of the Bayandor (Bāyandor) clan\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>1. Council of Amirs and tribal chiefs.<br>\"The highest decision-making authority was a council (kengač) of amirs and tribal chiefs (boy ḵānları) who determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate; the council’s decisions were binding on the sultan.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>2. Vizier of the divan§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Department within bureaucracy<br>3. Sadr head of \"religious dignitaries\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§4.5.\"In the Iranian provinces, Uzun Ḥasan maintained the preexisting administrative system along with its officials, whose families had in some cases served under different dynasties for several generations\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Amir / Tribal chief<br>2. GovernorThere was a governor of Shiraz.§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Military officer in villages and towns\"Military and political control of the adjacent villages and towns, necessary for the safety of the pasturage, was maintained by the army\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"The social structure of these communities was thus characterised by few heads of households (elders), marked gender, age and provenance barriers, but few socio-political differences. Consequently, burials do not display any significant diffferences in status.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 42) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Administration system - presumably temple based, run by accountants3. Lesser accountant4. Specialised workers who produced the stuff that accountants do accounting for e.g. shepherds<br>Puzur-Inshushniak ruler c.2100 BCE. Titles vary: governor (ensi) of Susa; governor (ensi) of Susa of the land of Elam, and son of Shimpi'ishhuk; the mighty (dannum), king (lugal) of Awan, and son of Shimpi'ishhuk. §REF§(Potts 2016, 113-114) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>first half of third millennium saw rise of powerful city-states in southern Mesopotamia.§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>Lower Mesopotamia at this time had city-states and inscriptions suggests unity from time of Ur III (Shu-Sin): \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Before Ur III there were no provinces just tributary city-states: \"The economy of earlier empires was predominantly based on commercial activities and political relations with states that were controlled by the centre and were dependent on it. However, the empires themselves did not directly control these resources. The direct management of resources was an innovation of the kings of Ur, who applied in throughout the centre of the empire, which was itself no longer divided into several tributary city-states, but into provinces governed by functionaries (the ensi) appointed by the kings of Ur. The bureaucratic management of these provinces was uniform and interchangeable, and could be applied throughout the land (although some some local variations remained in place).\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 161) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people. The Elamite over-lordship in Susa was the main power of the federated states, the heads of which frequently assembled for political and military purposes. Decision making wa based on equality, and cooperation was key to the coordinated system of government in a federal structure.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"While internal independence of the member states was respected, intergovernmental relations on civil administration were regulated by various administrative rules and ordinances.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"Temple complexes, such as the temple of the goddess Inanna at Eana in Uruk (3200 BC), were large-scale enterprises, dealing in considerable quantities of goods and labor. A new system of recording and accounting needed to be devised. The accountants at the temple adapted a long-used system of accounting with clay tokens by impressing stylized outlines of tokens to denote numbers, with pictograms and other symbols to denote the objects that were being counted. A number of different numeration and metrological systems were used depending on the objects counted.\"<br>" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.287§REF§§REF§Donohue, J. J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012: Shaping Institutions for the Future. Leiden: Brill. p.131§REF§<br>1. Amir or shahanshah<br>\"the title of shahanshah, effectively the presidency of the confederation. ... it was more a recognition of seniority within the family than an office with authority\".§REF§(Kennedy 2004) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§ 983 CE succession conflict<br>\"In theory, the Buyid brothers exercised authority as governors for the Abbasid caliphs. Given their modest social origins and their position as outsiders in the Islamic world, it was vital for them to secure the approval and authority of the caliphs for their actions.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 216) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>2. Secretary of the amir§REF§(Donohue 2003, 135) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§\"The viziers made appointments to the diwans or confirmed incumbents, but the secretaries of the amir also exercised this power.\"§REF§(Donohue 2003, 135) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>_Government of appanage_<br>\"The Buyid lands formed a federation, rather than an empire. The major political units were the principalities centred on Fars, with its capital at Shiraz, al-Jibal, based on Rayy, and Iraq, including Baghdad, Basra and, very briefly, Mosul. ... Of these principalities, Fars was by far the most important... Baghdad enjoyed prestige as the centre of the caliphate and it remained a cultural and intellectual centre of great importance.\"§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 217) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>\"The Buyid state was divided into several large appanages, of which Shiraz and Baghdad were the most important, each held by a different member of the family.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 43) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh§REF§<br>e.g. Iraq.§REF§(Donohue 2003) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>2. wazir§REF§(Kennedy 2004, 213) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§\"Administrators in other Buwayhid centers were referred to as vizier, but there is no record of their being granted the title, for the word in reality had two meanings: the chief secretary of any petty potentate was called vizier, but the title, formally granted was reserved to the secretary of the amir at Baghdad.\"§REF§(Donohue 2003, 140) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. Deputy-vizier\"viziers maintained a deputy\". among his duties was \"overseeing the financial agents\".§REF§(Donohue 2003, 135) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. al-Diwan (main office)4.5.<br>3. diwans of al-Sawad and al-Basra (Land tax)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-jaysh (army) §REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-ma'awin (security)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-nafaqat (expenditure)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-khizana (treasury)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 135) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-mazalim (complaints)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-rasa'il (chancellery)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>3. diwan al-barid (post)§REF§(Donohue 2003, 143) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>Chief judgeship. The censorship. Prefect of police.§REF§(Donohue 2003, 146) Donohue, John J. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL§REF§<br>_Kakuyids_<br>\"Much of western Iran was dominated by another Iranian family of Caspian Daylamite origin, the Kakuyids, based in Isfahan, who alternately recognised Buyid and Ghaznavid suzerainty.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 43) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh§REF§<br>2. Local kingdoms3. Local bureaucracies §REF§(Kennedy 2004, 216) Kennedy, Hugh N. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions and writing, for example, developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br><br>1. Khan<br>2. Royal household and the high officials e.g. chief minster, tax officials. Later, some were granted land holdings to support them.§REF§Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.142-143.§REF§<br>_Central government_<br>\"For all these dynasties - whose administrative infrastructures tended in any case to be derived from, or at least strongly influenced by, those of the ʿAbbasid Caliphate - there was a military affairs department (dīvān al-ǰayš, dīvān al-ʿarż/ʿāreż) in the central administration, headed by an official, normally a civilian, called the ṣāḥeb al-ǰayš or ʿāreż.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>2. wazir§REF§(Morgan 2015, 67) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§Persian historian Rashid al-Din was chief minister to Ghazan.§REF§(Marshall 1993, 228) Marshall, Robert. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press.§REF§ According to Rashid al-Din, the Mongols assessed the wazir on his ability to extract revenue.§REF§(Morgan 2015, 67) Morgan, David. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge.§REF§<br>3. divans - Departments of state.<br>3. ṣāḥeb-e dīvān (postal service?)\"These stations were in the charge of the ṣāḥeb-e dīvān, who had nāʾebs in the provinces.\"§REF§(Floor 1990) Floor, Willem. 1990. ČĀPĀR. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/capar-or-capar-turk§REF§<br>4. nāʾebs<br>5. Station master\"Each station was to be run by a station master and to keep twenty horses for the government couriers\"§REF§(Floor 1990) Floor, Willem. 1990. ČĀPĀR. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/capar-or-capar-turk§REF§<br>6. Stable hand <i>inferred</i><br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Regional governors.Members of the Khan's military retinue were appointed as regional governors to administer conquered territory. §REF§Fodor, Pal. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. P.193.§REF§<br>Local tax-farmers. \"Apart from the shortage of liquid funds, because the Mongols had no officials capable of running the fiscal administration at the local level, it was convenient to place the responsibility for the provincial tax administration on the tax-farmers; and so the tax farm or moqāṭaʿa became the dominant fiscal institution of the Il-khanate... The tax-farmers were mainly local people—merchants, landowners, members of the bureaucracy, and amirs temporarily resident in the district. It was rare for them to be members of the Mongol military classes, perhaps partly because local people could be more easily coerced by the central government. \" §REF§Ann K. S. Lambton, 'ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-5-part2</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 488, "name": "ir_susiana_a", "long_name": "Susiana A", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE so this period very low administrative complexity.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 491, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_2", "long_name": "Susiana - Late Ubaid", "start_year": -4700, "end_year": -4300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE so this period still very low administrative complexity.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Liverani says of Ubaid culture 5100-4000 BCE: \"With Ubaid culture, then, it becomes possible to detect the first steps towards the creation of socio-economic and political structures more complex than the ones characterising villages. The starting point of this process has to be the progress in agriculture, which in the Mesopotamian alluvial plain had become possible through extensive irrigation and the introduction of the cattle-drawn plough. These changes led to the beginnings of labour specialisation, the subsequent emergence of agents responsible for the coordination of social organisation and decision-making processes (mainly centred on the leading role of temples), and the progressive social stratification of communities.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 54) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Given the formal differences and large geographic distance between the Hamrin and Bakun regions, it is hardly surprising to find differences in daily practices. Perhaps more astonishing is the extent to which they share broadly similar traditions of preparing and serving food, along with similar technological features and generalized types of sociopolitical organization.\"§REF§(Pollack 2006, 104) Pollack, Susan in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 490, "name": "ir_susiana_ubaid_1", "long_name": "Susiana - Early Ubaid", "start_year": -5100, "end_year": -4700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>Administrative conventions developed in Uruk period c3800-3100 BCE so this period very low administrative complexity.§REF§(Leverani 2014, 79) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Liverani says of nearby Ubaid culture 5100-4000 BCE: \"With Ubaid culture, then, it becomes possible to detect the first steps towards the creation of socio-economic and political structures more complex than the ones characterising villages. The starting point of this process has to be the progress in agriculture, which in the Mesopotamian alluvial plain had become possible through extensive irrigation and the introduction of the cattle-drawn plough. These changes led to the beginnings of labour specialisation, the subsequent emergence of agents responsible for the coordination of social organisation and decision-making processes (mainly centred on the leading role of temples), and the progressive social stratification of communities.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 54) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Given the formal differences and large geographic distance between the Hamrin and Bakun regions, it is hardly surprising to find differences in daily practices. Perhaps more astonishing is the extent to which they share broadly similar traditions of preparing and serving food, along with similar technological features and generalized types of sociopolitical organization.\"§REF§(Pollack 2006, 104) Pollack, Susan in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>King, viceroy, governor, + scribes and other workers.<br>\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>\"The Elamite civilization of the fifteenth century is best known from the excavations at Haft Tepe (ancient Kabnak), not far from Susa. There the king Tepti-ahar erected a great funerary temple for himself in which the place of worship, or cella, was situated above two large vaulted tombs. At Susa the ordinary inhabitants were also buried in vaults, but these tombs were in the ground beneath their houses.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 9) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§ \"This Elamite civilization had affinities with those of the Kassites and the Hurrians.\"§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 9) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"The administrative texts provide some political information. They name a local governor, hence show traces of political administration beyond the usual limits of merely dynastic relationships. Date formulas refer to exchanges of emissaries between the Babylonian and Elamite courts, to deteriorating diplomatic relations, and possibly to the repulse of a Babylonian attack on Elam.\" §REF§(Carter and Stopler 1984, 34)§REF§\"Date formulas of some tablets refer to construction of the temple whose cult the published stele fragment regulates; contents of other detail its supply. They evidently deal with the mortuary temple and attached workshops excavated at Haft Tepe itself. They show the expenditure of precious materials and the application of administrative controls under crown authority and so exemplify the level of investment and control implicit also in the temples built by later Middle Elamite rulers.\" §REF§(Carter and Stopler 1984, 34)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Regional governor?3. Local governor4.5. ?<br><br>2. Temple overseer/manager (also a priest?)3. Scribe<br>3. Supply overseer4. Supplier5. producer<br>3. Workshops<br>" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": " levels.<br>King, viceroy, governor, + scribes and other workers.<br>\"The federal structure of the Elamite empire was organized into three administrative layers of governance, and the various provinces were ruled over by: (1) the governors' (Halmenik), who were under the control of (2) a 'viceroy' (Sakanakkun), who was subject to (3) the great king of Elam (Zunkir).\"§REF§(Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§ -- does not specify which period<br>\"Shortly after [mid-14th BCE], when Middle Elamite sources reappear, we find a completely different situation from the period of the sukkal-mah. Susa ceased to be the political centre of Elam. The seat of power moved further inland, beyond the mountains, in Anshan (modern Fars). Consequently, Middle Elamite kings began to use the title of 'king of Anshan and Susa.'\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>After mid-14th BCE: \"Finally, the succession was by now patrilineal, a predictable result of that evolution of Elamite society that began in the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Middle Elamite kingdom had more of a \"local character\" compared to the sukkal-mah. \"At the time of the sukkal-mah, the choice of Susa as capital showed a clear intention of becoming a constitutive part of the Mesopotamian political system and of Babylonian culture. Now, however, following a tendency that has been attested in Hatti and Mitanni, Elam strived to maintain its uniqueness, while presenting itself as one of the protagonists in this decidedly polycentric Late Bronze Age Near East.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Neo-Elamite period saw a \"rival of ancient royal names and of the Middle Elamite royal titulature.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 528) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§ In Neo-Elamite period this included: \"the ancient titles of 'king (sunkik) of Anshan and Susa', 'master (katri) of Elam', governor (hal-menik, translated as sakkanakku in Akkadian) of Elam', and the title of 'magnifier of the realm'. The latter emphasises the revival of Elamite expansion.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 529) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Public administration flourished under the 2500 years of the strong federated state of Elam, which made significant contributions to Iranian and world civilizations. The organization of the federated state of Elam was based on two pillars, the military and civil administrations, and there was a generally respected separation of these two functions. The civil administration was headed by a coordinating body of appointed functionaries who discharged the administrative responsibilities of the 'federal state' at Susa. The administrative body handled the financial, regulatory, and other civil affairs, and coordinated the intergovernmental relations with the member states in the system. Thus its experience in federalism and intergovernmental relations administration was perhaps the oldest in recorded history\".§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"Among the major administrative achievements of the Elamite Iran were the development and management of a gigantic system of underground irrigation, qanats, an earlier Iranian invention turning an unworked country into an agricultural land; the invention and development of the written language of Elamite and its extensive use in the administration of the federated state; and the construction and maintenance of numerous public enterprises like roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic trade centers with the neighboring states. Elamite Iran was relatively prosperous because of its rich minerals and precious metals, as well as other industries and arts.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>\"The earliest experiences of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale began around 6000 B.C. in Susa. As one of the oldest sites of ancient civilization, Susa began political and administrative life first as a city-state contemporary and rival to Sumer in the Mesopotamia, then as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam. Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people. The Elamite over-lordship in Susa was the main power of the federated states, the heads of which frequently assembled for political and military purposes. Decision making wa based on equality, and cooperation was key to the coordinated system of government in a federal structure.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§" } ] }