Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=11
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=12", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=10", "results": [ { "id": 502, "polity": { "id": 369, "name": "ir_jayarid_khanate", "long_name": "Jayarid Khanate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1393 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. AD: coded as a range to allow for further hierarchical levels.<br>1. Ulus beg (“amīr of the state”)<br>2. Amirs<br>3. Governor. Inferred from Uvais facing a revolt from his governor in Baghdad.§REF§H.R. Roemer, ‘The Jalayirids, Muzaffarids and Sarbadars’, in Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart (eds), The Cambridge History of Iran: Vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p.6.§REF§" }, { "id": 503, "polity": { "id": 407, "name": "in_kakatiya_dyn", "long_name": "Kakatiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1175, "end_year": 1324 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>\"Although I am using the word “officer” to designate the lower echelon of Kakatiya subordinates, I do not mean to imply that a coherent administrative structure existed. It is impossible to sustain any notion of bureaucracy or of a structure of discrete official positions in view of the unsystematic distribution of the so‐called administrative titles. For one thing, an individual could hold more than one title concurrently, as we find in the case of Bhaskaradeva who was both a mahāpradhāni and a gaja‐sāhiṇi (SII 6.622). Furthermore, numerous men at any given point in time simultaneously possessed titles like mahāpradhāni (chief minister), sakala‐sēnāpati (commander‐in‐chief), and gaja‐sāhiṇi (commander of the elephant corps). Hence, we have to discard any notion of a rigid organizational setup in which a single individual occupied only one post at a time. Mahāpradhāni, in particular, should be understood as a signifier of rank rather than as an occupational designation.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R67IJ9XP\">[Talbot 2001, p. 157]</a> In light of this quote, the administrative structure sketched out by Sastry (1978) source, being significantly older than Talbot's work, is here largely disregarded. However, because the general administrative structure of Medieval Indian polities is generally quite similar, it seems we could infer the following based on these other polities:<br>1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2. Prime minister<br>3. Other ministers<br>4. Minor administrators<br>__Provincial government__<br>2. Autonomous feudal lords<br>3.<br>4. Village councils <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJ8CF927\">[Sastry 1978, pp. 184-189]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 504, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>\"The Kalachuris continued the administrative system of the Chalukyas\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, p. 118]</a> . Here, then, is the administrative system of the Chalukyas:<br> 1. Emperor<br>_Court_<br> 2. Ministers Including chamberlain (thane veryashka), steward (bhanasa vergade), superintendent to the harem (antharpuradhyaksha), and the minister for war and peace (sandhivigrahika) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, p. 91]</a> .<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Rashtrapathis In charge of governing territorial units known as rashtras <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, p. 96]</a> (probably equivalent to four or five modern-day Indian districts <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XDVHVK4Z\">[book_State & Government In Ancient India...]</a> ).<br> 3. Vishayapathis In charge of governing territorial units known as vishayas <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, p. 96]</a> (probably equivalent to modern-day Indian districts <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XDVHVK4Z\">[book_State & Government In Ancient India...]</a> ).<br> 4. Nadrasas or Nad-prabhus In charge of governing nadus <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, p. 96]</a> , \"larger territorial divisions with numbers attached to their names\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MQ45IX7F\">[Sastri_Yazdan 1960, pp. 399-400]</a> .<br> 5. Gramakutas Village head men <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, p. 96]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 505, "polity": { "id": 389, "name": "in_kamarupa_k", "long_name": "Kamarupa Kingdom", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 1130 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 6, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": "levels.<br>\"A clear and precise account of the working of administration in ancient Assam is not possible owing to the dearth of materials. Our only source of information is some stray epigraphic references and the Kalika Purana, where there is a chapter on Rajaniti, which too, is only on the duties of the king and the ministers. But even from these meagre sources, we can surmise that ancient Assam followed the general pattern of administration that existed in contemporary India. [...] Epigraphs like the Bargaon grant of Ratnapala and the Kamauli grant of Vadyadeva indicate that the conception of the State as being constituted of seven component parts, namely, the king (swamin), minister (amatya), territory (janapada), fort (durga), treasury (kosa), army (danda) and ally (mitra) called prakrits in the Hindu law books was known to the kings of Kamarupa.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 135]</a> 1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2.\"[W]e may agree with U.N. Ghoshal that the group of titles prefixed by Maha evidently shows an attempt to create a superior grade of officers over and above the ordinary ones. In the inscriptions of Kamarupa, references do occur to five high offices styled Maha. These are Mahasamanta, Mahamatya, Mahasayniapati, Mahapratihara and Mahadvaradhipati.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 139]</a> 3. Ministers\"In affairs of administration, the king was advised by a council of ministers.[...] The actual strength of the Council is not known. The existing sources imply that ministership was the monopoly of the Brahmanas. The Kalika Purana, for example states that a king should appoint learned and wise Brahmanas as ministers and the Kamauli grant shows that these posts were held by the Brahmanas only and were hereditary. Whether the same was the case in earlier period as well cannot be ascertained. Inscriptions refer to the ministers as mantrins, amatyas and sachivas. It ispossible that a distinction was made between them in the lines set by the Kamandaka Niti.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 138]</a> 4. Revenue administrators\"Officers associated with revenue administration included uparika (officer in charge of the recovery of the uparika tax), uthetika (officer in charge of collecting the uthetika impost) etc. Besides them, there were other officers like Bhandagaradhikrita and Kostagharika, who were in charge of the royal store-house and the treasury, respectively.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 143]</a> 4. Registrar of documents\"All documents (karana) of land-grants were kept in the custody of the Registrar of documents, the Karanika.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 144]</a> 5. Revenue Aides\"There were some junior officers like clerks, accountants and scribes attached to the department.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 143]</a> 5. Records Aides\"The record office in the city was called as Adhikarana. The writers were called lekhakas or kayasthas.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 144]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. Official(s) in charge of bhukti subdivisions <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 140]</a> 3.Official(s) in charge of mandala subdivision <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 140]</a> 4. Visayapati, official in charge of visaya subdivision <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 140]</a> 5. Village headman\"However, it canbe conjectured that each village had a village headman who was perhaps helped in the administration of the village by an advisory board or council of elders. The village officials had to discharge civil, revenue and other duties and were responsible for the internal safety of the village under their jurisdiction.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/58FRDM4B\">[Baruah 1985, p. 140]</a> 6. Village council", "description": null }, { "id": 506, "polity": { "id": 273, "name": "uz_kangju", "long_name": "Kangju", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Ruler of the confederation<br> According to Rapin and Abdoullaev the Kangju \"established a new system of 'nomad capitals' including Afrasiab (Samarkand) and various other fortified sites, such as Kala-i Zakhoki Maron. The Chinese annals describe the typical nomadic lifestyle of the Kangju elite, in particular the ruler who wintered in their capital of Pi-t'ien and summered in the steppe.\"§REF§(Cleary 2017, 301) Michelle Negus Cleary. Enclosure Sites, Non-Nucleated Settlement Strategies and Political Capitals in Ancient Eurasia. Hyun Jin Kim. Frederick Juliaan Vervaet. Selim Ferruh Adali. eds. 2017. Eurasian Empires in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Contact and Exchange between the Graeco-Roman World, Inner Asia and China. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Palace government_<br> 2. Court administrator? \"The Kangju further developed a partly urban civilization with clay houses, palaces, and fortified walls. The semisedentary tribal aristocracy lived in the centers of the towns and settlements.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§<br> Coin mint implies mint manager, mint worker and a court administrator responsible for finance: \"The Kangju traded goods with their C Asian neighbors, with China and Rome; thus they fully participated in SR trade; they even minted their own coins (Roudik 2007, 18).\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§<br> 3. Coin mint manager 4. Coin mint worker<br>_Provincial line_<br> 2. Ruler of provincial region \"the countries of five 'small rulers' ... were subordinate to the Kangju ruler.\"§REF§(Andrianov 2016, 214) Boris V Andrianov. Chapter 5. The Lower Syrdarya. Boris V Andrianov. Simone Mantellini. ed. 2016. Ancient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea Area: Ancient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea Area. Oxbow Books Limited. Oxford.§REF§<br> \"The Kangju state was a tribal confederation located north and south of the lower Yaxartes (Syr Daria), between the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash. It included Khorezm as one of its subordinate provinces and reached its peak of power and wealth between the late second century BCE and early first-century CE.\"§REF§(Barisitz 2017, 37) Stephan Barisitz. 2017. Central Asia and the Silk Road: Economic Rise and Decline over Several Millennia. Springer International Publishing.§REF§<br> 3. Tribal leader 4." }, { "id": 507, "polity": { "id": 395, "name": "in_karkota_dyn", "long_name": "Karkota Dynasty", "start_year": 625, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Sarvadhikara\"Of all the ministers the Sarvadhikara or chief minister was the most important and powerful.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 206]</a> 3. Grahakrityadhikarin\"The next in rank and importance was the minister in charge of revenue administration, known as Grahakrityadhikarin.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 206]</a> 4. Samdhivigrahika\"Another important minister was the one in charge of foreign affairs (Samdhivigrahika) and of peace and war, and relations with other kingdoms.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 206]</a> 5. Council of ministers\"These were the Councillor, the Purohita, Heir Apparent, Generalissimo, Chamberlain, Steward of the Royal Household, Superintendent of Prisons, Treasurer, Auditor of the Treasury, Officer with Judicial Functions, Prefect of the City, Engineer of Works, Lord Chief Justice, President of the Assembly, Warden of Criminal Jurisdiction, Warden of Fortifications, Warden of Marches, and Conservator of Forests.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 205]</a> 6. Aides to ministersThe Grahakrityadhikarin \"had under him the official treasurer (ganjavara) and five secretaries (divira). [...] Seven officers whom he could appoint worked under him.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 206]</a> 7. Clerks\"The term Kayastha did not denote any particular caste, but applied to all members of bureaucracy--from the lowest clerk to the highest official.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 209]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. Mandalesa\"Below the Council of Ministers the most important office in the governmental machinery was that of the Mandalesa or governor.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 208]</a> 3. Margapati\"Both divisions of Kamraz and Maraz were sub-divided into a number of visayas, corresponding to the modern Parganas. Each visaya, according to Kshemendra, was under an officer known as Margapati.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 208]</a> 4. Nagaradhikrta\"The major towns and cities were under the administrative charge of the Nagaradhikrta, also called Nagaradhipa (the City-Prefect). He was in charge of collecting house and scavenging tax, and other cesses. He inspected weights and measures of traders and checked abuses which caused disorder in commercial transactions. He levied fines on house-holders guilty of immoral conduct[...]. The Nagaradhikrta was also expected to organise the defence of the city in times of emergency.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 209]</a> 4. Village officials\"The two important officials of village administration were the headman (Skandaka), the modern Muqadam or Lambardar, whose function, besides collecting the land revenue and other cesses, was to look after the welfare of the village and ensure a liaison between the villager and the government. [...] His office was generally hereditary, but subject to change by the Margapati. [...] The other important village official was the village accountant (Gramakayastha) who kept the papers showing the area of the holdings of the villagers, with their revenue assessment, etc. He held his office at the will of the Margapati\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XJWSDUQS\">[Bamzai 1962, p. 208]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 508, "polity": { "id": 298, "name": "ru_kazan_khanate", "long_name": "Kazan Khanate", "start_year": 1438, "end_year": 1552 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"the Khanate of Kazan was the heir of two traditions, that of the Volga Bulgar state, and that of the Golden Horde.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 24) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>1. Khan<br>_Court government_<br> 2.<br> \"Kazan, and, Isker [the capital of the Siberian Khanate] with all their administrative buildings were captured by the 'White Tsar' do not leave the opportunity to expect that any written documents were saved (unless, of course, they were not set in stone).§REF§(Ivanov 2015, 142) Vladimir Alexandrovich Ivanov. October 2015. Bashkiria and the Khanate of Kazan. The Problem of Administrative and Political Relationship. European Journal of Science and Theology. Vol. 11. No. 5. 141-149.§REF§<br> \"The population of the Khanate consisted primarily of five ethnic groups. The Turkic-speaking and Islamic Kazan Tatars formed the social and political elite: they served in cavalry units or in the administration, and in return were given grants of land.§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 24) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§ 3. 4.<br>_Tribal relationships_<br> 2. Tribal leader 3. Tribal hierarchy ... \"Representatives of all four non-Tatar ethnic groups had to pay tribute, known as iasak, to the Khan. Members of the upper class were responsible for its collection. Otherwise they were left largely to their own devices, and lived in communities that were characterized by tribal and clan relationships and religious ideas of an animist kind.\"§REF§(Kappeler 2014, 25) Andreas Kappeler. Alfred Clayton trans. 2014. The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 509, "polity": { "id": 241, "name": "ao_kongo_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Congo", "start_year": 1491, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Manikongo<br> \"The regal function was not hereditary; rather, a group of qualified electors chose the new king from a pool of eligible candidates.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 2) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br> King Nzinga a Nkuwu (Joao I) (r. 1470-1509) \"instigated large-scale reforms in his kingdom, based on the technological, cultural, and religious knowledge that Portuguese emissaries and Kongo men who had returned from long stays in Europe brought to his court.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 4) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br> As the Kongo political structure changed (after 1720s CE) \"the ideology of kingship altered as well, from one emphasizing the absolute power of the founding king and his descendants, expressed by their ability to kill anyone freely without challenge, to one stressing the founder as a kind and generous blacksmith who mediates disputes.\"§REF§(Thornton 1998) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> \"In the thirteenth century a number of the small Kongo states united themselves under a paramount king called the manikongo.\"§REF§(Minahan 2002, 1011) James Minahan. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z. Greenwood Press. Westport.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Council of Elders King's decision-making assisted by a council of elders, which later lost this important role in the sixteenth and seventeenth century.§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> \"The regal function was not hereditary; rather, a group of qualified electors chose the new king from a pool of eligible candidates.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 2) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br> 3. State officials Kongo had \"state officials\" paid for by the state.§REF§(Thornton 1998, 81) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> \"The Kongo kingdom, based on tropical agriculture, evolved a sophisticated state system, an efficient bureaucracy, and an advanced culture.\"§REF§(Minahan 2002, 1011) James Minahan. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z. Greenwood Press. Westport.§REF§<br> e.g. Treasury official inferred: nzimbu shells were stored at the capital. \"royal officers closely monitored this precious currency, which could even buy gold and silver.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 30) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> 4. Lesser officials Portuguese settlers became officials in Kongo.§REF§(Thornton 1998, 61) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> Atlantic Africa \"slaves were often employed as administrators, soldiers, and even royal advisors\".§REF§(Thornton 1998, 88) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> 5. Others Tribute from subject groups were delivered to the king's palace.§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> \"Since most servants were not granted a regular salary, the king used gifts to retain as well as reward a sizable retinue of officials, soldiers, musicians, pages, and advisers at his court.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 30) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br>Atlantic Africa free people could do labor service for the state.§REF§(Thornton 1998, 88) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Mani \"Each province was headed by a governor, who commanded broad military, fiscal, and administrative powers conferred by the king.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> \"As early as 1526, documents from Kongo show that the provinces (constituent states) were in the hands of royally appointed people.\"§REF§(Thornton 1998) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> \"Its political organization centered on the person of the king, who ruled with absolute power from his capital city over large territories through governors, or mani, he sent from his court to provincial capitals.\"§REF§(Fromont 2014, 2) Cecile Fromont. 2014. The Art Of Conversion. Christian Visual Culture In The Kingdom Of Kongo. The University of North Carolina Press.§REF§<br> \"The Kongo traditions ... stress that the founder of the state had conquered the people of the country, and his rights to govern and tax them derived from this, rights he partitioned out to 'captains' who were appointed by him, not for life but for the performance of service.'\"§REF§(Thornton 1998, 80) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> \"As early as 1526, documents from Kongo show that the provinces (constituent states) were in the hands of royally appointed people.\"§REF§(Thornton 1998) John Thornton. 1998. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press.§REF§<br> \"the governors' duties ranged from dispensing justice to providing a court of appeal for the king's subjects to maintaining the roads.\"§REF§(Gondola 2002, 28) Ch Didier Gondola. 2002. The History of Congo. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> 3. Tribal or clan leader \"The united Kongo state eventually expanded to incorporate twelve related clans or tribes living in six provinces south of the Congo River and three tributary states north of the river.\"§REF§(Minahan 2002, 1011) James Minahan. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z. Greenwood Press. Westport.§REF§" }, { "id": 510, "polity": { "id": 290, "name": "ge_georgia_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Georgia II", "start_year": 975, "end_year": 1243 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>\"Like Bagrat III before him, David II hoped to eliminate or at least diminish the autonomy of the dynastic princes and to create a more centralized and hierarchical feudal monarchy. Like the unifier of Georgia, so the rebuilder replaced the dynastic aristocrats, who had hereditary claims on provincial holdings, with a service nobility dependent on the king. The king appointed a mosakargave (a salaried governor) as his local official in each area he held. The officer's duty was to uproot the eristavni, who by the early Middle Ages held their territories in hereditary tenure. In each margravate David appointed a marzpan (viceroy) who over time took on the title of monapire (from the Georgian napiri [borderland]). Unlike his predecessors, David II also re-established royal authority over the church. In 1103 he convened the Ruisi-Urbnisi church council, at which he purged the clerical hierarchy of his opponents. He then combined the highest secular office in his kingdom, the chancellorship or mtsignobartukhutsesi, with the highest religious office, the bishopric of Chqondideli. To the new post of mtsignobartukhutses-chqondideli David appointed his teacher and closest advisor ... The new chancellor-procurator also was given judicial powers and influence in both domestic and foreign affairs; he soon came to be called vaziri (vizier) in imitation of that powerful office in Islamic countries.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br>1. King<br> Lands held directly by the king called sakhaso.§REF§(Suny 1994, 37) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 2. Council of Nobles Nobles of the council (darbazi).§REF§(Suny 1994, 38) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> King David employed the nobles - the now ex-eristavni - within his centralized government.§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Vizier The police chief and vizier outranked the commander in chief of the army, the amirspasalar, who, taking orders from king David, controlled 60,000 permanent forces.§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> \"\"In 1103 he convened the Ruisi-Urbnisi church council, at which he purged the clerical hierarchy of his opponents. He then combined the highest secular office in his kingdom, the chancellorship or mtsignobartukhutsesi, with the highest religious office, the bishopric of Chqondideli. To the new post of mtsignobartukhutses-chqondideli David appointed his teacher and closest advisor ... The new chancellor-procurator also was given judicial powers and influence in both domestic and foreign affairs; he soon came to be called vaziri (vizier) in imitation of that powerful office in Islamic countries.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 2. Police chief (mandaturktukhutsesi) Police chief called the mandaturtukhutsesi \"who ranked just below the vaziri.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 3? Chancery - Director of finances? (mechurchletukhutsesi) King's civil service. \"Toumanoff notes that 'Georgian kings entrusted, to the very end of the Georgian polity, their chanceries to houses of Armenian origin and often conducted their correspondence with foreign monarchs in Armenian.'\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 34) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> Director of finances called mechurchletukhutsesi.§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 4. 5. Lower level administrators? e.g. 4. Head of Mint, 5. Mint worker<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Mosakargave in a province The king appointed a mosakargave (a salaried governor) as his local official in each area he held. The officer's duty was to uproot the eristavni, who by the early Middle Ages held their territories in hereditary tenure.\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 3. Lower level administrators?<br> 3. Marzpan in a margravate In each margravate David appointed a marzpan (viceroy) who over time took on the title of monapire (from the Georgian napiri [borderland]).\"§REF§(Suny 1994, 35) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 4. Lower level administrators?<br> 2. Qipchak tribal leader The Qipchaks were lead by a tribal leader who eventually lead most of the Qipchaks back to the steppe.§REF§(Suny 1994, 36) Ronald Grigor Suny. 1994. The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.§REF§<br> 3. Tribal levels" }, { "id": 511, "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "it_sicily_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "King. Central government. Provincial government (justiciars). District government. Town government.<br>King and court. Administrative system. Districts. Frederick sought to revive previous Norman governmental system. Assizes of Capua 1220 CE he emphasised this continuity. Division of duties between justiciars and baiuli same as Norman period. §REF§(Abulafia 2004, 73)§REF§<br>In towns and districts royal courts were set up and royal officials from outside the region appointed to oversee king's law. §REF§(Allshorn 1912, 108)§REF§<br>Key officials were justiciars, chamberlains and baiuli. Tried to excluded landed aristocracy from government with professional bureaucracy. §REF§(Abulafia 2004, 73)§REF§<br>Established municipal body in each commune. §REF§(Monroe 1909, 78 <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://archive.org/stream/sicilygardenmed00monrgoog#page/n126/mode/2up\">[3]</a>)§REF§<br>Nearly all of Sicily was royal demesne land - not granted out, controlled directly by central government. About 30% mainland Italy was demesne; this land was probably mountainous. §REF§(Abulafia 1988, 17)§REF§<br>Frederick II wore coloured silk robes that signified his claim to absolute authority: rex et sacerdos, king and priest. §REF§(Abulafia 1988, 12)§REF§<br>Elaborate bureaucracy. §REF§(Abulafia 1988, 13)§REF§<br>Provinces. §REF§(Allshorn 1912)§REF§" }, { "id": 512, "polity": { "id": 355, "name": "iq_lakhmid_k", "long_name": "Lakhmid Kigdom", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 611 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Founder of the dynasty Amr b. Adi succeeded by Imru al-Kays (known from the al-Namara inscription as 'king of all the Arabs').§REF§(Bosworth et al 1982, 633) C E Bosworth. E Van Donzel. B Lewis. Ch Pellat. eds. 1982. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Volume V. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Al-Nu'man 'the one-eyed' and 'the wanderer' built the al-Khawarnak palace, start of 5th century.§REF§(Bosworth et al 1982, 633) C E Bosworth. E Van Donzel. B Lewis. Ch Pellat. eds. 1982. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Volume V. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>1. King<br> 2. Palace staff<br> 2. Tribal leaders" }, { "id": 513, "polity": { "id": 56, "name": "pa_cocle_3", "long_name": "Late Greater Coclé", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1515 }, "year_from": 1515, "year_to": 1515, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": "levels. Mary W. Helms uses the contact-period Spanish written accounts to delineate three levels of elite office, perhaps corresponding to control over differing amounts of territory: <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 55]</a> 1. Quevi (high chief). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 55]</a> 2. Saco (lesser chief). 'Those termed sacos are described as principal personages who had vassals but were inferior in rank to quevis; they could be brothers of quevis or lords subordinated to quevis by defeat in warfare.' <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 55]</a> 3. Cabra (honoured warrior). 'The lowest level of elite status was held by honored warriors of commoner status who achieved a rank, called cabra, by virtue of outstanding bravery in battle'. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBCIE7GI\">[Helms_Brumfiel_Fox 1994, p. 55]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 514, "polity": { "id": 257, "name": "cn_later_qin_dyn", "long_name": "Later Qin Kingdom", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 417 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>The Later Qin government may have been complex much like other Chinese states of the period and the preceding Early Jin, perhaps on a slightly smaller scale than the latter which has been coded with eight administrative levels. It's worth noting that in fourth century north China there \"may have even been millions of ... non-Chinese Hu\" who \"\"came to dominate the northern landscape politically and militarily\"; they \"were typically ranchers (though not necessarily actual nomads) rather than Chinese-style farmers ... They spoke languages that were not merely different from but completely unrelated to Chinese.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The Hu non-Chinese may have continued to use indigenous Chinese in government but it's also possible that the institutions became more simplified and tailored to the needs of the ruling peoples. \"Although fourth-century Hu kingdoms often had at their core a non-Chinese tribe, with conscious bonds of tribal solidarity, and often administered their Hu and Han (Chinese) populations separately, by the late fourth century, some of those ethnic divisions were already beginning to be deliberately erased.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 61) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br> Like many states of the time, one of the weaknesses of Later Qin was its clan-based system of rulers, all from the Yao family.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§<br> \"Despite the conventional English label 'Sixteen Kingdoms,' moreover, these dynasties were also usually really still empires in the sense of being relatively large, multiethnic, military-conquest regimes ruled by men claiming the Chinese title 'emperor' (huangdi). Unlike previous Chinese dynasties, however, these were now typically organized around identifiably non-Chinese-ruled armies.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Under Yao Chang his son Yao Xing was crown prince.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Government Ministers Yao Xiang had ministerial assistants.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§ (Former Qin?)<br> During the 'Sixteen Kingdoms' period \"These peoples - or, to be precise, their elites - thus combined their own political and social traditions with large borrowings from Chinese concepts and institutions. Their ruling classes were so thoroughly sinicized that they regarded themselves as heirs to the old political units of North China.\"§REF§(Gernet 1996, 186) Jacques Gernet. J R Foster and Charles Hartman trans. 1996. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 3. Officials of all ranks and descriptions.§REF§Rachel Meakin. 2012? Annotated translation regarding the the Qiang state of the Later Qin. Jin Shu Chapter 116: Chronicles of Minor States, No. 16. Yao Yizhong, Yao Xiang, Yao Chang. www.qianghistory.co.uk.§REF§<br> 4. 5.<br> 2. Translation Assembly There was a \"Translation Assembly in Xiaoyao Garden in Chang'an, the capital\".§REF§Martha P Y Cheung. ed. 2014. An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation: Volume 1: From Earliest Times to the Buddhist Project. Routledge.§REF§" }, { "id": 515, "polity": { "id": 256, "name": "cn_later_yan_dyn", "long_name": "Later Yan Kingdom", "start_year": 385, "end_year": 409 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>The Later Yan government may have been complex much like other Chinese states of the period and the preceding Early Jin, perhaps on a slightly smaller scale than the latter which has been coded with eight administrative levels. It's worth noting that in fourth century north China there \"may have even been millions of ... non-Chinese Hu\" who \"\"came to dominate the northern landscape politically and militarily\"; they \"were typically ranchers (though not necessarily actual nomads) rather than Chinese-style farmers ... They spoke languages that were not merely different from but completely unrelated to Chinese.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58-59) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The Hu non-Chinese may have continued to use indigenous Chinese in government but it's also possible that the institutions became more simplified and tailored to the needs of the ruling peoples. \"Although fourth-century Hu kingdoms often had at their core a non-Chinese tribe, with conscious bonds of tribal solidarity, and often administered their Hu and Han (Chinese) populations separately, by the late fourth century, some of those ethnic divisions were already beginning to be deliberately erased.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 61) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. Emperor<br> \"Despite the conventional English label 'Sixteen Kingdoms,' moreover, these dynasties were also usually really still empires in the sense of being relatively large, multiethnic, military-conquest regimes ruled by men claiming the Chinese title 'emperor' (huangdi). Unlike previous Chinese dynasties, however, these were now typically organized around identifiably non-Chinese-ruled armies.\"§REF§(Holcombe 2011, 58) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. During the 'Sixteen Kingdoms' period \"These peoples - or, to be precise, their elites - thus combined their own political and social traditions with large borrowings from Chinese concepts and institutions. Their ruling classes were so thoroughly sinicized that they regarded themselves as heirs to the old political units of North China.\"§REF§(Gernet 1996, 186) Jacques Gernet. J R Foster and Charles Hartman trans. 1996. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 516, "polity": { "id": 391, "name": "in_maitraka_dyn", "long_name": "Maitraka Dynasty", "start_year": 470, "end_year": 790 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2. Rajamatya\"The chief counsellor of the king was styled rajamatya.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BIAVMG4C\">[Sastri 2000, p. 156]</a> 3. Heads of administrative departments\"The title maha (great) prefixed to an official designation denotes the head of the department concerned.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BIAVMG4C\">[Sastri 2000, p. 157]</a> 4. Other state officials (without maha prefix)<br>__Provincial government__<br>2. Tributary rulers<br>2. Provincial governors<br>3. Village councils", "description": null }, { "id": 517, "polity": { "id": 212, "name": "sd_makuria_k_1", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom I", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>\"In contrast with the wealth of information available for events in Lower Nubia, we have virtually no information on the early development of the regions further to the south, and hence no way of explaining the changes within the fledgling states of Makuria and Alwa.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 22]</a> Core region of early Makuria and Alwa: \"high status burials at a number of sites suggests that there were regional centres dominated by an elite class\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 22]</a> 1. King<br> Kings. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 22]</a> _Court government_<br> 2. 3. Officials/Ambassadors sent to Byzantium: \"In 573, a delegation arrived in the capital from Makuria bearing gifts for the emperor Justin 'of elephant tusks and a giraffe, and stated their friendship with the Romans'.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 33]</a> _Regional rulers_<br> 2. Phylarchs \"graves of regional elites, perhaps of phylarchs or of kinglets under the control of the Kings of Ballana.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 22]</a> \"One such official exercising local control was Tantani, who is described on a letter in Coptic from the Roman Viventius, perhaps commander of the frontier troops, as 'phylarch of the people of the Anouba'. He was of sufficient status to conclude an international treaty.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2ZCVEFNQ\">[Welsby 2002, p. 22]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 518, "polity": { "id": 215, "name": "sd_makuria_k_2", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom II", "start_year": 619, "end_year": 849 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>The evidence for the following spans the 700-1000 CE period.<br>1. King<br> \"The king was the undisputed head of state holding absolute authority over all his subjects.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> In law the general population were slaves of the king although in Nobadia/Maris \"estates could be passed on by inheritance\" at least from the early ninth century.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 94) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. \"The domesticos was a deputy and we find domesticoi of the king and of the eparch.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> The mid-7th century Nubian peace-treaty with the Muslim Arabs apparently included the requirement for the latter to supply wheat (300 ardeb), jugs (300) and cloth (3 pieces of qabati) for the king's delegates. The Makurian king sent slaves the other way.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 70-71) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>\"Although Nubia, unlike Egypt, was not part of the Byzantine empire, there undoubtedly existed between them definite links forged by the missions of the priests Julianos and Longinos. The organization of the Nubian government, as its nomenclature shows, was strictly modelled on the Byzantine bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 187) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Referring to the Byzantine bureaucracy of the 6th century.' Modelled on the imperial court at Byzantine.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ \"Among the officials of Makuria recorded in the sources are the primicerius, the promeizon and the protodomesticos of the palace and the protomeizoteros.\" Other titles are known but their duties unknown.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 95) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ Cannot assume a similar function to those in the Byzantine court.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. Eparch palatium Based at the capital? \"The eparch palatium may have been a separate office, perhaps the chief administrator of the whole realm.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 3.<br> 4. Scribes \"There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>\"The Church was clearly a major force in the State, but how it was maintained and what secular role it played in the administration is unclear. The Church certainly owned land, as is indicated by an Old Nubia document from Qasr Ibrim...\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 102-103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial. The monks and clerics were presumably among the best educated and literate members of Nubia society and hence would have been an invaluable resource for the administration of the State, although their abilities alone do not constitute proof that they were so employed. There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Eparch of an eparchate§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93-94) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ \"The authority of the Makurian king was delegated to a number of officials, chief among whom was the eparch, a title which, as the Greek equivalent of the Latin praefectus, was widely used in the Roman and Byzantine Empires.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> \"the organization of power in Christian Nubia was modelled on Byzantium. The civil governor of the province was the eparch, whose authority was symbolized by the horned crown which he wore on a helmet decorated with a crescent.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 189) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> One based in the north of the Kingdom dealt with the Muslims. \"Ibn Selim describes him as among the highest ranking governors in the kingdom\".§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> \"The court of the eparch was modelled on that of the monarch and used the same court titles, derived in both cases from the imperial court at Byzantine.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Also an eparch who administered the south.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Nobadia was \"a distinct territorial unit within the Makurian state with the name of Maris.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 84) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Although the Kingdom of Nobadia \"was subordinated to the central Makurian administration ... it is difficult to speak of a united Kingdom of Nubia. ... The new royal Makuria administration with its division into provinces was established presumably by King Kyriakos and should be dated to the second half of the 8th century.\"§REF§(Godlewski 2004, 1045) Wlodzimierz Godlewski. Christian Nubia, Studies 1996-2000. Mat Immerzeel. Jacques van der Vliet. eds. 2004. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Coptic Studies on the Threshold of a New Millennium. II. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Coptic Studies Leiden 2000. Peeters Publishers. Leuven.§REF§<br> 3. \"The tot is the most commonly found of these officials and is always associated with a locality, of which a total of fifteen are recorded. Adams suggests that the tot may have been a wealthy local worthy deputed by the state to oversee a community although the presence of tot at settlements of very differing status may suggest that the situation was rather more complicated.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. Kinglets In mid-eighth century 13 kings under the King of Makuria. \"These kinglets were all priests, but if they killed someone they were no longer allowed to celebrate the liturgy.\" Their absence from Arab sources suggests they did not control any military forces.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 3. Town mayor Graffito in Jebel Adda written by the town-mayor.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 519, "polity": { "id": 219, "name": "sd_makuria_k_3", "long_name": "Makuria Kingdom III", "start_year": 850, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>The evidence for the following spans the 700-1000 CE period.<br>1. King<br> \"The king was the undisputed head of state holding absolute authority over all his subjects.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> In law the general population were slaves of the king although in Nobadia/Maris \"estates could be passed on by inheritance\" at least from the early ninth century.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 94) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. \"The domesticos was a deputy and we find domesticoi of the king and of the eparch.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> The mid-7th century Nubian peace-treaty with the Muslim Arabs apparently included the requirement for the latter to supply wheat (300 ardeb), jugs (300) and cloth (3 pieces of qabati) for the king's delegates. The Makurian king sent slaves the other way.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 70-71) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>\"Although Nubia, unlike Egypt, was not part of the Byzantine empire, there undoubtedly existed between them definite links forged by the missions of the priests Julianos and Longinos. The organization of the Nubian government, as its nomenclature shows, was strictly modelled on the Byzantine bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 187) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Referring to the Byzantine bureaucracy of the 6th century.' Modelled on the imperial court at Byzantine.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ \"Among the officials of Makuria recorded in the sources are the primicerius, the promeizon and the protodomesticos of the palace and the protomeizoteros.\" Other titles are known but their duties unknown.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 95) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ Cannot assume a similar function to those in the Byzantine court.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. Eparch palatium Based at the capital? \"The eparch palatium may have been a separate office, perhaps the chief administrator of the whole realm.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 3.<br> 4. Scribes \"There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>\"The Church was clearly a major force in the State, but how it was maintained and what secular role it played in the administration is unclear. The Church certainly owned land, as is indicated by an Old Nubia document from Qasr Ibrim...\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 102-103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>\"There is a suggestion that monastic institutions were directly involved in manufacturing, especially of pottery but also possibly of other goods, and, along with members of the clergy, in the provision of services, legal, medical and secretarial. The monks and clerics were presumably among the best educated and literate members of Nubia society and hence would have been an invaluable resource for the administration of the State, although their abilities alone do not constitute proof that they were so employed. There was clearly also a civil administration with its own scribes separate from the Church.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 103) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Eparch of an eparchate§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93-94) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§ \"The authority of the Makurian king was delegated to a number of officials, chief among whom was the eparch, a title which, as the Greek equivalent of the Latin praefectus, was widely used in the Roman and Byzantine Empires.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> \"the organization of power in Christian Nubia was modelled on Byzantium. The civil governor of the province was the eparch, whose authority was symbolized by the horned crown which he wore on a helmet decorated with a crescent.\"§REF§(Michalowski 1990, 189) K Michalowski. The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1990. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. II. Abridged Edition. James Currey. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> One based in the north of the Kingdom dealt with the Muslims. \"Ibn Selim describes him as among the highest ranking governors in the kingdom\".§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> \"The court of the eparch was modelled on that of the monarch and used the same court titles, derived in both cases from the imperial court at Byzantine.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Also an eparch who administered the south.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 93) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Nobadia was \"a distinct territorial unit within the Makurian state with the name of Maris.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 84) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> Although the Kingdom of Nobadia \"was subordinated to the central Makurian administration ... it is difficult to speak of a united Kingdom of Nubia. ... The new royal Makuria administration with its division into provinces was established presumably by King Kyriakos and should be dated to the second half of the 8th century.\"§REF§(Godlewski 2004, 1045) Wlodzimierz Godlewski. Christian Nubia, Studies 1996-2000. Mat Immerzeel. Jacques van der Vliet. eds. 2004. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Coptic Studies on the Threshold of a New Millennium. II. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Coptic Studies Leiden 2000. Peeters Publishers. Leuven.§REF§<br> 3. \"The tot is the most commonly found of these officials and is always associated with a locality, of which a total of fifteen are recorded. Adams suggests that the tot may have been a wealthy local worthy deputed by the state to oversee a community although the presence of tot at settlements of very differing status may suggest that the situation was rather more complicated.\"§REF§(Welsby 2002, 96) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 2. Kinglets In mid-eighth century 13 kings under the King of Makuria. \"These kinglets were all priests, but if they killed someone they were no longer allowed to celebrate the liturgy.\" Their absence from Arab sources suggests they did not control any military forces.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§<br> 3. Town mayor Graffito in Jebel Adda written by the town-mayor.§REF§(Welsby 2002, 92) Derek A Welsby. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. The British Museum Press. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 520, "polity": { "id": 383, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1396, "end_year": 1511 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Sultan.§REF§(Koh and Ho 2009, 10) Jaime Koh. Stephanie Ho. 2009. Culture and Customs of Singapore and Malaysia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§<br> \"One aspect of the fluidity of this Archipelago world was the way rulers themselves often moved from one region to another, creating new settlements and polities. This is a theme in many of the chronicles of royal houses. The Melaka line did not merely migrate from Palembang to Melaka to Johor, but established in Bintan (near Singapore), Singapore itself and Muar before choosing Melaka; after the Portuguese conquest, they went to Pahang, Bintan and Kampar (on Sumatra), before settling on the Johor river. ... In man cases a ruler just seems to arrive at a spot, and a settlement and kingdom form around him. ... In some instances monarchs are described as arriving in a territory, marrying the daughter of a prominent local and then being installed as ruler.\"§REF§(Milner 2011) Anthony Milner. 2011. The Malays. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester.§REF§ People also moved \"from one sultanate to another.\"§REF§(Milner 2011) Anthony Milner. 2011. The Malays. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Bendahara (Chief Minister) Bendahara (Chief Minister).§REF§(Blackburn 2006, 289) Kevin Blackburn. Colonial forces as postcolonial memories: the commemoration and memory of the Malay Regiment in modern Malaysia and Singapore. Tobias Rettig. Karl Hack. ed. 2006. Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br> Chief of the Exchequer chief tax collector who controlled Customs Officers. (R J Wilkinson. 'The Melaka Sultanate. 1935.) Harbour Master in charge of tax collection and enforcement of Harbour Laws. (Same reference?).<br> \"Few Malay sultans, however, took a direct interest in daily administration. A feature of Malay states became a mutually advantageous partnership between the ruling dynasty with its magical aura of daulat (sovereignty), and an effective administrator who had the necessary military and economic support at any given time. The chronicle of the Melaka sultanate expressed the relationship symbolically in a compact between the ancestor of the sultans and the prototype of the powerful Bendahara line\".§REF§(Reid 2014, 1-2) Anthony Reid. 2014. The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra. National University of Singapore Press. Singapore.§REF§<br> 2. Envoys In 1405 CE envoys sent by the Chief in Malacca arrived at the imperial court in China.§REF§(Wilkinson 1935, 23) R J Wilkinson. 1935. The Malacca Sultanate. Malacca Papers. Journal Malayan Branch. Vol. XIII. Part II.§REF§<br> 2. Police chief inferred 3. Guards \"Early Malacca was made up of two parts: an outer township where most of its people lived and an inner stockaded bazaar where the traders kept their stores, money and provisions. This, the real 'Mart,' was shut up at night and guarded or policed.\"§REF§(Wilkinson 1935, 26) R J Wilkinson. 1935. The Malacca Sultanate. Malacca Papers. Journal Malayan Branch. Vol. XIII. Part II.§REF§ Watchmen and police around the bazaar.§REF§(Wilkinson 1935, 26) R J Wilkinson. 1935. The Malacca Sultanate. Malacca Papers. Journal Malayan Branch. Vol. XIII. Part II.§REF§<br> 2. Chief of state tin industry inferred - could be the same as the chief administrator 3. Manager of tin mine inferred 4. Worker in a tin mine Tin industry was under state control.§REF§(Wilkinson 1935, 26) R J Wilkinson. 1935. The Malacca Sultanate. Malacca Papers. Journal Malayan Branch. Vol. XIII. Part II.§REF§<br> 2. Chief finance official probably the Bendahara? or Chief of the Exchequer, if different person 3. Manager of a mint inferred \"It has been assumed the Malacca coinage was issued during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah (1445-1459 A.D.), who first introduced coinage in Malacca, which in some way served as a model or source of inspiration to the origins of the Brunei coinage.\"§REF§Bilcher Bala. 2005. Thalassocracy: a history of the medieval Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. Universiti Malaysia Sabah.§REF§<br> 4. Mint worker inferred<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Malay rajah \"Traditionally, however, when war occurred, 'the Sultan gave orders through the Bendahara (Chief Minister) to the various Malay rajah and chiefs to rally and lead their men - fuedal retainers - who assembled their own arms and equipment.'\"§REF§(Blackburn 2006, 289) Kevin Blackburn. Colonial forces as postcolonial memories: the commemoration and memory of the Malay Regiment in modern Malaysia and Singapore. Tobias Rettig. Karl Hack. ed. 2006. Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br> 3. Malay chiefs<br>\"The Sriwijayan mandala left a mark. From the Malay heartland on and behind the central and southern coast of eastern Sumatra, a Sriwijayan network of Malay-speaking centres developed through-out the Riau-Lingga archipelago of the so-called 'sea gypsies' to the southern part of the Malay Peninsula. The process of Malay acculturation in this extensive area was probably assisted by the centripetal influence of the great Sriwijayan court, where services by the datus, attracted to it from outlying centres throughout the mandala, took on the style of courtly hierarchy.\"§REF§(Wolters 1982, 23) O W Wolters. 1982. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Singapore.§REF§ .......... \"The fifteenth century Sultans of Malacca were the heirs to much of this cultural tradition, and Malay royal traditions, expressed in the concept of loyalty and court organization, moved out to northern Borneo and the Philippines. This far-flung Malay political culture was reinforced by the profession of Islam, a widely circulating Malay-language literature, and frequent marriage relationships across the seas.\"§REF§(Wolters 1982, 23-24) O W Wolters. 1982. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Singapore.§REF§" }, { "id": 521, "polity": { "id": 235, "name": "my_malacca_sultanate_22222", "long_name": "Malacca Sultanate", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1415 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Sultan<br> \"Various southern Ethiopian populations, from the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden up to the Blue Nile, were thus converted to Islam. As a result, various Muslim sultanates were formed...\"§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§<br> \"The city of Zayla, which was the Somali gateway to the Arabian Peninsula, became the capital city of the multi-ethnic Adal Sultanate which flourished from 1415 to 1577 AD.\"Note: Harar was made capital of the Adal Sultanate.§REF§(Abdullahi 2017, 54) Abdurahman Abdullahi. 2017 Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. London.§REF§<br> \"The three Muslim States of Ifat, Hadya and Fatajar occupied the strategic positions that provided footholds for further penetration of Islamic commerce and learning into the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia.\"§REF§(Teferra 1990) Daniel Teferra. 1990. Social history and theoretical analyses of the economy of Ethiopia. Edwin Mellen Press.§REF§<br> First ruler Sultan Umar ibn Dunya-huz (1270-1285 CE) \"who was probably appointed by Emperor Yekuno Amlak\".§REF§(Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 225) David H Shinn. Thomas P Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. 2nd Edition. Scarecrow Press. Lanham.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>Arabian style-government - wazir, departments, officials etc?<br> 2. \"Muslim sultanates were formed, and were dominated by a hereditary aristocracy which purported to be of Arab origin, while the mass of the population was Ethiopian\".§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§<br> 3. 4.<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Muslim settlements \"Further Muslim settlements have been identified in north-eastern Shoa (Ethiopia)\".§REF§(Insoll 2003, 69) Timothy Insoll. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Interior settlements that lined the caravan trade route from ports to highlands \"tended to cover and area less than 1,000 m2 and contained remains of houses built of wattle and daub.\"§REF§(Insoll 2003, 67) Timothy Insoll. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Ethiopians \"Various southern Ethiopian populations, from the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden up to the Blue Nile, were thus converted to Islam. As a result, various Muslim sultanates were formed, and were dominated by a hereditary aristocracy which purported to be of Arab origin, while the mass of the population was Ethiopian and probably belonged to the Cushite family of the Sidamas.\"§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§<br> 2. Pastoralist groups<br> Pastorialist Somali witnessed \"the rise of influential Muslim families/clan groups began as early as the tenth century, with the lineage ancestors within this 'elaborate system of clans and lineages' soon being transformed into Muslim saints [I. M. Lewis 1986:139].\"§REF§(Insoll 2003, 67) Timothy Insoll. 2003. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>Arabian style government? \"Muslim sultanates were formed, and were dominated by a hereditary aristocracy which purported to be of Arab origin, while the mass of the population was Ethiopian\".§REF§(Cerulli 1992, 281) E. Cerulli. Ethiopia's relations with the Muslim world. I Hrbek ed. 1992. General History of Africa. Abridged Edition. III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. James Currey. California.§REF§<br> 2.<br> Ibn Battuta mentions wazirs in Somali Mogadishu.§REF§(Abdullahi 2017, 54) Abdurahman Abdullahi. 2017 Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. London.§REF§ 3. 4." }, { "id": 522, "polity": { "id": 776, "name": "mw_maravi_emp", "long_name": "Maravi Empire", "start_year": 1622, "end_year": 1870 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": "levels. \"Kalonga’s success depended on the cooperation of his many territorial chiefs. It was through them that he managed the political and economic affairs of the state. Territorial chiefs were the leaders on the ground who controlled the masses. They remitted to Kalonga his portion of all taxes and fees they collected from traders, hunters and others. The territorial chiefs in turn expected fair treatment from Kalonga and his senior officials.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a> 1. Kalonga (ruler)<br>2. Senior officials3. Territorial chiefs", "description": null }, { "id": 523, "polity": { "id": 393, "name": "in_maukhari_dyn", "long_name": "Maukhari Dynasty", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 605 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2. Prime Minister\"It is very probable that the king had a body of ministers from whom he sought counsel, and who helped him in the government of the realm. [...] The prime-minister undoubtedly was the head of this body.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVTVIVQ\">[Pires 1934, p. 169]</a> 3. Ministers<br>__Provincial government__<br>2. Provincial governors\"The home-land, or rather the country in the vicinity of the capital, seems to have been under the direct control of the king; the other provinces were ruled by governors or by members of the dynasties from whom the respective provinces had been conquered.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVTVIVQ\">[Pires 1934, p. 170]</a> 3. Village headman\"The village, which was the smallest unit of the kingdom, had its own organisation. There was the simakarnakara or the boundary settlement officer; there was the bhojaka or the village headman; and there was the talavataka, the modern talati or village accountant.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVTVIVQ\">[Pires 1934, p. 170]</a> 4. Other village officials", "description": null }, { "id": 524, "polity": { "id": 209, "name": "ma_mauretania", "long_name": "Mauretania", "start_year": -125, "end_year": 44 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King at Volubilis<br> King Bocchus had a royal court.§REF§(Roller 2003, 48) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§<br>1. King at Iol (late first century BCE)<br> Bocchus II, ruling from Iol, and Bogudes II, ruling from Volubilis, divided Mauretania between them and probably \"were of equal status, cousins or even brothers.\"§REF§(Roller 2003, 55) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Treasurer/top administration official inferred 3. Manager of a Mint inferred 4. Worker in a Mint inferred Mauretania certainly had coinage during the reign of Bocchus II in the mid-first century BCE.§REF§(Sayles 1998, 115) Wayne G Sayles. 1998. Ancient Coin Collecting IV. Roman Provincial Coins. Krause Publications. Iola.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Sufet \"In general, the period of the independent Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms saw the evolution and entrenchment of a culture of mixed Libyan and Phoenician character, the latter element being culturally dominant though naturally representing only a minority of the population as a whole. ... the term sufet is known to have been used in at least thirty different towns as far apart as Volubilis in western Morocco and Leptis Magna in Libya.\"§REF§(Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 462-463) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.§REF§<br> 3.<br> 2. Vassal state<br> \"Askalis, whose territory was localized in the vicinity of Tingis. Otherwise unknown, he is presented in Plutarch's account as one who had been deposed from the Mauretanian throne and was seeking a restoration. His position was supported by Sulla, which means, given Sulla's personal history, that he was probably a vassal of Bocchus I, whose recent death may have led to Askalis' overthrow. The issue is complicated by the fact that Askalis is not a North African name, but one that seems Greek, remindful of Askalos... It seems plausible that an adventurer from this city [Askalon] could end up as a petty dunast of Tingis at the other end of the Mediterranean. Tingis was itself a city with Hellenic and Phoenician roots, and northwest Africa had become increasingly topical in the Greek world since the second century BC. ... His claim to be king of all Mauretania is exaggerated, but Tingis seems virtually to have been an autonomous petty state.\"§REF§(Roller 2003, 53-54) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§ Askalis was deposed in a popular revolt? in 81 BCE.§REF§(Roller 2003, 54) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§ The Roman \"Sertorius, who prevented the restoration, ended up ruler of Tingis itself, the inhabitants already having shown their receptiveness to a foreign ruler. This was hardly 'all Mauretania,' as he claimed in an exaggeration he had perhaps learned from Askalis, but nevertheless, more than a single city was under his control.\"§REF§(Roller 2003, 54) Duane W Roller. 2003. The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. New York.§REF§<br> 2. Mountain tribes (autonomous?) \"The Mauretanian kingdom is generally considered to have developed more slowly than Numidia but this may be due to lack of information. Obviously the mountain massif of the Atlas remained as immune to Phoenician as it later did to Roman civilization but there was some development of sedentary life in fertile regions such as the Moulouya Valley and along the Atlantic coast. It was in the mountainous regions that individual tribes retained their identity into Roman times and even beyond.\"§REF§(Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 462) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 525, "polity": { "id": 345, "name": "ir_median_emp", "long_name": "Median Persian Empire", "start_year": -715, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. king<br>2. larger provincial rulers3. smaller provincial rulers, 'lords of township',4. ?5. village council. §REF§Diakonoff, I.M. 1985. Media. In Gershevitch, I. The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 2 The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge Archaeological Press. p.135 - 137§REF§<br>It is likely that, upon taking over Assyrian lands, the Medians followed the Assyrian example of small provinces. Later, however, larger provinces were also introduced that encompassed whole people, or multiple groups of people.<br>Herodotus describes of an attempt to revive the councils of self-government, such as councils of elders, which do not seem to have existed in the Median empire. However, it is almost certain that there must have been a smaller administration unit than a small province ruler." }, { "id": 526, "polity": { "id": 52, "name": "pa_monagrillo", "long_name": "Monagrillo", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "The Monagrillo people do not appear to have been organized into a polity.§REF§John W. Hoopes 2017, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish.§REF§ At present there is no evidence to suggest that they 'were living in settlements larger than hamlets',§REF§John W. Hoopes 2017, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish.§REF§ so it does not seem justified to infer the presence of an administrative hierarchy." }, { "id": 527, "polity": { "id": 530, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Early Postclassic", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1099 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Ethnohistoric records written by the Spanish after 1520 describe the coqui or noblemen who oversaw the villages, as well as the golaba, or “lord’s solicitor” who oversaw the collection of goods and services from the villages.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p376§REF§ The levels of organisation are supported by the archaeological evidence which suggests that there was a head town in each of the polities, with supporting villages and hamlets.§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385§REF§" }, { "id": 528, "polity": { "id": 531, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5_b", "long_name": "Monte Alban V Late Postclassic", "start_year": 1101, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Ethnohistoric records written by the Spanish after 1520 describe the coqui or noblemen who oversaw the villages, as well as the golaba, or “lord’s solicitor” who oversaw the collection of goods and services from the villages.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). \"Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.\" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p376§REF§ The levels of organisation are supported by the archaeological evidence which suggests that there was a head town in each of the polities, with supporting villages and hamlets.§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385§REF§" }, { "id": 529, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": "levels. Inferred from what is known about the Maravi Empire, which was the same polity as this one, after it became territorially expansive. \"Kalonga’s success depended on the cooperation of his many territorial chiefs. It was through them that he managed the political and economic affairs of the state. Territorial chiefs were the leaders on the ground who controlled the masses. They remitted to Kalonga his portion of all taxes and fees they collected from traders, hunters and others. The territorial chiefs in turn expected fair treatment from Kalonga and his senior officials.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a> 1. Kalonga (ruler)<br>2. Senior officials3. Territorial chiefs", "description": null }, { "id": 530, "polity": { "id": 313, "name": "ru_novgorod_land", "long_name": "Novgorod Land", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Prince in Kiev<br> Kievan era of Russian history: \"The union that was formed was an extremely loose federation of nearly autonomous city-states, each ruled presumably by a prince appointed by the prince in Kiev, who usually chose his kinsmen for these thrones.\"§REF§(Blum 1971, 13-14) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br> 2. Prince in Novgorod \"Novgorod is curiously absent in the testamentary dispositions of Iaroslav the Wise in 1054, when he distributed the most important principalities among his sons, Iziaslav, as the eldest, receiving Kiev. The explanation is probably that the obviously important seat of Novgorod had already been reserved for Iziaslav's son.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 475) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> the Novgorod people were selecting their princes in 970 \"when the people of Novgorod requested Sviatoslav also to appoint a prince for them, or otherwise 'we will choose a prince of our own'.\" Vladimir was appointed. Sometime after 977 CE Vladimir conquered Kiev with a force of Varangians.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 473) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Governor/Mayor (posadnik) later called namestniki (lieutenants) in Novgorod \"Another significant step in Novgorod's progress towards full independence had been the appointment of a governor or mayor (posadnik) by the boyar leadership, without consulting the prince, at that time (1088-1094) Mstislav Vladimirovich, a boy still in his teens. Previous posadniki had been appointed by the prince as his representatives during his absence. Such appointments continued in later years, but then these officials were called namestniki (lieutenants).\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 476-477) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Veche assembly \"In Novgorod, and probably in other towns as well, regular veche meetings were convoked by ringing the veche bell. When Novgorod lost its independence and the grand prince had forbidden further meetings of the veche, the veche bell was removed to Moscow.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 429) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"Novgorod was governed, until it lost its independence in 1471, by its own citizenship.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 465) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Veche meetings were held at the Court of Iaroslav.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 466) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. Piatiny division (leaders?) \"The historical province (principality of Novgorod consisted of an area with a radius of roughly 200-250 km\" surrounded by five other areas.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 466) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"Whether the piatiny division goes back to the times of the Novgorod republic is a much debated question; the majority of scholars accept a relatively early origin.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 467) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> Novgorod was split into five quarters and the region around it had five divisions. It is thought that this is connected. \"the four oldest quarters (kontsy) were each contiguous with their adjacent piatina. The piatiny then were, at least hypothetically, the extensions of the individual quarters into the open countryside, and were controlled by them.\" Although Frolov (2014) says the piatiny were administrative divisions introduced by Moscow after the end of this polity.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 467) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. tysiatskii (Commander of the urban militia and judicial responsibilities) \"in later times, and especially in Novgorod, the tysiatskii became one of the highest urban officials. Orignally, the tysiatskie were appointed by the prince and were primarily the commanders of the urban militia. In Novgorod and Pskov the office (which also included judicial responsibilities) had become elective at an early stage, while in other places it only tended to be elective. ... it often ran ... in particular families (from which either the prince or the veche had to select their candidate). In the principality of Moscow the office disappeared after the death of the last tysiatski ... in 1374.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 531, "polity": { "id": 206, "name": "dz_numidia", "long_name": "Numidia", "start_year": -220, "end_year": -46 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King / gld / melek.<br> \"The states of Numidia and Mauretania were ruled by people to whom our sources give the title 'king' ... or occasionally 'chief' ... The indiegnous title, as wekk know from a Numidian inscription of the second century BC, was gld, presumably a cognate of the modern Berber title aguellid. The native rulers also applied to themselves the Phoenician royal title, melek.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 176-177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Hereditary kingship, initially brother to brother but other hereditary succession known.§REF§(Law 1978, 177) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Numidia was beyond question, next to Egypt, the most considerable of all the Roman client-states. After the death of Massinissa ..., Scipio had divided the sovereign functions of that prince among his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal in such a way that the firstborn obtained the residency and the state chest, the second the charge of war, and the third the administration of justice\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"the Numidian kings owned Carthaginian-style estates.\"§REF§(Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.§REF§<br> 2. Princes \"As his sons were not yet grown up, the reins of government were practically held by an illegitimate nephew of the king, the prince of Jugurtha.\"§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Jugurtha, a Numidian prince, had been \"introduced to the circles of the Roman aristocracy, had at the same time been initiated into the intrigues of Roman coteries, and had studied at the fountainhead what might be expected of Roman nobles.\"§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 146) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Council of Nobles/Chieftains Jugurtha summoned a council of war to approve a peace treaty with Rome.§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Greek historian Appian wrote: \"There were many separate chieftains of the Numidians in Africa, but Syphax occupied the highest place of all, and was held in great honour by all the others.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 179) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>The king of Mauretainia, at the time of Jugurtha, is said to have \"received him at his court, uniting to Jugurtha's followers his own numberless swarms of horsemen\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 157) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ Kingdom of Numidia likely also had a court. \"The organization of the Numidian kingdom is more obscure, in spite of the exhaustive studies of Camps and Gsell. It is difficult to add to their account of its history. The administrative and economic structures of the kingdom are more interesting, however, in part because they seem to have been extremely fragile.\"§REF§J J Rossiter. 1978. Roman Farm Buildings in Italy, Issues 52-55. British Archaeological Reports. p. 43§REF§<br> 2. Counsellor \"Now after the death of his two brothers Massinissa's eldest son, Micipsa, reigned alone, a feeble peaceful old man, who occupied himself more with the study of Greek philosophy than with affairs of state. As his sons were not yet grown up, the reins of government were practically held by an illegitimate nephew of the king, the prince of Jugurtha.\"§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"Jurgurtha was ... a skilled and courageous rider and hunter; his countrymen held him in high honour as a clear and sagacious administrator\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 145) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Bomilcar was king Jugurtha's \"most confidential counsellor\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Treasury At the time of Jurgurtha the royal treasury was \"still well filled with the savings of Massinissa”.§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 149) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ The Numidian king was wealthy in gold and silver.§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 150, 156) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Jugurtha's treasures \"were kept in the town of Suthul (afterwards Calama, now Guelma) difficult of access and still more difficult of conquest\".§REF§(Mommsen 1863) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 3. Manager of mint inferred 4. Mint worker inferred \"Operating in the manner of Hellenistic kings, they founded capital cities, built monumental tombs, issued coinage, assembled armies\".§REF§(Klingshirn 2012, 29) Wlliam E Klingshirn. Cultural Geography. Mark Vessey. ed. 2012. A Companion to Augustine. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Chichester.§REF§<br> \"The coins of Masinissa ... struck in bronze and lead and bearing his bearded portrait and initials in the Punic script, are very numerous, and evidently served as a circulating currency among the Numidians, or at least among the eastern Numidians.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 183) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Sufet (Chief Magristrate of a town) \"The Numidian cities were governed in the manner of Carthage by magistrates who nevertheless had Berber titles and possibly Berber customs, while Berber made an increasing appearance alongside Punic in inscriptions in a Berber script.\"§REF§(Brett 2013, 120) Michael Brett. 2013. Approaching African History. James Currey. Woodbridge.§REF§<br> \"The towns of Cirta and Capsa ... had municipal institutions modelled on those of the Phoenicians, their chief magistrates bearing the Phoenician title sufet.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 184) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 3. 4.<br> 2. Chieftains Greek historian Appian wrote: \"There were many separate chieftains of the Numidians in Africa, but Syphax occupied the highest place of all, and was held in great honour by all the others.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 179) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"by the end of his reign Masinissa had apparently suppressed or subjected the independent chiefs and united all the Numidians under his rule.\"§REF§(Law 1978, 182) R C C Law. North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, 323 BC to AD 305. J D Fage. Roland Anthony Oliver. eds. 1978. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2. c. 500 B.C. - A.D. 1050. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Dependent / autonomous tribes \"In the south the free Gaetulian tribes of the desert began at Jugurtha's call a national war against the Romans.\"§REF§(Mommsen 1863, 157) Theodore Mommsen. William P Dickson trans. 2009 (1863). The History of Rome. Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Numidia and Mauretania: \"It should be stressed that to some extent the two kingdoms continued as merely geographical expressions, since within them a large number of tribes retained their identity well into Roman times, some even beyond, and political unity remained tenuous.\"§REF§(Mahjoubi and Salama 1981, 461) A Mahjoubi and P Salama. The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa. G Mokhtar. ed. 1981. General History of Africa II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Heinemann. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 532, "polity": { "id": 542, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy", "long_name": "Yemen - Ottoman period", "start_year": 1873, "end_year": 1920 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>[(5) Ottoman Central Government; (4) Ottoman Government in Yemen; (3) Ottoman administration;] (2) Tribal Shaykhs and Zaidi Imams; (1) Local Headmen<br>On the local level, tribal authority remained relevant, often intersecting with lower-level administration. Aspiring Imams had to rely on tribal support in their anti-Ottoman campaigns: 'It is a continuing challenge of governmental strategies to achieve a stable balance between relatively autonomous tribes and the state. Alliance with dominant tribal confederation therefore may still be influential in the distribution of development projects by central authorities.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ 'The Zaidi Imamate could not build its power solely upon a union of non-agricultural specialists: it required the support of the militarily powerful northern landowning shaikhs and the groups of fighting men that they could muster, usually from the poorer village families. The development of shaikhly constellations of power, in the manner described by Montagne for the Moroccan Berbers, was curtailed by exporting shaikhly leaders to tax prebends in richer areas. In this way the tribe was sanctioned as a status group within the state. The Imamic state rested on an alliance of the farmer (the fighter) with the preacher (the judge) and on the symbolic and political suppression of mercantile and craft interests more generally. The union of religious leaders and martial farmers from agriculturally marginal areas formed a loose prebendal dominion over the more productive, largely Shafi'i, peasant areas of the west and south. Whether collected by regular employees of the government or by irregulars from the north, taxes were paid by those who produced most, by the peasants of the richer areas. For example, Goitein reports that the Jewish villagers of al-Gades in lower Yemen called the local landlord 'askari, \"soldier\", noting, however, that he and his like came from the eastern pastoral region and should be distinguished from the regular 'askari who accompanied the local government officer on his tax levies.' §REF§Mundy, Martha 1995. \"Domestic Government: Kinship, Community and Polity in North Yemen\", 14§REF§ 'Yemeni society is hierarchically organized on the basis of birth status and occupation. Until relative political stability was achieved in the late 1970s, birth and occupational statuses were legitimized as ascribed social categories. The elimination of practical barriers that restrict power and privilege?especially through marriage and education?to certain members of the society has only just begun. Under the system of ranked social categories, members of respectable groupings recognized their own noble descent and considered themselves the protectors of servants, former slaves, artisans, and certain farmers, all of whom were thought of as ?deficient,? either because they provided a service or craft?such as bloodletting, butchery, or barbering?that involved contact with polluting substances, or because their origins were discredited as ignoble. The tribal code of protection was also extended to elites at the top of the social scale, especially to sayyids, the reputed descendants of the Prophet, who originally came to Yemen to serve as mediators between tribes and who are respected for their religious expertise. Another social category, that of legal scholars, also inherits high status in the ranking order. Scholars, along with shuyukh (sing. shaykh ), who are tribal leaders, typically serve as village administrators. The majority of Yemenis use various equivalent or substitute terms to identify themselves within the social hierarchy, including qaba\\??\\il in the northern highlands to connote tribal membership, ra\\??\\iyah in the south to mean ?cultivators,? and \\??\\arab along the coast to signify respectable ancestry. Former slaves continue to act as agents and domestics in the households of former masters, but the most menial jobs (e.g., removing human waste from the street) are reserved for Yemenis who are alleged descendants of Ethiopians of the pre-Islamic era. In addition, Yemen relies on a range of foreigners from the East and West for professional, technical, and custodial services.' §REF§Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis§REF§ The Imamate and the Ottomans superimposed their own administrative structure onto the tribal system without supplanting it: 'Developments in the 19th century were fateful for Yemen. The determination of various European powers to establish a presence in the Middle East elicited an equally firm determination in other powers to thwart such efforts. For Yemen, the most important participants in the drama were the British, who took over Aden in 1839, and the Ottoman Empire, which at mid-century moved back into North Yemen, from which it had been driven by the Yemenis two centuries earlier. The interests and activities of these two powers in the Red Sea basin and Yemen were substantially intensified by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the reemergence of the Red Sea route as the preferred passage between Europe and East Asia. As the Ottomans expanded inland and established themselves in Sanaa and Taʿizz, the British expanded north and east from Aden, eventually establishing protectorates over more than a dozen of the many local statelets; this was done more in the interest of protecting Aden’s hinterland from the Ottomans and their Yemeni adversaries than out of any desire to add the territory and people there to the British Empire. By the early 20th century the growing clashes between the British and the Ottomans along the undemarcated border posed a serious problem; in 1904 a joint commission surveyed the border, and a treaty was concluded, establishing the frontier between Ottoman North Yemen and the British possessions in South Yemen. Later, of course, both Yemens considered the treaty an egregious instance of non-Yemeni interference in domestic affairs. The north became independent at the end of World War I in 1918, with the departure of the Ottoman forces; the imam of the Zaydīs, Yaḥyā Maḥmūd al-Mutawwakil, became the de facto ruler in the north by virtue of his lengthy campaign against the Ottoman presence in Yemen. In the 1920s Imam Yaḥyā sought to consolidate his hold on the country by working to bring the Shāfiʿī areas under his administrative jurisdiction and by suppressing much of the intertribal feuding and tribal opposition to the imamate. In an effort to enhance the effectiveness of his campaigns against the tribes and other fractious elements, the imam sent a group of Yemeni youth to Iraq in the mid-1930s to learn modern military techniques and weaponry. These students would eventually become the kernel of domestic opposition to Yaḥyā and his policies.' §REF§<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/History#toc45273</a>§REF§ 'The first thing to be said is that no attempt was made to abolish tribalism as such. Where tribal practice was equated so readily with ignorance, and thus with irreligion, this might seem surprising, but it is as if the phenomenon were God-given; as much part of the intractable world and God's will as the mountains or the weather. Indeed,there were only 'tribes', not tribalism, and th eradical ambition of rebuilding humanity to some human design (a 'sociological' ambition, of its nature) is more a feature of our own time. Nor did theImamate command the means to root out institutions on any large scale. The Hamidal-Din Imams, Yahya (1904-48)and Ahmad(1948-62), did not reproduce the elaborate courts and armies of the early Qasimis but were rather frugal men who personally supervised even small, local matters and ran their administrations with the forms of power available to them (see e.g.Rihani 1930:220ff.; Scott 1942:174-5).Over the following decades they gradually built an army, whose officers in the end were to be part of the Imamate's undoing,but the tribes remained the stronger force, always carefully fragmented by their rulers' policy. The aim was that 'the pure shari'a be established', which (as in most pre-bureaucratic Islamic states) meant first of all that the zakat, or canonical tax, be collected and a modicum of order retained. 'Broadly speaking, the tribal Zaydi north was governed by indirect rule with subsidies providedf or the chiefs. The Shafi'I south was less fortunate in being under direct rule by government officials working in concert with local headmen'(Serjeant 1979:92). In both areas the 'headmen' received a cut of the tax which it was their responsibility to collect. One is sometimes told now that this was a quarter of the total for northerners and a tenth for the Shafi'I south (Messick 1978:170), but the details in the north were in fact irregular.' §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. \"Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen\", 228§REF§ ‘By the terms of the European armistice at the end of the First World War, the Turks were obliged to abandon Yemen. The Imam filled their place. Even before he entered San’a’ in 1918, Imam Yahya sent a force of tribesmen under Sayyid ‘Ali al-Wazir to take Haraz from the Isma’ilis (al-Jirafi 1951: 225), some of whom turned for help to the Idrisi; and as the Turks withdrew, the Imam also turned his attention southward. The tribes were directed against the Shafi’i areas of Lower Yemen, much as they had been by the Qasimis, in a jihad. ‘The tribesman who enrolled under the Imam’s standard and came from north of San’a’ to the lowlands of the Tihamah, to Ibb, to Ta’izz, and al-Bayda’ was not referred to as a soldier but as a warrior in the cause of the God’ (Nu’man 1965: 27). Not all of Nu’man’s writing is intended as sober history, but the nature of these campaigns is not in doubt and they occurred of course well within living memory.’ §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. “Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen”, 224§REF§ 'Imamic government was of a religious character, sharing power with and at times dominating, but never entirely restructuring or supplanting, rural political, military and legal structures. Its rule rested on an uneasy pact with northern leaders and groups. The allegiance of the prominent shaikhs was rewarded by alliance and simultaneously controlled by a system of holding (and educating) young hostages from their families. During the reign of Imam Yahya, the developing administration of the Imamic state moved to institutionalize status differences. The cadre of the Imamic administration proclaimed themselves the bearers of the civilizing tradition of Islamic learning and law. Under the Imamate Islamic shari'ah was to conquer divisive tribal custom and the ulema (the scholars) would rule and not merely serve the shaikhs.' §REF§Mundy, Martha 1995. \"Domestic Government: Kinship, Community and Polity in North Yemen\", 13§REF§ Tribal parties, Imams, and Ottoman authorities often clashed, but also entered shifting alliances: ‘When the Turks arrived at San’a’ in 1872, the Imam al-Mutawakkil Muhsin slipped away, first to Bani ‘Ali in northern Arhab and then to Hashid, moving between Huth, al-Khamri, and al-Qaflah (al-Hibshi 1980: 335). Al-Khamri, of course, is Bayt al-Ahmar’s home area. The al-Ahmars and Hashid acquired a very prominent place in relations between the Turks and the Imam, which they retained under al-Mutawakkil’s successors (ibid. 336, 354, and passim). By comparison, the Barat Bakil tribes, who had been so conspicuous in the mid-nineteenth century, played a somewhat subdued role. A little later, in 1882, Muhammad al-Huthi declared himself Imam at Barat and took the name al-Mahdi. He persisted in the claim until his death in 1901, but he was quite overshadowed by the Imams al-Hadi Sharaf al-Din (1879-90) and al-Mansur Muhammad (1890-1904), both of whom were concerned with great events on the plateau north of San’a’. His own career at Barat was a vita umbratilis, and even to Glaser in the Jawf (1903: 82) he was little more than a rumour. Dhu Muhammad and Dhu Husayn are mentioned both in the north and in Lower Yemen […] -a little later, in 1908, we find a mention of Naji Abu Ra’s of Dhu Muhammad as a Turkish ‘amil in Raydah […] -but the great axis of dispute between the south and the far north-east collapsed: it was the leaders of the more central northern tribes who now came to the fore. The great tribal families of today had appeared at the start of the eighteenth century; but what one sees as the start of the present century is the establishment of their present differences in wealth and power.’ §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. “Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen”, 219p§REF§ 'With the Turkish occupation (1872-1918), the dramatic events that historians record shift in part from the west and south into the tribes‘ own territory. The political reality was complex, and at most points up to 1918 the Turks found support from Yemenis, not least from certain northern shaykhs whose fortunes were bound up with the Turkish presence. The clerk of the San’a’ court learned Turkish. Many if the ‘ulama’ supported the Turks even when the Imam’s fight against them was at its height, and he ambiguities of resisting the Turkish Sultan, who himself was seen to be beset by Christendom, were usually marked. None the less there was sustained resistance in the north. Tribes and Imams fought the Turks repeatedly, and the dynasty of Imams emerged that was to rule Yemen until the 1960s.’ §REF§Dresch, Paul 1989. “Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen”, 219§REF§ The variable was coded for Ottoman rather than Imamic structures." }, { "id": 533, "polity": { "id": 402, "name": "in_paramara_dyn", "long_name": "Paramara Dynasty", "start_year": 974, "end_year": 1235 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>\"Not only this, in the administration of justice, the Paramaras king was guided by a set of officers known as the Dharmastheyas.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 204]</a> __Central government__<br>2. Mahapradhana\"Next in importance to the king were the mantrins or the ministers. [...] The Mahapradhana (Chief Minister) was the highest officer of the state who held charge of the royal seal and exercised general supervision over all the departments, especially the revenue.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 210]</a> 3. Other ministersIncluding Mahasandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace), Tantradhipa (a sort of royal officer in charge of provincial affairs), and Mahapratihara (master of ceremonies). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, pp. 210-213]</a> 3. Adhikarins\"Besides these officers, who perhaps enjoyed the rank of mantrins, we come across some other adhikarins or governmental officers\", including the \"judicial officer\" and \"teh head keeper of the accounts\" and the \"keeper of the royal treasury\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, pp. 213-214]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. Mandalikas and Samantas\"We should do well to note the fact that the Paramaras royal power would have been checked also by the existence of the powerful feudatories in the Paramara kingdom i.e. the mandalikas amd the samantas who enjoyed considerable privileges.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 204]</a> 3. Provincial ministers\"Some powerful feudatory chiefs had their own ministers of war and peace, they could wage wars and enter into treaties with the neighbouring powers independently, though originally they might have been appointed and allotted territories by the Paramara king.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZT5677P4\">[Pratipal 1970, p. 204]</a> 2. Governors who were not entirely autonomous 215<br>3. Village councils 236-241", "description": null }, { "id": 534, "polity": { "id": 349, "name": "tr_pergamon_k", "long_name": "Pergamon Kingdom", "start_year": -282, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>5)King 4) Strategos<br>Strategos was governor of satrapies. He was controller of taxation system. He had military power to some extent. §REF§McShane, R. B. (1964). The foreign policy of the Attalids of Pergamum (Vol. 53). University of Illinois Press, pp. 165-166.§REF§" }, { "id": 535, "polity": { "id": 773, "name": "mw_pre_maravi", "long_name": "Pre-Maravi", "start_year": 1151, "end_year": 1399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"[A]uthority among the Pre-Maravi was vested in priests or priestesses (Langworthy 1973, 14; Ntara 1973, 11; Schoffeleers 1973, 48). Their theocratic power structure is reflected in the presence of rain shrines and ritual water pools at their major settlements.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT7NS8P7\">[Juwayeyi 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 536, "polity": { "id": 293, "name": "ua_russian_principate", "long_name": "Russian Principate", "start_year": 1133, "end_year": 1240 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Prince<br> \"The evidence from the chronicles indicates clearly that a contractual bond between the veche and a particular prince was a normal phenomenon. Frequently, the population of a town would invite a member of the Rurikid dynasty to become 'their prince'; they would then mutually swear oaths ('kiss the cross') and he would be the local prince until he died, was expelled ... or dislodged by another prince.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 427) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"there are many examples of towns changing their allegiance from one Rurikid branch to another.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 428) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Druzhina<br> 2. Lieutenant \"During the prince's absence his responsibilities could be entrusted by him to a lieutenant, the posadnik. This official is mentioned once in the Expanded Pravda (art. 114) ... In Novgorod and Pskov the relationship with the ruling prince developed over time in such a way that the prince became more and more marginalized until in the end these two towns were in fact republics.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 428) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The chronicles show that an escalating series of measures was employed to bring about unanimity from persuasion to intimidation, right down to physical violence against the minority faction. There are no reports of a veche adopting a decision by a majority vote.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 429-430) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> Town officials. The posadnik (lieutenant) was head of local government in the prince's absence. Posadniki mentioned \"as early as in 977\" CE. Decimal system used. \"desiatskie, sotskie and tysiatskie (Latin: decanus, centenarius, millenarius) ... Pavlov-Sil'vanskii ... regarded the decimal system of the organization of Kievan society as an ancient remnant of a system common to several other Aryan (Indo-European) peoples.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 430) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ 3. desiatskie \"With the consolidation of the Kievan empire under St. Vladimir and his son Iaroslav the Wise a more peaceful and reliable method of securing the prince's income was developed. Land and/or money would be made available to peasants-colonists who then could pay back their debts in money or in kind. The system was administered in loco by low-ranking princely servitors (the desiatskie) who would each supervise and organize about ten peasant households. In time they assumed other related functions, such as fiscal and executive duties. The hundredmen were ... of higher rank. Their basic and original task was the supervision and organization of the work of the desiatskie; other related tasks were gradually added to this, in the sphere of dispute settlement, taxation, etc. ... the prince's court and government were normally located in or close to the capital of the principality.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 432) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 4. sotskie 5. tysiatskie 'thousandmen' (tysiatskie) involved in town government. this first appeared 1089 CE. 'hundredmen' (sotskie) and 'tenmen' (desiatski) probably also \"involved within a hierarchical structure.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 430) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>1. Veche (General Assembly) - chief town<br> The veche had a chairman which could be a bishop, usually as mediator, occasionally the prince if the discussion wasn't about relations between him and the populace. Decisions by consensus.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 429) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"even in the earliest Kievan times there existed some kind of market tax\".§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 458) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Veche - Subordinate town Local government also had authority over region surrounding the town.§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 442) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Dependent principality<br> tysiatskii may have originally been a military commander responsible to the prince \"and that his office in Kievan times was connected with a major town, a town which was the capital of a dependent principality.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"in later times, and especially in Novgorod, the tysiatskii became one of the highest urban officials. Orignally, the tysiatskie were appointed by the prince and were primarily the commanders of the urban militia. In Novgorod and Pskov the office (which also included judicial responsibilities) had become elective at an early stage, while in other places it only tended to be elective. ... it often ran ... in particular families (from which either the prince or the veche had to select their candidate). In the principality of Moscow the office disappeared after the death of the last tysiatski ... in 1374.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 431) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Kievan Rus was ruled by a Grand Prince who ruled over smaller territories of 'local princes' and boyars who were landowning nobles. Towns were governed by a veche, or assembly.§REF§Miriam Greenblatt. 2001. Human Heritage: A World History. McGraw-Hill.§REF§<br>\"There is ample evidence that veche meetings took place in Kiev, Novgorod and most of the other principal cities during the 11th and 12th centuries.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 421) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"whatever the local differences, there can be no doubt that in Kievan Russia the veche constituted a signifiant part of the political-legal structure.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 422) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"the veche did not survive the Mongol invasion and domination of Russia, except in the North-West.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 422) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"there are a few rare examples of subordinate towns involved in veche meetings in the chief town, as when in 1136 'the men of Novgorod summoned the men of Pskov and of Ladoga and took counsel how to expel their prince Vsevolod.' ... subordinate towns (prigoroda) are mentioned a few times as conducting their own assemblies.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 425) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 537, "polity": { "id": 301, "name": "uz_shaybanid_k", "long_name": "Shaybanid Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1598 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>Mahalla urban divisions.", "description": null }, { "id": 538, "polity": { "id": 237, "name": "ml_songhai_1", "long_name": "Songhai Empire", "start_year": 1376, "end_year": 1493 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> when the Zuwa dynasty was replaced in the mid-15th Century, the Songhay kings had the title \"sii (short for sonyi)\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 60)§REF§<br> kings called dias until c1335 CE. After that titles were sunni or shi.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 50-51) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>_Central court_<br>Central bureaucracy inferred not present because it was established by Askia Muhammad Toure§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 593)§REF§ at the beginning of the next Songhai period.<br>However it is probable that there was a large court and institutions such as state farms (which was true for the subsequent Songhai period and may be inferred present for this one).<br>\"The Songhay empire, like that of Mali before it thus involved a gigantic effort of state enterprise in production and trade as well as in military operations and civil government.\"§REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 70)§REF§<br> 2. Head official of the court 3. Lesser official 4. Scribe<br> 3. State farms manager (possibly 4. if responsible to an official from the court) State farms \"were spread right across the empire, to supply the government and the garrisons, but the largest concentration was still to be found in the well-watered inland delta\" - a lot of this grain went to the towns, desert caravans and salt mines. §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 69)§REF§<br> 4. Lower-level official<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Governor army commander and provincial governor had dual powers? Askiya Muhammed Toure before his coup vs Sii Baru in 1493 CE was an army commander and provincial goveror. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 65)§REF§<br> Sii Ali Beeri (or Sunni Ali) conquered \"neighboring chiefs and kings, took over their territories\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 17)§REF§<br> 3. District<br> 4. Village \"Sudanic societies were built on small agricultural villages or herding communities, sometimes but not always integrated into larger tribal and linguistic groups.\" §REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§" }, { "id": 539, "polity": { "id": 259, "name": "cn_southern_qi_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Qi State", "start_year": 479, "end_year": 502 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 6, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Prime Minister? After he overthrew Qi Hedi general Xiao Yan called himself Prime Minister.§REF§(Bauer 2010, 166) Susan Wise Bauer. 2010. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W W Norton & Company. New York.§REF§ Possible that the position of Prime Minster already existed and he took it over.<br> 2. Censor-in-Chief There was a 'censorate'.§REF§(Knechtges 2014, 170) David R. Knechtges. Marriage and Social Status. Shen Yue's 'Impeaching Wang Yuan.' Wendy Swartz. Robert Ford Campany. Yang Lu. Jessey J C Choo. 2013. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§<br> 3. 'Palace Aide (to the Censor-in-Chief)'§REF§(Knechtges 2014, 166-175) David R. Knechtges. Marriage and Social Status. Shen Yue's 'Impeaching Wang Yuan.' Wendy Swartz. Robert Ford Campany. Yang Lu. Jessey J C Choo. 2013. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§ Court officials could present petitions to the emperor 'requesting the impeachment of officials for improper conduct.'§REF§(Knechtges 2014, 166-175) David R. Knechtges. Marriage and Social Status. Shen Yue's 'Impeaching Wang Yuan.' Wendy Swartz. Robert Ford Campany. Yang Lu. Jessey J C Choo. 2013. Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§<br> 2. Imperial library chief inferred 3. Librarian 4. Assistant \"Ren Fang was an imperial librarian for the southern Qi # (479–502) and Liang # (502–557) dynasties and lived in Jiankang #F# (now Nanjing ##). Yin Jun was his assistant.\"§REF§(Fischer 2012, 182) Paul Fischer trans. ed. 2012. Shizi. China's First Syncretist. Columbia University Press. New York.§REF§ 5.<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Governor 3. Head of the Consultation section inferred 4. Officer \"during the Southern Qi dynasty (479-501): Lou Cheng, a woman from Dongyang, cross-dressed and presented herself as a man. She was quite skilled at playing go and was widely read. She served in the entourages of all the high ministers of the land and attained the official post of officer in the consultation section of the office of the governor of Yangzhou.\"§REF§(Idema and Grant 2004, 678) Wilt L Idema. Beata Grant. The Red Brush: Writing Women of Imperial China. Harvard University Asia Center.§REF§ 5.<br>Princes: \"The second anecdote, which concerns a Southern Qi noble named Xiao Feng, tells us that princes could not read heterodox books: the only works allowed to them were the Five Classics and Tableaus of Filial Offspring.\"§REF§(Knapp 2005, 48) Keith Nathaniel Knapp. 2005. Selfless Offspring: Filial Children and Social Order in Early Medieval China. University of Hawai'i Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 540, "polity": { "id": 380, "name": "th_sukhotai", "long_name": "Sukhotai", "start_year": 1238, "end_year": 1419 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Nb: \"One of the most accessible descriptions of Sukhothai society is found in Alexander B. Griswold and Praset Na Nagara 'On Kingship and Society at Sukhodaya,\" in Chang and Persistence in Thai Society, Essays in Honor of Lauriston Sharp, ed. G. William Skinner and A. Thomas Kirsch (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), pp. 29-92.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 170) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br>1. King<br> Vickery quotes Wyatt who says \"The early chronicles of Tai groups [...] are filled with stories of demograhic and political movement and expansion. ... Characteristically, a ruler would gather together the men of his muang and form them into a military expedition, usually under the leadership of one of his sons. They would conquer, or simply colonize, a distant region and settle it with families from the parent muang, who would \"turn the forest into rice-fields\" and settle in organized communities ruled by the young prince. The ruler might organize such campaigns for a whole succession of his sons, giving each a principality of his own to rule while enhancing the power of the parent muang...\"§REF§(Vickery 2003, 6) Michael Vickery. Two Historical Records of the Kingdom of Vientiane. Christopher E Goscha and Soren Ivarsson. eds. 2003. Contesting Visions of the Lao Past: Laos Historiography at the Crossroads. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press. Copenhagen.§REF§<br> \"The legacy left by the Sukhothai period is the Father King or Paw Kun model, which portrayed kings as paternalistic and benevolent Buddhists. The father-figure king ruled in accordance with the ten Buddhist virtues, called totsapit raja dharma. Under the father-son administrative system, the Sukhothai kings were like a father to the bureaucrats and the Thai people. The father-figure king exemplifies a good king. ... Conversely, kings of the Ayudhya period were seen as divine god kings. Not only were they Buddhist kings who ruled according to dharma, but they were also devaraja or god-kings whose sacred power was associated with the Hindu gos Indra and Vishnu. The administrative system changed from the father-son model of the Sukhothai era to an administration based on divine right that owed its origin to Cambodian and Hindu influences. The concept of divine kingship meant that the king was like a semi-god worshipped by the people. The king was master, and the rest, including bureaucrats, were his servants. The Ayudhyan bureaucracy consisted of a complex hierarchical administrative system of ranked and titled officials, all of whom had varying amounts of sakdina (assumed landholding by rank) (Phumisak 1957). From the Ayudhya period to the reign of King Rama IV in the Bangkok period, royal bureaucrats, freemen, and slaves would have to prostrate themselves in front of the king.\"§REF§(Bowornwathana 2011, 31) Bidhya Bowornwathana. History and Political Context of Public Administration in Thailand. Evan M Berman. ed. 2011. Public Administration in Southeast Asia. Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Macao. CRC Press. Taylor & Francis Group.§REF§<br> \"The Thai society that evolved in the Sukhothai period was elitist in nature with the presence of a non-Thai slave population. The Thai aristocracy resembled that of the Mongols. Many important facets of Thai culture developed under Rama Khamheng's reign. Sukhothai was one of the early Kingdoms that emerged in Thailand integrating traditional muang administration with the Indian mandala concept of a centralized state. It also borrowed from the Khmer various art forms and administrative structures.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>\"Sukhothai has been considered the first kingdom of the Thai in Southeast Asia.\"§REF§(Dhiravegin 1992, 12) Likhit Dhiravegin. 1992. Demidemocracy: the evolution of the Thai political system. Times Academic Press.§REF§ Sukhothai \"borrowed from the Khmer various art forms and administrative structures.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§ Sukhothai had \"incipient administrative practices\".§REF§(? 1979, 5) ? Introduction. Clark D. Neher. ed. Modern Thai Politics: From Village to Nation. Revised Edition. 1979. Schenkman Publishing Company. Cambridge.§REF§ Provincial administration was \"inefficient and ineffective\" which also suggests a weak central administration. \"Administrative order could be kept under monarchical mandate only when the king was strong and powerful and able to suppress any rebellious acts or uprisings. Evidence of this may be seen from various incidents which occurred during the Sukhothai regime.\"§REF§(Meksawan 1962, 63) Arsa Meksawan. 1962. The Role of the Provincial Governor in Thailand. Institute of Public Administration. Thammasat University.§REF§ \"It was a hierarchically organized society, including evidence of state ritual, bureaucratic organization, craft specialization, external trade, ancient reservoirs, and so on.\"§REF§(Shoocongdej 2007, 386) Rasmi Shoocongdej. The Impact of Colonialism and Nationalism in the Archaeology of Thailand. Philip L. Kohl. Mara Kozelsky. Nachman Ben-Yehuda. eds. 2007. Selective Remembrances. Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago.§REF§<br> 2. 3. 4.<br>The reforms undertaken by the successor polity suggests what the Sukothai administrative system was not e.g. no/few specialist government departments:<br> \"Ayutthaya underwent a number of major internal administrative and legal reforms, particularly during the reign of Trailok (1448-1488) whose innovations were to remain the foundation of Thai administration, legal practice and social organization until the end of the the 19th century. The structure of government was centralized and reorganized on a departmental basis; the Kot Monthianban ('palace law') of 1450 codified and clarified existing administrative custom and law; the sakdina system by which the status of different classes of people and the amount of land each was entitled to hold was reformed and firmly regulated by Trailok.\"§REF§(Bee, Brown, Herbert and Chitakasem 1989, 23) P J Bee. I Brown. Patricia Herbert. Manas Chitakasem. Thailand. Patricia Herbert. Anthony Milner. eds. 1989. South-East Asia. Languages and Literatures: a select guide. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Ruler of outpost / Muang / Principality / Vassal state / Governor of province King Rama Khamheng \"a large number of inscriptions composed between 1292 and 1400 provide an unequalled source of contemporary economic information not available for other Thai muang (a term meaning principality, referring to both the administrative center and surrounding territory) of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 170) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> \"As Wyatt, Thailand, p. 7, has written. 'For almost all the Tai peoples, the muang was the primary unit of social and political organization above the simple village level. Muang is a term that defies translation, for it denotes as much personal as spatial relationships. When it is used in ancient chronicles to refer to a principality, it can mean both the town located at the hub of a network of interrelated villages and also the totality of town and villages which was ruled by a single chao,'lord'.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 170 n45) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> \"From the viewpoint of administrative theory, the early Thai administration at Sukhothai was far from centralized. The administrative system gives us a clear picture of strong and powerful provincial governors who ruled their provinces more or less like feudal lords, raising their armies, controlling their own finances, and managing their own internal affairs.\"§REF§(Meksawan 1962, 63) Arsa Meksawan. 1962. The Role of the Provincial Governor in Thailand. Institute of Public Administration. Thammasat University.§REF§<br> \"In the period dominated by the rulers of Sukhothai, the \"muang\", literally translated as city or town, was the basic administrative unit and its elastic meaning embraced the more modern concept of kingdom, town, and province. It originally signified a city-state governing the surrounding territory, usually the land within a radius of thirty-miles or two days journey from the capital. The capital city Sukhothai, brought under its jurisdiction neighboring muangs, which were then assigned to the king's sons to administer. In time, these muangs became almost independent kingdoms, loosely held together by the feudal principles of reciprocal defense.\"§REF§(Lochaya 1973, 4) Chaval Lochaya. 1973. Urban Planning and Administration in Thailand. School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture. Michigan State University.§REF§<br> \"During the nation-building period (circa 1257 when Sukhothai was the capital) the king governed on the basis of a centralization of power because the survival of the Thai nation was at stake. The administrative system of the Sukhothai era consisted of a series of outpost towns encircling the capital city at a distance of approximately 50 kilometers, or within two travelling days. Members of the royal family were sent out to govern these towns, which served as a line of defense against the enemies of Sukhothai. Farther towns and the tributary states had their own rulers who had to send tribute to Sukhothai at periodic intervals. The kings of Sukhothai were autocratic and governed with absolute powers.\"§REF§(? 1984, 79) ? 1984. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Volume 28, Issues 1-3.§REF§<br> Uttaradit, Suphanburi, Luang Prabang, and Vientiane are the names of some vassal kingdoms.§REF§(Mishra 2010, 38) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§ There may have been others.<br> 3. \"Sukhothai was one of the early Kingdoms that emerged in Thailand integrating traditional muang administration with the Indian mandala concept of a centralized state.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§<br> 4. \"Sukhothai was one of the early Kingdoms that emerged in Thailand integrating traditional muang administration with the Indian mandala concept of a centralized state.\"§REF§(Mishra 2010, 37) Patit Paban Mishra. 2010. The History of Thailand. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.§REF§" }, { "id": 541, "polity": { "id": 217, "name": "dz_tahert", "long_name": "Tahert", "start_year": 761, "end_year": 909 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Imam<br> 2. Council of Elders \"The kingdom was led by imams, who ... were elected by and were responsible to a council of tribal elders\"§REF§(Fage and Tordoff 2002, 159) J D Fage. William Tordoff. 2002. A History of Africa. Fourth Edition. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Top administrator \"The largest and most stable Ibadite state was Tahert in the highlands of central Algeria, where between about A.D. 760 and 900 there flourished an ingenious compromise between organized Muslim government and traditional Berber tribalism. The kingdom was led by imams, who, though they were elected by and were responsible to a council of tribal elders, possessed something of an administrative hierarchy under their personal command.\"§REF§(Fage and Tordoff 2002, 159) J D Fage. William Tordoff. 2002. A History of Africa. Fourth Edition. Routledge. London.§REF§<br> 3. Lower administrators \"Appointed by the Imam these were treasurers, judges, police and those who cared for the poor.\"§REF§Savage, E., 1990, Early medieval Ifriqiya, a reassessment of the Ibadiyya, pg.129§REF§§REF§al-Shammakhl, Kitab al-sivar. 166, 203.§REF§§REF§Bekri, C. \"Le Kharijism berbere,\" AIEO 15 (1957):70-2.§REF§§REF§Zerouki, B. \"La diffusion du Harigisme,\" (Th&se, University of Paris, 1975),178 ff.§REF§<br> 4. Lower administrators<br> 2. Prison official \"Life at Tahert was conducted in a perpetual state of religious fervor. The theocratic community enforced a high standard of social behavior by physical punishment and imprisonment.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2002, 302) Ira M Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Treasury official \"Yablb b. Zalghln al-Mazatl was a contemporary of the second Rustumid imam, cAbd al-Wahhab ibn Rustam and was a very wealthy man. According to al-Shammakhl, he owned 12,000 donkeys, 30,000 camels, and three million sheep. The imam is quoted as saying that had it not been for the tax paid in gold by himself, the agricultural products paid in by another wealthy Ibadi and the tax in cattle paid by Yablb b.Zalghln, the treasury of Tahart would have crashed.\"§REF§T.Lewicki, \"The Ibadites in North Africa and the Sudan to the fourteenth century,\" JWH 13 (1) (1971):107. al-Shammakhl citation pgs.204-5.§REF§§REF§Savage, E., 1990, Early medieval Ifriqiya, a reassessment of the Ibadiyya, pp.230§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Governors \"Rather the Imam's authority, specifically Abd al Wahhab's, was willingly accepted by the tribal federations. According to Ibn Saghir this extended all over the Maghreb, as far as the city of Tlemcen. A governor (amil) was elected locally and confirmed by the Imam. As representative of the Imam, the amil sent taxes and troops. However, local governor's authority was circumscribed by that of the tribal shaykhs.\" §REF§Savage E., 1997, A Gateway to Hell, a Gateway to Paradise: The North African Response to the Arab Conquest, Darwin Press. pp.56§REF§<br> \"Al-Abbas put the town of Labda to sack after routing the army of the Aghlabid governor Muhamad ibn Qurhub. He besieged Tripoli, but the Ibadite Ilyas ibn Mansur al-Nafusi governor of Jabal Nafusa and Tripoli on behalf of the Rustamid of Tahert, led a force of 12,000 men and defeated him\" c879-881§REF§(Bianquis 1998, 96-97) Thierry Bianquis. Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur, 868-969. Carl F Petry. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume I. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Tribal leaders \"The tribes that recognized the religio-political leadership of and paid tribute to the imams of Tahart live in western Algeria, southern Tunisia, and Tripolitania. The imams maintained contacts with them by encouraging tribal chiefs to visit Tahart and by sending emissaries that toured their areas.\" §REF§McKenna, Amy. 2011. The History of Northern Africa. The Rosen Publishing Group. pg.43§REF§<br> \"local governor's authority was circumscribed by that of the tribal shaykhs.\" §REF§Savage E., 1997, A Gateway to Hell, a Gateway to Paradise: The North African Response to the Arab Conquest, Darwin Press. pp.56§REF§" }, { "id": 542, "polity": { "id": 271, "name": "ua_skythian_k_3", "long_name": "Third Scythian Kingdom", "start_year": -429, "end_year": -225 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> Strabo claims that a King Atheas in the 4th century BCE \"united all the tribes of Scythia\".§REF§(Melukova 1990, 105) A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> Throne usually passed from father to son. Kings had multiple wives. Succession conflicts occurred.§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 437) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> \"The sovereign king of Scythia was its supreme ruler and military chief, while he probably also participated in the cult practices and had judicial authority.§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 437) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> 2. Servants According to Herodotus, the Scythian king had therapontes (servants) \"who usually accompanied him to the other world.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 433) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§ i.e. sacrificed?<br> Slaves existed employed for domestic work. Originally prisoners-of-war, most sold to the Greeks. Some were sacrificed to the gods, or killed at the death of the funeral of their masters.§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 433) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> 2. Professional administrator? The 'Acropolis' at Kamyanka was the administrative centre \"and very likely the seat of the rulers of the Late Scythian people.\"§REF§(Sulimirski 1985, 197) T Sulimirski. The Scyths. Ilya Gershevitch. ed. 1985. The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 2. The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"During the long reign of Atheas a series of new phenomena can be observed in Scythia ... which show quite clearly that a state, although insufficiently developed, did exist amongst the Scythians.\"§REF§(Melukova 1990, 105) A I Melyukova. Julia Crookenden trans. The Scythians. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Council of Kings \"in the sixth century B.C. there existed in Scythia a certain council composed of the kings of each of the three 'kingdoms', and possibly other persons. This council functioned at the time of the war with Darius, though it possibly also met in less extreme circumstances.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 437) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> 2. Kings (?) of the ruling lineage Scythians probably used the \"ulus principle of the distribution of power\" (using a later Turkish-Mongolian term) \"This principle involved that every member of the ruling lineage had the right to rule over a specific group of nomads together with a particular tract of grazing land, as well as the right to some conquered agricultural territory.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 437-438) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> 3. Clan or tribal chiefs Clan or tribal chiefs were military leaders. King of Scythia was \"its paramount military chief\". \"There was no standing army, but the king, and possibly also wider groups of the aristocracy had their own bodyguards.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 428) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br> 4. Tribal leaders \"Those in positions of tributary dependence were mostly members of Scythian agricultural tribes subdued by the nomads. ... Besides paying tribute the agriculturalists had to fulfill a number of other duties.\"§REF§(Khazanov 1978, 433) Anatolii M Khazanov. The Early State Among the Scythians. H J M Claessen. Peter Skalnik. ed. 1978. The Early State. Mouton Publishers. The Hague.§REF§<br>Different Scythian groups:§REF§(Beckwith 2009, 65) Christopher I Beckwith. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§<br> Royal Scythians - ruling warriors who considered other tribes their slaves<br> Nomad Scythians - Scythians not of the ruling clan. Pastoral nomads on grasslands mostly east of Crimea.<br> Husbandmen or Borysthenites<br> Plowing Scythians - Scythians who grew grain for export on the especially rich soils west of Crimea.<br> Other Scythians, part-Scythians, non-Scythians<br> Alazones and the Callippidae who engaged in subsistence agriculture<br> Neuri<br> Many non-Scythians were probably Thracian in origin and spoke Thracian or another non-Iranian language." }, { "id": 543, "polity": { "id": 230, "name": "dz_tlemcen", "long_name": "Tlemcen", "start_year": 1235, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels. Could be more extensive than this.<br>1. Ruler<br>_Court government_<br>\"Despite military weakness, the dynasty was characterized by a well-developed bureaucracy from the time of its first ruler, Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan bin Zayyan.\"§REF§(Bourn and Park 2016, 20) Aomar Bourn. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. Lantham.§REF§<br> 2. Vizier<br> \"This care for qualifications extended to the vizier, who was chosen for his financial and legal expertise rather than, as tended to be the case in Morocco, for political astuteness combined with humble origins (lack of a legitimate claim to the throne).\"§REF§(Bourn and Park 2016, 20) Aomar Bourn. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. Lantham.§REF§ 3. 4.<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Local rulers in provinces<br> The power of the \"Zayannid amirs of Tlemcen\" eventually became \"confined to the town and its environs\" in the late 15th century.§REF§(Hrbek 1984, 95) I Hrbek. The disintegration of political unity in the Maghrib. Djibril Tamsir Niane. ed. 1984. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann. California.§REF§ Suggests that it was more extensive before this time.<br> \"The periods of weakness were regularly exploited by the nomad Arabs, who systematically penetrated into the centre and were able to detach some of the outlying provinces.\"§REF§(Hrbek 1984, 93) I Hrbek. The disintegration of political unity in the Maghrib. Djibril Tamsir Niane. ed. 1984. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Heinemann. California.§REF§ 3." }, { "id": 544, "polity": { "id": 276, "name": "cn_tuyuhun", "long_name": "Tuyuhun", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 663 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Initially the Tuyuhun was perhaps a more simple tribal state: \"established a tribal state around Lake Koko Nor in the present Qinghai province at the beginning of the fourth century\".§REF§(Pan 1997, 45) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§ This state presumably became stronger and more centralized with time. The Tuyuhun lived in felt tents and later in houses.§REF§Ulrich Theobald. 2000. ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. Tuyuhun 吐谷渾. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/tuyuhun.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/tuyuhun.html</a>§REF§ \"Gradually they incorporated the local Tibeto-Burman Di and Qiang people.\" §REF§(Pan 1997) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§<br>1. Ruler<br> \"The early history of the Tuyuhun is more reminiscent of a military operation, and although it seems to have introduced a new dynastic lineage and military elite into Amdo Qinghai it did not necessarily introduce a new ethnic group. In any case, it did not eradicate the earlier ethnic groups in the region, but only temporarily increased the local ethnic diversity.\"§REF§(Janhunen 2006, 115) Juha Janhunen. From Manchuria to Amdo Qinghai: On the Ethnic Implications of the Tuyuhun Migration. Giovanni Stary ed. 2006. Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Administrative departments inferred \"Their administration was based on the Chinese model and made use of Chinese writing.\"§REF§(Pan 1997, 45) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§ 3. The Tuyunhun economy was a mix of nomadism and agriculture \"and profitable commercial links with both the Chinese and with Central Asia.\"§REF§(Pan 1997, 45) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§ The latter implies tax on trade.\"<br> The Tuyuhun \"relied on rich families and merchants to meet their financial needs\".§REF§(Pan 1997) Yihong Pan. 1997. Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Western Washington University.§REF§<br> 4.<br>\"The migration took place a few decades after the fall of the Han dynasty of China (late third century AZ) from the context of the Xianbei tribes that later founded the Northern Wei state of the Tabgach (Tuoba). The development may have been conditioned by personal or tribal controversies; in any case, it did not involve a centrally controlled political expansion.\"§REF§(Janhunen 2006, 114) Juha Janhunen. From Manchuria to Amdo Qinghai: On the Ethnic Implications of the Tuyuhun Migration. Giovanni Stary ed. 2006. Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>\"The Tribe of Tuyuhun were a nomadic people. Although they had built cities, they did not live in houses in the cities. They lived in tents. They had the meat of the cattle they raised and cheese made from the milk of their cattle for food.\"§REF§(Hung 2013, 155) Hing Ming Hung. 2013. Li Shi Min, Founding the Tang Dynasty: The Strategies that Made China the Greatest Empire in Asia. Algora Publishing.§REF§<br>After the Tang defeated the Tuyuhun in a battle the Tang army got \"tens of thousands of cattle.\"§REF§(Hung 2013, 158) Hing Ming Hung. 2013. Li Shi Min, Founding the Tang Dynasty: The Strategies that Made China the Greatest Empire in Asia. Algora Publishing.§REF§" }, { "id": 545, "polity": { "id": 375, "name": "cn_viet_baiyu_k", "long_name": "Viet Baiyu Kingdom", "start_year": -332, "end_year": -109 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br>_Court government_<br> 2. 3. 4.<br>Nan Yue kingdom: A Chinese seal found in the tomb of the last Nan Yue king shows they were \"sinicized.\"§REF§(Faure 2007, 17) David Faure. 2007. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§<br>South Yue Kingdom (203-111 BC): \"Guangzhou had, since the Qin, been a part of the civilized world of China, even if its inhabitants did not all fall within its pale.\"§REF§(Faure 2007, 18) David Faure. 2007. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. Stanford University Press. Stanford.§REF§<br>Generic Baiyue reference: \"The use of Baiyue of 'Hundred Yue' in this period has indicated to many scholars that it originally designated the many small principalities established throughout the south by former Yue nobles who were driven out by the invading Chu armies. However, the extensive use of the term for peoples in geographic regions well beyond that of the original Yue kingdom, such as in Guangdong, Guizhou, and Guangxi Provinces, has meant for many historians that by the start of the Han dynasty in 206 B.C.E. Yue had lost its original connotation and was simply a collective noun for 'southerners.'\"§REF§(West 2009, 81) Barbara A. West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts On File. New York.§REF§<br>Generic Baiyue reference: The Baiyue cultures subsisted on wet rice agriculture. This \"allowed for the raising of an army, class differentiation, and occupational specialization.\"§REF§(West 2009, 81) Barbara A. West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts On File. New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 546, "polity": { "id": 240, "name": "ma_wattasid_dyn", "long_name": "Wattasid", "start_year": 1465, "end_year": 1554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Sultan<br> The Wattasid ruler was a Sultan.§REF§(Syed, Akhtar and Usmani eds. 2011, 149) Muzaffar Husain Syed. Syed Saud Akhtar. B D Usmani. eds. 2011. Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.§REF§<br> A Sultan the 'Makhazen lands'.§REF§(Ellingham et al 2010, 570) Mark Ellingham. Daniel Jacobs. Hamish Brown. Shaun McVeigh. 2010. The Rough Guide to Morocco. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.§REF§<br> For the last three centuries of Berber rule in Morocco \"the main development was a centralized administrative system - the Makhzen - maintained without tribal support by standing armies of Arab and Christian mercenaries. It is to this age that the real distinction of Bled el Makhzen and Bled es Siba belongs - the latter coming to mean everything outside the immediate vicinity of the imperial cities.\"§REF§(Ellingham et al 2010, 570) Mark Ellingham. Daniel Jacobs. Hamish Brown. Shaun McVeigh. 2010. The Rough Guide to Morocco. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.§REF§ According to Wikipedia, Bled es-Siba or Bled Siba is an \"historical term in pre-colonial Moroccan history that refers to a lawless area that was out of the control of the Moroccan Sultans in the early 20th century\".<br>_Central government_<br> 2. Vizier The Wattasids, who were previously a line of hereditary viziers, usurped the Merinids in 1465 CE.§REF§(Ellingham et al 2010, 570) Mark Ellingham. Daniel Jacobs. Hamish Brown. Shaun McVeigh. 2010. The Rough Guide to Morocco. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.§REF§<br> 3. Treasurer inferred<br> 4. Manager of mint inferred<br> 5. Mint worker inferred \"Known Wattasid coins include a few extremely rare gold coins and also square silver dirhams and half dirhams, still following the Almohad standard of roughly 1.5 grams.\"§REF§(Syed, Akhtar and Usmani eds. 2011, 149) Muzaffar Husain Syed. Syed Saud Akhtar. B D Usmani. eds. 2011. Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>\"The XVIth century witnessed a fundamental change in the circumstances of the Maghrib. By 1500, the reigning dynasties, the Wattasids in Morocco, the Zayyanids (or 'Abd al-Wadids) in Tlemsen, and the Hafsids in Tunis, no longer exercised more than a titular headship beyond the walls of their capital cities. The result was an anarchic decentralization in which the various towns, the peoples of the Aures, Kabyle, Rif, and Atlas mountains, and the tribes of the plains, led a more or less autonomous existence.\"§REF§(Barbour 1969, 97) Nevill Barbour. North West Africa From the 15th to 19th Centuries. H K Kissling. F R C Bagley. N Barbour. J S Trimingham. H Braun. B Spuler. H Hartel. eds. 1969. The Muslim World. A Historical Survey. Part III. The Last Great Muslim Empires. EJ BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Governors \"In 1525, al-Araj was in a position to occupy peacefully the city of Marrakech after the death of the last Wattasid governor.\"§REF§(Rogerson 2012) Barnaby Rogerson. 2012. North Africa: A History From The Mediterranean Shorre To The Sahara. Duckworth Overlook. London.§REF§<br> 3." }, { "id": 547, "polity": { "id": 247, "name": "cn_wu_confederacy", "long_name": "Wu Confederacy", "start_year": -585, "end_year": -477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>Wu \"seems to have been a considerably less centralized polity than the Chinese states, and perhaps in a sense more 'egalitarian'.\"§REF§(Wagner 1996) Donald B Wagner. 1996. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>'The hereditary house of Taibo of Wu'.§REF§(Wagner 1996, 100) Donald B Wagner. 1996. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>\"In the sources Wu is always a 'state', but it seems unlikely that it had nearly the degree of political integration which characterized the Chinese states: perhaps we should rather imagine that some strong leader (Shoumeng?) arose and organized some sort of confederation of tribes.\"§REF§(Wagner 1996, 106) Donald B Wagner. 1996. Iron and Steel in Ancient China. E J BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 548, "polity": { "id": 291, "name": "cn_xixia", "long_name": "Xixia", "start_year": 1032, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Ruler<br>_Court? government_<br> 2. Advisors Xixia rulers \"relied heavily on Chinese advisers and sponsored Confucian scholars\".§REF§(? 2010, 91) ?. The Imperial Age. Tim Cooke. ed. 2010. The New Cultural Atlas Of China. Marshall Cavendish. New York.§REF§<br> Confucian style of government.§REF§(Steele 2015, 245) Tracey Steele. Xi Xia. Steven L Danver. 2015. Native Peoples of the World: An Encylopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br> 3. 4.<br>_Tribal structure_<br> 2. Lords \"Both the Qidan and the Xixia had a dual administrative structure, half based on the Chinese bureaucratic model and half derived from their own tribal structure.\"§REF§(? 2010, 91) ?. The Imperial Age. Tim Cooke. ed. 2010. The New Cultural Atlas Of China. Marshall Cavendish. New York.§REF§<br> \"Xixia, with a history of 190 years, had ten lords, a vast and stable territory and well-formulated institutions and laws.\"§REF§(? 2006, 178) ? 2006. China Tibetology. Issues 6-11. Office for the Journal China Tibetology.§REF§<br> 3.<br>\"The Tangut State was a multinational one, the main nationalities being the Mi- the Tanguts, the Han- the Chinese, and the Bodpa- the Tibetans and the Uighurs. Correspondingly, the two communities - Chinese and Tibetan - were mentioned as early as the 11th century, in the Liangzhow manuscript.\"§REF§(? 1996, 120) ?. 1996. The Journal of Oriental Studies. Volumes 6-10. Institute of Oriental Philosophy.§REF§" }, { "id": 549, "polity": { "id": 408, "name": "in_yadava_dyn", "long_name": "Yadava Dynasty", "start_year": 1190, "end_year": 1318 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Emperor<br>_Court_<br>2. Yuvaraja (Crown Prince) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, pp. 108-109]</a> .<br>2. Council of MinistersIncluding: the Prime Minister, the Foreign Minister, the Revenue Minister, the War Minister, and the Chief Secretary <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, pp. 108-109]</a> .<br>_Provincial government_<br>2. Imperial OfficersIn charge of supervising provincial governors, and accompanied by their own retinue of lesser bureaucrats <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, pp. 149-151]</a> .<br>3. Governors of vishayas<br>4. Nadagaudas or nadaheggadeIn charge of governing smaller nadu units that make up vishayas <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, pp. 149-151]</a> .<br>5. Pattanaswamis (officers) and nakaras or nagaras (civic assemblies)In charge of administering towns and cities <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, pp. 149-151]</a> .<br>6. Gaunda or prabhu or heggade or urodeya (in the case of Brahmin villages or agraharas)In charge of administering villages; more than one for particularly large villages <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, pp. 149-151]</a> . Murthy and Ramakrishnan <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9KNTRET\">[Sreenivasa_Murthy_Ramakrishnan 1978, pp. 108-109]</a> don't mention any of these titles, and use the title panchayat instead, emphasising the panchayat's judiciary powers over their administrative ones.<br>7. Village assembliesMade up of the heads of leading families <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9E9BVXB6\">[Kamath 1980, pp. 149-151]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 550, "polity": { "id": 248, "name": "cn_yue_dyn", "long_name": "Yue Kingdom", "start_year": -510, "end_year": -334 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"the royal family of Yue fled to Fujian after their kingdom was annexed by the state of Chu in 306 BC.\"§REF§(Guo 2013, 45) Rongxing Guo. 2013. Regional China. A Business and Economic Handbook. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.§REF§<br> 2. Chieftain Some organization at the tribal level: \"The dynasty lived on in the person of Yao 搖, who was chieftain of the Min tribes of Yue 閩越 in the late 3rd century BCE.\"§REF§Ulrich Theobald. 2000. ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. The Feudal State of Yue 越. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-yue.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-yue.html</a>§REF§<br> 3. 4." }, { "id": 551, "polity": { "id": 279, "name": "kz_yueban", "long_name": "Yueban", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Tribe leader<br> 2. 3. 4.<br>\"The Yueban were probably a tribe of the Northern Xiongnu and were formerly nomads north of Qiuci. They may be 'the Hu of Kuai' mentioned in the Jinshu, ch. 97.\"§REF§(Yu 2004, 286). Taishan Yu. 2004. A history of the relationships between the western and eastern Han, Wei, Jin northern and southern dynasties and the western regions. University of Pennsylvania.§REF§<br>\"From limited references in the Beishi (Northern histories) and the Weishu (History of the Wei), we know that the Yueban had a well-developed kingdom, with a population of two hundred thousand that spanned thousands of kilometers, in the area north of Kucha.\"§REF§(Li and Hansen 2003, 63) Jian Li. Valerie Hansen. 2003. The glory of the silk road: art from ancient China. The Dayton Art Institute.§REF§<br>5th century: \"The Wei Shu (102.2268) indicates that a people called the Yueban Xiongnu were now occupying the territory of the Wusun and further makes the observation that these Yueban were a horde of the Chanyu of the Northern Xiongnu. It tells us that when the Northern Xiongnu were defeated by the Han imperial armies they fled westwards. The weak elements among them were left behind in the area north of the city of Qiuci (now in central Xinjiang). Afterwards this weak group of Xiongnu is said to have subjected the land of the Wusun to form the new state of Yueban. The stronger group of Xiongnu/Huns are reported to have headed further west.\"§REF§(Kim 2016) Hyun Jin Kim. 2016. The Huns. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§" } ] }