Administrative Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Administrative Levels.
GET /api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=10
{ "count": 570, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=11", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/sc/administrative-levels/?format=api&page=9", "results": [ { "id": 451, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 16, "administrative_level_to": 16, "comment": null, "description": "1. Tsar (Царь)\r\n - The supreme ruler of the Russian Empire.\r\n\r\n2. Chancellor (Канцлер)\r\n - The highest civilian official, often involved in high-level state affairs.\r\n\r\n3. Actual Privy Councillor 1st class (Действительный тайный советник 1-го класса)\r\n - A top-ranking position in the civil service.\r\n\r\n4. Actual Privy Councillor (Действительный тайный советник)\r\n - A senior rank in the civil administration.\r\n\r\n5. Privy Councillor (Тайный советник)\r\n - A high-level civil administrator.\r\n\r\n6. Actual State Councillor (Действительный статский советник)\r\n - A senior administrative rank in the state bureaucracy.\r\n\r\n7. State Councillor (Статский советник)\r\n - A mid-level administrative rank.\r\n\r\n8. Collegiate Councillor (Коллежский советник)\r\n - An established rank within the civil service.\r\n\r\n9. Court Councillor (Надворный советник)\r\n - A position associated with the royal court or higher civil administration.\r\n\r\n10. Court Councillor (Надворный советник), Collegiate Assessor (Коллежский асессор)\r\n - An administrative rank in the civil service.\r\n\r\n11. Titular Councillor (Титулярный советник)\r\n - A lower rank in the civil bureaucracy.\r\n\r\n12. Collegiate Secretary (Коллежский секретарь)\r\n - A bureaucratic position within the civil service.\r\n\r\n13. Ship's Secretary (1764–1834) (Корабельный секретарь)\r\n - A role related to naval administration.\r\n\r\n14. Gubernatorial Secretary (Губернский секретарь)\r\n - A position within regional governance.\r\n\r\n15. Provincial Secretary (Провинциальный секретарь), Senate Registrar (Сенатский регистратор), Synodal Registrar (Синодский регистратор)\r\n - Roles associated with provincial administration and religious governance.\r\n\r\n16. Collegiate Registrar (Коллежский регистратор)\r\n - A clerical or record-keeping position in the civil service.§REF§O. G. Ageeva, Imperatorskiĭ Dvor Rossii, 1700-1796 Gody (Moskva: Nauka, 2008).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VPQTS5HJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VPQTS5HJ</b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 452, "polity": { "id": 409, "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate", "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate", "start_year": 1338, "end_year": 1538 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Sultan<br>__Central government__<br>2. Chief Wazir <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 225]</a> 3. Qazi\"The Qazi's main duty was to try civil cases, i.e. to settle various disputes [...] and he supervised the management of the property of orphans, lunatics and awaqf (trusts), etc.\"<br> <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 226]</a> 3. Mudir-i-Zaib (Superintendent of the Mint) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 226]</a> 3. Nazir (Revenue Supervisor) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 231]</a> 3. Al-Khazan (Treasurer) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 233]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. District Governor (also known as Wazir) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 227]</a> \"He was responsible for the military affairs of his area.\"<br>3. District Qazi <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 230]</a> 3. Sar-i-Gumashta (Revenue Inspector-cum-Chief Accountant) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 231]</a> 3. Kotwal Bak-A'la (The Chief Police Officer) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 233]</a> 3. Munsif Diwan-i-Kotwali (District Judge)<br>4. ShiqdarAdministrator of a Mahal, a subdivision of a district. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B7TD4TT\">[Hussain 2003, p. 235]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 453, "polity": { "id": 780, "name": "bd_chandra_dyn", "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) King<br>(2) Rājapuruṣa - Royal officials <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (3) Sāmanta - (local/subordinate ruler) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> An important number of changes took place during this period (800-1200), “one of these was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called samanta, ranak, rautta (rajput), etc. by the contemporary writers...Some were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated rajas and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventurers who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. Still others were tribal or clan leaders. Thus there was a hierarchy among them. But their actual position varied, depending on the situation. Some of them were village chiefs, some of them dominated a tract comprising a number of villages, while a few dominated an entire region. They constantly contended against each other and tried to enhance their sphere of authority and privileges.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a> “Under the rules of these dynasties, the state and its administrative apparatus strengthened their control over rural society, while the formation of a power structure centred on subordinate rulers intensified in this period and a new line of contention was drawn between the king and them. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (4) Chieftains <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (5) Landowners <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 454, "polity": { "id": 779, "name": "bd_deva_dyn", "long_name": "Deva Dynasty", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) King<br>(2) Adhinātha (Chief)<br>(3) Mudrādhikārin (official in charge of the seal) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (4) Sarvāmātyaikamukhya (chief of all ministers) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (4a) Saciva (minister) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (5) koṣṭhin (treasurer) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (1) pāñcakulika - “a leader or a member of pañcakula which denotes an urban administrative organisation in charge of documentary works and custom house.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> Not sure if/how these should be included but they were noted in Furui 2020 (in no specific order) so I thought I'd record them here.", "description": null }, { "id": 455, "polity": { "id": 778, "name": "in_east_india_co", "long_name": "British East India Company", "start_year": 1757, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br> (1) Governor-General<br> (2)<br>(TBC) ZamindarisThese major landholders (under the Nawab rule) were kept on by the EIC in order to collect land revenues. Around fifteen zamindaris paid 60% of the revenue from the Bengal Subah region. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7B8WKJ7\">[Roy_Bhattacharya 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 456, "polity": { "id": 781, "name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal", "long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal", "start_year": 1717, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) Nawab (overall ruler of the region)<br>_For provincial rent collection_ <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BKB6H72G\">[McLane 0]</a> (2) Zamindar (a hereditary landowner who has semi-autonomous rule over their state or lands) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HVA3AE2\">[Hussain_Bhattacharya 2020]</a> (3) Raiyat (village head)(4) Patwari (record keeper)<br>(4) Mutasaddis (clerks and accountants based a the estates headquarters)(5) Paiks (guards and watchmen)(6) Common village servants (who assisted in rent collecting.)", "description": null }, { "id": 457, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": null, "description": "1. King/Emperor.<br>2. Central government.3. Officials in charge of commanderies.4. Officials in charge of districts.5. Officials in charge of communes.6. Officials in charge of hamlets.<br>Emperor known as huangdi. §REF§(Stearns 2001, 47)§REF§<br>Central government had a chief minister. 36 provinces under government-appointed governors, sub-divided into counties (about 1,000 total) with government-appointed officials.§REF§(Kerr 2013, 33)§REF§§REF§(Man 2009, 46)§REF§<br>The \"district\" level probably already existed in all 7 states of the Warring States period (i.e. since 403 BCE). 18 of the 36 commanderies existed before the First Emperor (system extended, not invented) under unification. §REF§(Roberts 2003, 36)§REF§<br>Families grouped into \"mutually responsible units\" (5 - 10). These were organised into hamlets, which had a headman. Hamlets made up a commune, which had a chief. Multiple communes divided into districts/counties, which comprised the units of a commandery/prefecture. §REF§(Keay 2009, 145)§REF§" }, { "id": 458, "polity": { "id": 426, "name": "cn_southern_song_dyn", "long_name": "Southern Song", "start_year": 1127, "end_year": 1279 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>\"[S]upreme power was exercised by the Emperor, aided by a council of no more than three to five ministers. This council, which met daily around dawn, was distinguished from the grand audiences, which all the central ministries attended, by its secret nature and by the absence of protocol. The officials closest to the Emperor after these councillors were the censors, the representatives of the big ministries, and the academicians, whose respective functions were: control of important administrative matters, execution of imperial decisions, and publication of edicts. Below them came the chancellery, the imperial secretariat, and those organs of government which were important because of the number of persons employed: the departments of the various ministers (civil service, finance, rites, war, justice, public works); next, a whole collection of offices dealing either with questions directly concerning the Emperor and the imperial family (cult and sacrifices, banquets, insignia, stables, the Emperor's private treasury), or with technical problems and general directives with regard to agriculture, education, canals, military equipment, foreign relations, or special legal decisions.<br>\"To complete the picture, there were two offices, one of which looked after the transmission of memorials and petitions addressed to the Emperor by the provincial officials, and the other the transmission of government decrees to the prefectural government.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WN3JCFXA\">[Gernet 1962, pp. 63-64]</a> \"The empire of Southern Sung (1127-1279) was divided into sixteen provinces of varying extent, each of which covered an average area equivalent to a fourth or a fifth of France. Each province consisted of about ten prefectures corresponding in size to approximately two French departments, and each prefecture was in turn divided into three to five sub-prefectures. The sub-prefecture was the smallest administrative unit. In the rural areas where the population was sparse, a sub-prefect administered a population of several tens of thousand inhabitants. On the other hand, if the sub-prefecture was situated partly or entirely within an area of urban concentration, as was the case at Hangchow, its population might amount to several hundred thousand. In such a case, the sub-prefect had assistants beneath him, usually officials at the start of their career, and the sub-prefecture had a much bigger staff than that of a rural area. But in either case, the employees recruited locally (scribes, storekeepers, police, forensic doctors, etc.) as well as the heads of districts and of villages elected by the people for regulating their relations with the public authorities, played no part in the normal carrying out of public affairs.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WN3JCFXA\">[Gernet 1962, p. 64]</a> 1. Emperor<br>__Central government__<br>2. Council3. Censors<br>3. Representatives of the great ministries<br>3. Academicians4. Chancellor<br>4. Imperial secretary<br>4. Ministers (of civil service, finance, rites, war, justice, public works)<br>4. Official in charge of offices dealing with questions directly concerning the Emperor and the imperial family (cult and sacrifices, banquets, insignia, stables, the Emperor's private treasury)<br>4. Officials in charge of offices dealing with technical problems and general directives with regard to agriculture, education, canals, military equipment, foreign relations, or special legal decisions<br>4. Officials in charge of the transmission of memorials and petitions addressed to the Emperor by the provincial officials<br>4. Officials in charge of the transmission of government decrees to the prefectural government5. Clerks working for all of the above<br>__Provincial government__<br>2. Provincial governor3. Prefect4. Sub-prefect5. Provincial staff", "description": null }, { "id": 459, "polity": { "id": 423, "name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states", "long_name": "Eastern Zhou", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -256 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "Inferred from contemporary polities.<br>1. Ruler<br><br>_Central government_<br> 2. Prime Minister \"The most important codification of Chinese law is the Fa jing (Canon of Law), compiled during the Warring States period by the prime minister of the Wei state Li Kui (455-395 B.C.)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MHIPQV93\">[Fu 1993, p. 108]</a> 3. Chancellor, Secretaries, etc Court officials (Chancellor, Secretaries, etc) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4HTIEKS\">[Feng 2013, p. 194]</a> 4. Assistants / Secretaries / scribes<br> 4. Manager of state-run iron/bronze foundry inferred level 5. Worker in state-run iron/bronze foundry inferred level<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. jun (commanderies) Provincial / commandery governors; military generals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4HTIEKS\">[Feng 2013, p. 194]</a> \"At the onset of the Warring States period, Wei reorganized the whole guo - core as well as conquered territories - into a two-tier structure of jun (commanderies) and xian (which evolved from dependent districts to counties). As the jun and xian became standard administrative units in the Warring States period, strategists could evaluate the relative capabilities of various states in terms of their numbers of jun and xian.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSPZPNV5\">[Hui 2005, p. 98]</a> 3. xian (counties)<br> 4. town heads<br> 5. village-level chiefs", "description": null }, { "id": 460, "polity": { "id": 506, "name": "gr_macedonian_emp", "long_name": "Macedonian Empire", "start_year": -330, "end_year": -312 }, "year_from": -359, "year_to": -330, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": null, "description": "\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. Warrior leader<br> Referred to in literature as a \"king\" - or basileus §REF§(King 2010, 373-391)§REF§ - but under Phillip II not called a king.<br>_Central government line_<br>Court government<br> 2. Council of Advisors, paredroi (uncertain) 3. Administrators?<br> 3. Macedonian Assembly<br>_Provincial line_<br>2. Fiefdoms<br> Frontier land-holding barons<br>_Imperial line_<br>1. Diadochi<br> Military general<br>2. Provinces ruled by Macedonian Satraps or Strategoi<br><br>3 and/or 4. Local districts<br> Inferred. Within the Achaemenid Empire, a \"five-level hierarchical structure,\" there was at least one administrative level below the provincial, possibly two (\"provincial sub-satraps and local districts\").§REF§(Farazmond 2002)§REF§<br>4 or 5. Village headmen<br>" }, { "id": 461, "polity": { "id": 506, "name": "gr_macedonian_emp", "long_name": "Macedonian Empire", "start_year": -330, "end_year": -312 }, "year_from": -330, "year_to": -294, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>1. Warrior leader<br> Referred to in literature as a \"king\" - or basileus §REF§(King 2010, 373-391)§REF§ - but under Phillip II not called a king.<br>_Central government line_<br>Court government<br> 2. Council of Advisors, paredroi (uncertain) 3. Administrators?<br> 3. Macedonian Assembly<br>_Provincial line_<br>2. Fiefdoms<br> Frontier land-holding barons<br>_Imperial line_<br>1. Diadochi<br> Military general<br>2. Provinces ruled by Macedonian Satraps or Strategoi<br><br>3 and/or 4. Local districts<br> Inferred. Within the Achaemenid Empire, a \"five-level hierarchical structure,\" there was at least one administrative level below the provincial, possibly two (\"provincial sub-satraps and local districts\").§REF§(Farazmond 2002)§REF§<br>4 or 5. Village headmen<br>" }, { "id": 462, "polity": { "id": 711, "name": "om_busaidi_imamate_1", "long_name": "Imamate of Oman and Muscat", "start_year": 1749, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Imam (leader)<br>\"Salim b. Sa'id b. 'All al-Sa'ighi's Kanz al-adib wa suldfat al-labib (a work probably of the second half of the twelfth/eighteenth century)\" says: \"No army is assembled, no judgement or legal opinion is held nor legal punishment imposed, except through the Imam.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RIM8EFNG\">[Wilkinson 1976]</a> _Muscat_<br>2. Walis (deputies)\"The Imam may deputize (wald), even the bayt al-mal [treasury], but he must retain over-all control over the reins of government. He is responsible that his deputies are suitable people as also are his qadis and he should not confirm their position until he is satisfied of this.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RIM8EFNG\">[Wilkinson 1976]</a> 3. Hukkam (administrators)\"The Imam and his administrators (hukkam) are entitled to their emoluments ('ujr) from the bayt al-mal.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RIM8EFNG\">[Wilkinson 1976]</a> 4. Low-level administrators (inferred)<br>_Interior_<br>2. Tribal leaders\"On the death of the Ya’ariba Imam Sayf bin Sultan in 1711, his son Sultan bin Sayf’s succession was resented by religious and tribal leaders in the interior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EHPCHGDM\">[Jones_Ridout 2015]</a> _East Africa_<br>2. Omani governor3. Mwinyi Mkuu (local ruler)\"Because Mombasa, still the most obvious place from which to exercise political and economic influence in the region, was out of reach at this time, the Omanis established their new regional headquarters on the island of Unguja – more generally known as Zanzibar – in 1744. [...] An Omani Governor was appointed, but the indigenous people of the islands continued to be governed by their own local ruler, the Mwinyi Mkuu.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EHPCHGDM\">[Jones_Ridout 2015]</a> 4. Local ministers (inferred)5. Local administrators (inferred)", "description": null }, { "id": 463, "polity": { "id": 708, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_1", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1495, "end_year": 1579 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>__Central government__<br>2. Secretário de estado\"Even before the Golden Age the king’s secretary of state (secretário de estado) was also developing into a figure of major importance, effectively superseding the old escrivão da puridade. Successive secretaries of state provided a strong element of administrative continuity and were the real instigators behind much royal policy.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 3. Royal advisors (informal until 1569)\"In practice, the Golden Age kings relied for advice on a small, informal circle of intimates that consisted partly of royal princes and illustrious nobles, and partly of lawyers and bureaucrats. [...] Eventually in 1569, the king’s de facto inner circle of advisers was institutionalised and became formally known as the council of state (conselho de estado).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 4. Mesa da consciência e ordens\"As royal power and responsibilities increased, the ethical dimensions of government became more complex – or so it seemed to the troubled conscience of João III. This concern contributed to one of the most unusual institutional innovations of the period – the creation of the board of conscience and orders (mesa da consciência e ordens). Comprising five canon lawyers, this body was instituted by João in 1532. It was concerned on the one hand with the moral and religious implications of decision-making, in which capacity it advised the king on such matters as the legitimacy of embarking on particular overseas conquests. On the other hand, the board also exercised various ecclesiastical responsibilities, including control of clerical appointments in Portugal and overseas, administration of Catholic missions and supervision of the military orders. It was therefore much more than just a policy watchdog, for it effectively functioned as an instrument of the royal supremacy.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 5. Cortes\" The cortes, which had seemed earlier to be developing into a more significant national institution and which represented the bourgeoisie as well as the nobility, gradually lost much of its importance. It retained certain reserve powers that could be crucial in rare, special circumstances – particularly selecting a regent in a minority or even choosing a king if there were no obvious heir. But in this period it failed to extend or even maintain its role as part of the normal apparatus of state, instead receding into the background and meeting ever less frequently.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 6. Corregedores<br>7. Assistants to the corregedores<br>\"The kingdom was also divided up into six judicial circuits, each corresponding to a province (comarca) and presided over by a superior magistrate known as a corregedor. In addition, Lisbon and sometimes Santarém had their own corregedores. These magistrates exercised administrative and judicial authority in the king’s name – though their right to enter and hold court in the seigneuries of the great lay and ecclesiastical magnates, and in the territories of the judicially privileged municipalities, was long resisted. [...] By the final years of the fifteenth century the corregedor was a formidable figure. He progressed round his circuit accompanied by an entourage of assistants ranging from advocates to executioners, not to mention chained prisoners and innumerable dependents.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> __Seigneurial governments__<br>3. Grandes<br>4. Ouvidores<br>5. Municipal officeholders<br>\"[R]oyal corregidores were effectively excluded from the seigneuries of certain illustrious grandes, including the dukes of Bragança and Aveiro, the marquis of Vila Real, the baron of Alvito and several counts.Within these privileged jurisdictions it was the seigneur himself, or more likely his ouvidor, who performed the corregidor’s functions. Moreover in many secular lordships the seigneur had the right to appoint or confirm local municipal office-holders.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> \"In practice, the vast majority of office-holders in Portugal worked for concelhos or municipalities, and it was these persons who performed most on-the-spot judicial, police and general administrative functions. Such officials, thoroughly embedded in their local power structures and often remote from court, could not be controlled from Lisbon. Moreover, their remuneration came from community-generated emoluments, not state salaries.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> __Colonial government (from 1504 CE)__<br>2. Governor or Viceroy\"From 1504 therefore it was standard practice for the Estado da India to be administered by a governor. If the appointee was a ranking noblemen with the title of dom or higher, he was usually also given the designation of viceroy. [...] Viceroys of Goa normally concentrated on five areas of administrative responsibility: military and naval affairs, diplomacy, finance, trade and personnel management. They were also expected to ensure that the reputation of the crown was at all times upheld and that the interests of the Roman Catholic church were supported.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 3. Conselho de estado and Conselho da fazenda\"Before leaving Portugal each viceroy was given a set of standing orders (regimento) that constituted the guidelines for his administration. Beyond that he was instructed to consult regularly with his viceregal council (conselho de estado), a body comprised mainly of service fidalgos, while for advice on economic affairs he was to rely on his treasury council (conselho da fazenda).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 4. Fortress captains and other local authorities\"[T]he Estado da India quickly became much more decentralised in practice than in theory. Except on the central west coast of India, de facto power was in the hands of virtually autonomous fortress captains, small groups of on-the-spot officials and local câmaras. Sometimes control was exercised by no more than a clique of prominent casados or moradores. [...] Each Portuguese fortress had its own captain who acted as both the military commander and chief administrative officer.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 5. Vedor da fazena and Ouvidor\"To make captains less autocratic the crown did try to institutionalise a division of powers within atleast the more important captaincies. Responsibility for financial affairs was formally vested in a vedor da fazenda, and judicial authority was given to a resident ouvidor, or, in lesser possessions, to a simple magistrate. Yet remoteness once again increased the likelihood that these officials would form a collusive triumvirate – if they did not on the contrary become hopelessly divided.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 6. Camaras\"An indispensable role in the administration of the Estado da India was also played by the câmaras.Most Portuguese overseas possessions of any importance were sooner or later granted a câmara, usually with the same responsibilities, rights and privileges as equivalent bodies in Portugal. In the Estado da India the câmaras generally came to represent the views of the casados–or at least the most influential among them. In fact, câmaras were the only institutions through which settler opinion could be expressed. Câmaras were responsible for local government, raised municipal taxes and acted as courts of first instance. Viceroys sometimes found them exasperating to deal with, but invariably needed the grants and loans that often only they could provide. Câmaras also existed in many informal settlements where they sometimes received official recognition. In such settlements they would constitute by default the principal decision-making authority and the de facto government.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 7. Indigenous administrators\"Where native subjects or protected populations were nevertheless acquired, the Portuguese practice was to leave the existing administrative structures as far as possible intact and to rule indirectly through traditional officials and institutions. After annexing Goa Albuquerque quickly confirmed the Hindu population in possession of its lands. Revenue collection was also left to various Hindu collaborators, particularly Timoja and later the long-serving Krishna Rao. The pre-conquest system of land ownership and administration was codified and the village communes (comunidades) recognised. The entrenched rights of the ganvkars– the mostly Brahmin and Kshatriya share-holders who composed the communes – were likewise upheld. Similar policies were followed in other Portuguese possessions such as Bassein and Damão. [...] However, from about the mid-sixteenth century less tolerant attitudes began to infect the Portuguese administration, in line with developments in Portugal itself.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 464, "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 14, "administrative_level_to": 14, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>__in Portugal__<br>2. Secretário de estado (three after 1736)\"[A]s João V gained in experience he began to rely less on his councils and more on bureaucrats and small ad hoc committees. He turned especially to the office-holder through whose hands most central government business now passed – the secretary of the council of state, who soon came to be referred to simply as ‘secretary of state’ (secretário de estado). [...] The death of Corte Real in 1736 appears to have been the trigger for another significant re-structuring of central government. Three secretaries of state were now appointed, each tied to what amounted to a specific portfolio: foreign affairs and war (negócios estrangeiros e guerra), naval and colonial affairs (marinha e ultramar) and internal affairs (negoócios do reino). Strictly speaking these secretaries of state did not wield executive powers, but to all intents and purposes they controlled matters within their respective spheres, as trusted royal advisers.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKKDT5CZ\">[Disney 2009]</a> 3. Desembargo do Paço (Supreme Court)\"At the top of the organization, we find a constellation of councils where the Desembargo do Paço, the Supreme Court that gave a stage to the royal virtues of grace and mercy to temper the judicial decisions produced by the regular courts, occupied a distinctive place. Every enumeration of councils written during the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries would give it the first row; in every public demonstration of the early modern social order (a procession, a coronation, a royal wedding, a royal funeral), the members of the Desembargo do Paço were entitled to a position among the principal figures of the monarchy. As its name suggests, it was housed in the royal palace and during the early years was presided over by the king. Although of a regal character, since it conveyed the king’s magnanimity, it consisted mainly of jurists. Not only did they help the king in tempering judges’ actions, but they also participated in the management of the judicial apparatus within this council.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 4. Conselho de Estado (Council of State)5. Conselho da Guerra (Council of War)6. Conselho da Fazenda (Council of Finances)\"Alongside this high court, there were the classic councils of state (Conselho de Estado or do Rei, created in 1562 during the infancy of King Sebastian), war (Conselho da Guerra, created in 1640 following the restoration of the Portuguese crown), finances (Conselho da Fazenda, created during the reign of Philip I).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 7. Mesa da Consciência e Ordens\"The fifth council in the symbolic hierarchy of the Portuguese monarchy was the Mesa da Consciência e Ordens (created in 1532). It was a special tribunal created to deal with the matters of the king’s conscience: religion, welfare, assistance, charity, education and later, following the integration of the military orders in the Portuguese crown, jurisdiction over its members. It was, in fact, a court of last resort in matters concerning knights of the military orders.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 8. Conselho Ultramarino\"There was also a council devoted to overseas matters (Conselho Ultramarino, created in 1642, re-establishing the India council that only existed for ten years from 1604 to 1614).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 9. Conselho Geral do Tribunal do Santo Ofício (Inquisition)\"Finally, the last great council of the Portuguese monarchy: the Conselho Geral do Tribunal do Santo Ofício, the Inquisition, authorized in Portugal by Pope Paul III in 1547.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 10. Appeal courts\"Also at the centre, although a few degrees lower, were the appeal courts, which introduces us to the strictly judicial structure of early-modern Portuguese administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 11. Corregedores and Ouvidores\"Below this structure there were a variety of inferior jurisdictions establishing royal law at the local level. These were organized into districts (comarcas if they were under direct crown jurisdiction, or ouvidorias if they were under other jurisdictions, such as the church, the nobility, etc.). Each district had its own judges (corregedores or ouvidores) who were a second instance for matters arising from the inferior level. This district network covered the entire kingdom, but was sparse in the overseas territories. Its transposition to colonial Portugal was slow, diffuse, and tended to concentrate only on the most populous regions of the empire. First, in the seventeenth century, on strategic points on the sea route to India; then, with constant growth throughout the eighteenth century, in Brazil, particularly in the gold mining region and the larger cities.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 12. Local judges\"The local stage of justice administration took place at the municipalities’ level by a judge called a juiz de fora. Its name derived from the fact he was nominated from outside, that is, by the crown and not the local council. This sort of jurisdiction did not cover the entire territory. In fact, these judges were present in fewer than half of the municipalities in metropolitan Portugal, and rarely in the colonies. In Portugal, they were present in the main cities and towns, and in some municipalities under a few seignorialisms. The rest of the municipalities had non‑learned judges, selected from the local elites and elected by the local councils.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> 13. Lower-ranking officers\"We do not yet have sufficient information on the lower ranking officers who assisted judges in their daily work, so it remains difficult to elaborate their profiles.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> NB \"[T]here was also a symbolic hierarchy that complemented the former, establishing different ranks between posts that were jurisdictional equivalents. For instance, all juizes de fora were equal to each other, that is, there was no hierarchical subordination between them, and each of their jurisdictions was under the same superior jurisdiction (corregedor or ouvidor, in this case). However, there was an implicit ranking of posts according to the importance of the place where they resided. A juiz de fora in a small municipality should advance to the same post in a major town, for example. Posts in the seat of a district were more important than posts in common places. Posts in what was called ‘first bench places’ – i.e. cities or towns that had the right to sit on the first benches in the cortes (parliament) – gave access to higher level jurisdictions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFPUKVMF\">[Camarinhas 2013]</a> __in the colonies__<br>8. Conselho Ultramarino (see above)<br>9. Governors or Viceroys\"From 1504 therefore it was standard practice for the Estado da India to be administered by a governor. If the appointee was a ranking noblemen with the title of dom or higher, he was usually also given the designation of viceroy. [...] Viceroys of Goa normally concentrated on five areas of administrative responsibility: military and naval affairs, diplomacy, finance, trade and personnel management. They were also expected to ensure that the reputation of the crown was at all times upheld and that the interests of the Roman Catholic church were supported. \" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> \" Beginning in 1752, Mozambique ceased to depend on Goa and received a governor who responded directly to the Conselho Ultramarino (Portugal’s overseas administrative council).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4DMPBRA7\">[De_Matos_Jarnagin 2011]</a> 10. Conselho de estado and Conselho da fazenda\"Before leaving Portugal each viceroy was given a set of standing orders (regimento) that constituted the guidelines for his administration. Beyond that he was instructed to consult regularly with his viceregal council (conselho de estado), a body comprised mainly of service fidalgos, while for advice on economic affairs he was to rely on his treasury council (conselho da fazenda).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 11. Fortress captains and other local authorities\"[T]he Estado da India quickly became much more decentralised in practice than in theory. Except on the central west coast of India, de facto power was in the hands of virtually autonomous fortress captains, small groups of on-the-spot officials and local câmaras. Sometimes control was exercised by no more than a clique of prominent casados or moradores. [...] Each Portuguese fortress had its own captain who acted as both the military commander and chief administrative officer.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 12. Vedor da fazena and Ouvidor\"To make captains less autocratic the crown did try to institutionalise a division of powers within atleast the more important captaincies. Responsibility for financial affairs was formally vested in a vedor da fazenda, and judicial authority was given to a resident ouvidor, or, in lesser possessions, to a simple magistrate. Yet remoteness once again increased the likelihood that these officials would form a collusive triumvirate – if they did not on the contrary become hopelessly divided.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 13. Camaras\"An indispensable role in the administration of the Estado da India was also played by the câmaras. Most Portuguese overseas possessions of any importance were sooner or later granted a câmara, usually with the same responsibilities, rights and privileges as equivalent bodies in Portugal. In the Estado da India the câmaras generally came to represent the views of the casados–or at least the most influential among them. In fact, câmaras were the only institutions through which settler opinion could be expressed. Câmaras were responsible for local government, raised municipal taxes and acted as courts of first instance. Viceroys sometimes found them exasperating to deal with, but invariably needed the grants and loans that often only they could provide. Câmaras also existed in many informal settlements where they sometimes received official recognition. In such settlements they would constitute by default the principal decision-making authority and the de facto government.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a> 14. Indigenous administrators\"Where native subjects or protected populations were nevertheless acquired, the Portuguese practice was to leave the existing administrative structures as far as possible intact and to rule indirectly through traditional officials and institutions. After annexing Goa Albuquerque quickly confirmed the Hindu population in possession of its lands. Revenue collection was also left to various Hindu collaborators, particularly Timoja and later the long-serving Krishna Rao. The pre-conquest system of land ownership and administration was codified and the village communes (comunidades) recognised. The entrenched rights of the ganvkars– the mostly Brahmin and Kshatriya share-holders who composed the communes – were likewise upheld. Similar policies were followed in other Portuguese possessions such as Bassein and Damão. [...] However, from about the mid-sixteenth century less tolerant attitudes began to infect the Portuguese administration, in line with developments in Portugal itself.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SB2P8RNF\">[Disney 2009]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 465, "polity": { "id": 337, "name": "ru_moskva_rurik_dyn", "long_name": "Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty", "start_year": 1480, "end_year": 1613 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br> 1. Grand Duke 2. Boyar Servitors<br>“An elaborate system of precedence ranking (mestnichestvo) therefore arose to integrate the status claims of these two groups and regulate their entitlements to office”", "description": null }, { "id": 466, "polity": { "id": 710, "name": "tz_tana", "long_name": "Classic Tana", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1498 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels. Inferred from the fact that one of the most prosperous towns on the Swahili coast, Kilwa, is known to have been ruled by a line of sultans, and that they were assisted by an amir and a wazir, which also suggests the existence of one or two additional levels of intermediary administrative roles connecting ruler and subjects. Note, however, that Kilwa happens to be one of the better-studied towns in this era, and that the administrative organization of other towns may have differed in significant respects. In any case, regarding the sultans of Kilwa: \"Beginning in the mid-thirteenth century, Kilwa had settled into a pattern of success, led by an apparently powerful and successful Sultanate. [...] At the beginning of the fourteenth century, an apparent coup occurred at Kilwa. It left in its wake a new dynasty of rulers, known in the Chronicles as the Mahdali, initiated by one al-Hasan bin Talut. [...] Two generations later, the Mahdali still retained their hold on Kilwa and the Sultanate was held by al-Hasan bin Sulaiman, bin Talut's grandson and perhaps the best known Sultan of Kilwa before the arrival of the Portuguese. Al-Hasan is well documented in the Kilwa Chronicles and is one of the few figures independently verified by another historical source-Ibn Battuta's account of his visit to Kilwa in 1331. [...] The same successes that established the Sultan as an authoritarian ruler of Kilwa also created a wealthy extended royal family and sizable merchant class. By the late fourteenth to early fifteenth century, these merchants and royals capitalized on the Sultan's loss of power and wealth and contested his authority. Notably, during this period, the positions of the amir and wazir, both counsellors to the Sultan (but not necessarily from the royal line), are more frequently mentioned in the Chronicles.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BZK4K9CG\">[Fleisher_Reid_Lane 2014]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 467, "polity": { "id": 314, "name": "ua_kievan_rus", "long_name": "Kievan Rus", "start_year": 880, "end_year": 1242 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Prince<br> \"Although the evidence is not completely conclusive ... there are strong indications that the contractual relationship between prince and people went back to the earliest times, when a Viking chief was invited to come and rule in Northern Russia and he settled in Novgorod. Rurik's successors moved their capital to Kiev, but at least in Novgorod the essential equality between the contractual partners remained a prominent feature all through the history of Novgorods independence.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 427) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Druzhina<br> 2. Lieutenant (posadnik) \"During the prince's absence his responsibilities could be entrusted by him to a lieutenant, the posadnik. This official is mentioned once in the Expanded Pravda (art. 114)\".§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 428) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> Town officials. The posadnik (lieutenant) was head of local government in the prince's absence. Posadniki mentioned \"as early as in 977\" CE. Decimal system used. \"desiatskie, sotskie and tysiatskie (Latin: decanus, centenarius, millenarius) ... Pavlov-Sil'vanskii ... regarded the decimal system of the organization of Kievan society as an ancient remnant of a system common to several other Aryan (Indo-European) peoples.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 430) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ 3. desiatskie ? 4. sotskie ? 5. tysiatskie ? 'thousandmen' (tysiatskie) involved in town government. this first appeared 1089 CE. 'hundredmen' (sotskie) and 'tenmen' (desiatski) probably also \"involved within a hierarchical structure.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 430) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br>Kievan Rus was ruled by a Grand Prince who ruled over smaller territories of 'local princes' and boyars who were landowning nobles. Towns were governed by a veche, or assembly.§REF§Miriam Greenblatt. 2001. Human Heritage: A World History. McGraw-Hill.§REF§ \"During the early Kievan period the prince and his entourage (druzhina) constituted a separate element in the political make-up of the principality, against which the general assembly of the people formed the main counterweight.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 424) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The boundaries of the federation were uncertain, and its internal politics were riven by ceaseless discord. At first, no principle of succession to the thrones of Kiev and the other cities seems to have been established, and rival claimants to the thrones were a chief cause of domestic unrest and civil strife.\"§REF§(Blum 1971, 14) Jerome Blum. 1971. Lord and Peasant in Russia. From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton. Princeton University Press.§REF§<br>\"Most authors assume that the veche of the Kievan era grew out of the tribal or popular assemblies of the Eastern Slavs of the preceding centuries. ... Common sense seems to support this position, but ... the evidence is not abundant.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 421) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"There is ample evidence that veche meetings took place in Kiev, Novgorod and most of the other principal cities during the 11th and 12th centuries. The situation is much less clear in respect of the 10th and the first half of the 11th centuries.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 421) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ \"The modest amount of evidence from the earliest period offered by the chronicles and other sources, suggests the following. Town veches may have had different origins, depending on the origin of the town itself. The town as a gradually urbanized tribal centre may have been the dominant type, but in Kievan times this type was merging or had already merged with other types of towns (such as those which were specifically founded as military or administrative centres, or which originated as multi-ethnic trading centres). The subsequent fate of the veche, the urban assembly, depended on a variety of factors, such as the power of the local prince, the town's standing in the region (regional capital or not), the socio-economic conditions prevailing in the area, the general cultural level, etc. Accordingly, the veche could atrophy, or it could become the dominant political agent; it could be an infrequent occurrence, or a regular event.\"§REF§(Feldbrugge 2017, 422) Ferdinand J M Feldbrugge. 2017. A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§" }, { "id": 468, "polity": { "id": 535, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_2", "long_name": "Bito Dynasty", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1894 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Omukama or mukama (king)<br>\"The Omukama was also head of government.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 2. Orukurato rw’omubananu (cabinet)\"Real formal power lay with the Omukama and the orukurato rw’omubananu (cabinet), however. The bamuroga – a sort of prime minister – headed the cabinet and was also the Omukama’s double when he was unavailable. The cabinet was the policy-making arm of government. Parliament could not override its decisions but the Omukama must approve them. The cabinet included also the mugema and an unspecified number of important officials. The Omukama was by no means primus inter pares in relation to his cabinet although the influence of any cabinet depended on the authority the incumbent Omukama was capable or willing to wield.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Amakumu g’Omukama (royal stewards)\"A governor was normally, but not necessarily, appointed by the Omukama on the advice of the abakuru b’ ebitebe (counselors of state)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 2. Abakuru b’emirwa (royal household)<br>2. Abakuru b'ebitebe (counsellors of state)\"Such other institutions of government as the amakumu g’Omukama (royal stewards) who existed as parallel territorial administrative setup and were in charge of royal estates and lands, and the abakuru b’emirwa (royal household) comprising officials selected diffusely throughout the land to perform specific functions, were devices that went some way to bridging the gap and easing the tension generated by the centralizing tendencies of the constitution on the one hand, and the tendency to fission that characterized the clans and the periphery on the other.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Mugema\"The mugema, a very important governor of the hereditary county Kigimba (Nyakabimba, now in modern Tooro), exerted a lot of influence in governance as head of the crown wearers, aptly described by the Reverend John Roscoe as belonging to a ‘Sacred Guild’ (Roscoe, 1923: 112).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Abakama b'obuhanga (provincial governors)\"The abakama b’obuhanga (provincial governors were the highest-ranking political administrators.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 3. Abajwara kondo (mediators between governors and king)<br>3. Abasekura (advisors to provincial governors)\"The abakama also used the abajwara kondo (crown wearers) who were members of the austere order of counselors, and the abasekura, a small select group of informal advisors and sycophants (‘kitchen cabinet’?)</ref>, permitted to speak with the king in intimate terms, to maintain the stability and smooth functioning of the state.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 4. Mid-level provincial administrators\"Below the governors was a hierarchy of territorial administrators down to the village level.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 5. Local-level provincial administrators\"Below the governors was a hierarchy of territorial administrators down to the village level.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> Though this data directly relates to the 19th century CE, it seems reasonable to infer that this was the case in preceding centuries as well, given organisational continuity between the Babito dynasty and its predecessors: Uzoigwe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, p. 247]</a> specifically notes that the Babito \"do not seem to have introduced any fundamental economic changes\" or \"any revolutionary social reorganization\".", "description": null }, { "id": 469, "polity": { "id": 534, "name": "ug_bunyoro_k_1", "long_name": "Cwezi Dynasty", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1699 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Omukama or mukama (king)<br>\"The Omukama was also head of government.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 2. Orukurato rw’omubananu (cabinet)\"Real formal power lay with the Omukama and the orukurato rw’omubananu (cabinet), however. The bamuroga – a sort of prime minister – headed the cabinet and was also the Omukama’s double when he was unavailable. The cabinet was the policy-making arm of government. Parliament could not override its decisions but the Omukama must approve them. The cabinet included also the mugema and an unspecified number of important officials. The Omukama was by no means primus inter pares in relation to his cabinet although the influence of any cabinet depended on the authority the incumbent Omukama was capable or willing to wield.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Amakumu g’Omukama (royal stewards)\"A governor was normally, but not necessarily, appointed by the Omukama on the advice of the abakuru b’ ebitebe (counselors of state)\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 2. Abakuru b’emirwa (royal household)<br>2. Abakuru b'ebitebe (counsellors of state)\"Such other institutions of government as the amakumu g’Omukama (royal stewards) who existed as parallel territorial administrative setup and were in charge of royal estates and lands, and the abakuru b’emirwa (royal household) comprising officials selected diffusely throughout the land to perform specific functions, were devices that went some way to bridging the gap and easing the tension generated by the centralizing tendencies of the constitution on the one hand, and the tendency to fission that characterized the clans and the periphery on the other.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Mugema\"The mugema, a very important governor of the hereditary county Kigimba (Nyakabimba, now in modern Tooro), exerted a lot of influence in governance as head of the crown wearers, aptly described by the Reverend John Roscoe as belonging to a ‘Sacred Guild’ (Roscoe, 1923: 112).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 2. Abakama b'obuhanga (provincial governors)\"The abakama b’obuhanga (provincial governors were the highest-ranking political administrators.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 21]</a> 3. Abajwara kondo (mediators between governors and king)<br>3. Abasekura (advisors to provincial governors)\"The abakama also used the abajwara kondo (crown wearers) who were members of the austere order of counselors, and the abasekura, a small select group of informal advisors and sycophants (‘kitchen cabinet’?)</ref>, permitted to speak with the king in intimate terms, to maintain the stability and smooth functioning of the state.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 4. Mid-level provincial administrators\"Below the governors was a hierarchy of territorial administrators down to the village level.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> 5. Local-level provincial administrators\"Below the governors was a hierarchy of territorial administrators down to the village level.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VAFA6XGX\">[Uzoigwe 2012, p. 22]</a> Though this data directly relates to the 19th century CE, it seems reasonable to infer that this was the case in preceding centuries as well, given organisational continuity between the Babito dynasty and its predecessors: Uzoigwe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBEPG6WE\">[Uzoigwe 1972, p. 247]</a> specifically notes that the Babito \"do not seem to have introduced any fundamental economic changes\" or \"any revolutionaty social reorganization\".", "description": null }, { "id": 470, "polity": { "id": 773, "name": "mw_pre_maravi", "long_name": "Pre-Maravi", "start_year": 1151, "end_year": 1399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 471, "polity": { "id": 775, "name": "mw_northern_maravi_k", "long_name": "Northern Maravi Kingdom", "start_year": 1500, "end_year": 1621 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 3, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 473, "polity": { "id": 715, "name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1", "long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 474, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 475, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "EMPTY_COMMENT", "description": null }, { "id": 476, "polity": { "id": 791, "name": "bd_khadga_dyn", "long_name": "Khadga Dynasty", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>Region of Vanga<br>(1) King<br>(2) Uparika - Regional governors (Puṇḍravardhanabhukti - highest admin unit)<br>(3) Provincial Governors<br>(4) Viṣayapatis (supra-village level)<br>(5) Adhikaraṇa (rural society administration)“The administrative apparatus of these sub-regional kingdoms followed that of the Guptas. It was the same for their local administration both in terms of its organisation and interaction with local population through the adhikaraṇa. Puṇḍravardhanabhukti continued to be the highest administrative unit of the sub-region governed by an uparika appointed by the king. Similarly, the administrative units of Navyāvakāśikā, Vardhamānabhukti and Daṇḍabhukti were established at the level immediately below the king and entrusted to governors with position of subordinate rulers. The lower administrative units of viṣaya and vīthī were placed under them at supravillage level and managed by administrators like viṣayapatis. It was this level where the administration interacted with rural society through the organisation of adhikaraṇa.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> Area of Vārakamaṇḍalaviṣaya [in our NGA]<br>(1) King<br>(2) Jyeṣṭha (elder/governor)<br>(3) Kulavāras (arbitrators)“Vārakamaṇḍalaviṣaya was an administrative unit belonging to an area called Navyāvakāśikā in Vaṅga. According to the provenance of the inscriptions pertaining to this viṣaya, it covered the area around present Kotalipara upazila in Gopalganj district of Bangladesh. It was governed by rājānaka Kṣasāma, viṣayapati Jajāva, vyāpārakāraṇḍaya Gopālasvāmin, viniyuktaka Vatsapālasvāmin and viṣayapati Pavitraka in chronological order. Some of them are said to have been ‘managing together’ (samvyavaharato) with the adhikaraṇa. This phrase denotes their collaboration with the organisation on administrative matters and the latter’s location at the viṣaya headquarter, by analogy with the cases of adhiṣṭhānādhikaraṇas in the previous period. The viṣayādhikaraṇa was headed by the elder (jyeṣṭha) kāyastha or adhikaraṇika, a member of adhikaraṇa. The terms ‘elder’ prefixed to their titles and ‘headed by’ (pramukha) qualifying the adhikaraṇa indicate the presence of other members of adhikaraṇa including kāyasthas or similar clerical functionaries headed by these elders. Adhikaraṇikajana in the Faridpur grant of the time of Gopacandra and karaṇikas in the Ghugrahati plate, who were appointed to arbitrators (kulavāras) executing the practical part of transactions, seem to have been such members. Thus, the viṣayādhikaraṇa in this locality was the organisation consisting of clerical group, collaborating with administrators and located outside rural society. Its membership seems to have been fixed to some extent, in view of jyeṣṭhakāyastha Nayasena who headed it in the two cases under the different kings.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 477, "polity": { "id": 793, "name": "bd_sena_dyn", "long_name": "Sena Dynasty", "start_year": 1095, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) King<br>(2) Rajeputrah (prince), later replaced by narendrah.“Any one of some importance, other than the king, could be designated as a prince” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (3) Sāmantas (subordinate ruler)“Among agents of the state control, subordinate rulers called sāmantas gained prominence in the early phase of this period. Though the enhanced state control did not allow them to hold semi-independent status as their counterpart in the seventh century Samataṭa,they still kept territorial control over a particular area. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> An important number of changes took place during this period (800-1200), “one of these was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called samanta, ranak, rautta (rajput), etc. by the contemporary writers...Some were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated rajas and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventurers who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. Still others were tribal or clan leaders. Thus there was a hierarchy among them. But their actual position varied, depending on the situation. Some of them were village chiefs, some of them dominated a tract comprising a number of villages, while a few dominated an entire region. They constantly contended against each other and tried to enhance their sphere of authority and privileges.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a> (4) Rajaputra (nobleman) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (5) Grāmapati (Village head) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> “There is no administrative division denoting whole the [sic] sub-region… In the period between the tenth and 13th centuries, this sub-region first came under the jurisdiction of Pauṇḍrabhukti in the reigns of the Candra and Varman kings, and then of Pauṇḍravardhanabhukti under the Senas.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> “From the tenth century to the third decade of the 13th century, Samataṭa was ruled by the kings based in Vaṅga like the Candras and the Senas.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (1) Chief of the merchants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (1) bhukṭi<br>(2) maṇḍala<br>(3) viṣaya<br>(4) khaṇḍala“More concrete evidence is available for the rule of Dāmodaradeva in Samataṭa by his grants recording land donations to brāhmaṇas. The well defined administrative hierarchy with four layers of units consisting of bhukṭi, maṇḍala, viṣaya and khaṇḍala is discernible in his Mehar and Sobharampur plates, dated years 1156 and 1158 SE (1234 and 1236 AD) respectively.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 478, "polity": { "id": 795, "name": "bd_yadava_varman_dyn", "long_name": "Yadava-Varman Dynasty", "start_year": 1080, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>(1) King<br>(2) Sāmanta (local/subordinate ruler)An important number of changes took place during this period (800-1200), “one of these was the growing power of a class of people who are variously called samanta, ranak, rautta (rajput), etc. by the contemporary writers...Some were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated rajas and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited areas. Still others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventurers who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help of armed supporters. Still others were tribal or clan leaders. Thus there was a hierarchy among them. But their actual position varied, depending on the situation. Some of them were village chiefs, some of them dominated a tract comprising a number of villages, while a few dominated an entire region. They constantly contended against each other and tried to enhance their sphere of authority and privileges.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8N54SUNJ\">[Chandra 2007]</a> “...a stone inscription of the time of Bhojavarman from Sujanagar, Munshiganj district of Bangladesh shows presence and activity of a subordinate ruler under the Varman rule.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> (3) Minister of War and Peace - ??? <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (4) Vassal Chief - ??? <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (5) Forest Chief - ??? <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> (6) Petty Chief - ??? <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\">[Chowdhury 1965]</a> “A glimpse of the Varman rule in Vaṅga is obtainable from the three grants and one stone inscription so far discovered in eastern Bengal… The similarity in the first case indicates the inheritance of administrative apparatus of the preceding dynasty by the Varmans, while that in the second shows their efforts towards consolidation of local control, which would be realised under the Senas.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a> “There is no administrative division denoting whole the [sic] sub-region [of Vanga]… In the period between the tenth and 13th centuries, this sub-region first came under the jurisdiction of Pauṇḍrabhukti in the reigns of the Candra and Varman kings, and then of Pauṇḍravardhanabhukti under the Senas.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84Q49F5X\">[Furui 2020]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 479, "polity": { "id": 223, "name": "ma_almoravid_dyn", "long_name": "Almoravids", "start_year": 1035, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Amir<br> After Ibn Yasin \"the religious community transformed itself into a kingdom. As the spiritual leadership began to lose its importance, the office of amir achieved the primacy and the holder of it had founded a dynasty.\" §REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 348)§REF§<br>_Central Court_<br> 2. vizier §REF§(Saido 1984, 18, 21)§REF§ -- check<br> 3. Chancellery§REF§(Messier 2013, 67)§REF§<br> 4.<br>_Urban government_<br> 2. Governor-commander \"Among the Sanhaja, military commanders had to govern, and governors had to defend their land as commanders of the militia.\" §REF§(Messier 2013, 63)§REF§<br> \"Yusuf appointed fellow tribesmen to command the garrisons in what amounted to four provincial capitals.\" Meknes. Fez. Sijilmasa. Marrakesh. §REF§(Messier 2013, 63-64)§REF§<br> 2. Chief qada \"The chief qada of each major city, the qadi al-qudat, was an official administrator for the Almoravid state, appointed by, and exercising authority in, the name of the Alomoravid amir. He was the most powerful and influential official in the entire administrative hierarchy under the Saharan military governor. ... the appointment had to be ratified by the amir for the qadi's office to be legitimate.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 67-68)§REF§ 3. Hakims \"The chief qadi did not usually rule on individual and civil criminal cases in the court. That was the job of secondary judges, called hakims. Judges handed decisions over to officers (awns) of the state who saw that their rulings were enforced.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§<br> 4 Awns \"The chief qadi did not usually rule on individual and civil criminal cases in the court. That was the job of secondary judges, called hakims. Judges handed decisions over to officers (awns) of the state who saw that their rulings were enforced.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§<br> 3. Tax assessors and collectors§REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§<br> 3. Chief of police (Sahib al-madina)§REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§ these employees were Andalusians §REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§<br> 4. Local police officers \"He employed a local police force to patrol the public space in and around the city both day and night.\" §REF§(Messier 2013, 68)§REF§<br> 3. Village headmen Village headmen §REF§(Saido 1984, 18, 21)§REF§<br> The Almoravids \"failed to integrate the local aristocracies into their ruling system or to form a loyal local bureaucracy.\"§REF§(Messier 2013, 75)§REF§<br>The nomadic Sanhadja (who should be distinguished from the sedentary Sanhadja of Ifrikiya) had three branches: Massufa (north and east); Lamtuna (center and south); Djuddala (west).§REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 339)§REF§<br>\"Although Ibn Yasin wanted from the start to give his movement a supra-tribal character, the al-Murabitun were and remained members of some concrete Berber groups. The leadership was in the hands of the Lamtuna under their chief Yahya ibn Umar, to whom Ibn Yasin delegated the military command as amir and the other founding branches, the Massufa and Djudalla (at least at the beginning) followed this general command. The members of the different tribes were more or less left under the leadership of their traditional chiefs and remained tribal warriors as before but now under the banner of Islam.\"§REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 346)§REF§<br>Under Ibn Yasin, he had supreme authority. \"There emerged a pattern of dual leadership since Ibn Yasin attended not only to the religious and judicial affairs of the community but also administered the public treasury and held the supreme authority, even over Yahya ibn Umar. He even took part personally in campaigns.\" §REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 346)§REF§<br>After Sidjilmasa conquered the Almoravids \"installed there their own governor.\" §REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 347)§REF§<br>Hierarchy that had become established by Ibn Yasin's death §REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 348)§REF§<br> Lamtuna - branch of the rulers<br> al-murabit - founding branches of the Almoravids (sanhadja Massufa, Djuddala and Lamtuna)<br> kabilas - \"Djazula, Lamta, Masmuda and others who served in the army were not considered al-murabitun but were called followers' (al-hasham). The restriction of the name to the founding branches indicates the rise of an aristocracy\"§REF§(Hrbek and Devisse 1988, 348-349)§REF§" }, { "id": 480, "polity": { "id": 284, "name": "hu_avar_khaganate", "long_name": "Avar Khaganate", "start_year": 586, "end_year": 822 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"The Avars were centralized\".§REF§(Liebeschuetz 2015, 441) J H W F Liebeschuetz. 2015. East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"The Avars have left lots of grave goods, suggesting that they had an aristocracy\".§REF§(Liebeschuetz 2015, 441) J H W F Liebeschuetz. 2015. East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"Yet another reason for thinking that the leadership core of the European Avars was an element or remnant of the Rouran is the fact that the Avars are closely associated with the westward transmission of a number of items of military technology that had long been familiar in China and its adjacent steppe zone - but were unknown in the Mediterranean world, Europe, and the western steppe before the Avars' arrival in those parts.\"§REF§(Graff 2016, 139) David A Graff. 2016. The Eurasian Way of War. Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br> \"The Avars ruled over the indigenous, Romanized population of Pannonia and over such German peoples as the Gepids and Lombards, as well as Bulgars and Slavs, wherein, according to Tivader Vida, 'political power was unambiguously reserved for the Avar elite.' (Curta, 2008, p. 15).\"§REF§(Martin 2017, 171) Michael Martin. 2017. City of the Sun: Development and Popular Resistance in the Pre-Modern West. Algora Publishing. New York.§REF§<br> 2. Councillors Avar kaghan had councilors who could be Kutrighur in origin.§REF§(Szadecky-Kardoss 1990, 222) Samuel Szadecky-Kardoss. The Avars. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Officials \"the later Byzantine use of the same term (logades) to describe graded officials within the Avar Empire that succeeded the Huns\"§REF§Hyun Jin Kim 2015 The Huns p.83-84§REF§<br> 3. Lesser officials<br> 2. Governors Avar governors.§REF§(Stadler 2008, 67) Peter Stadler. Avar Chronology Revisited, And The Question Of Ethnicity In The Avar Qaganate. Florin Curta. Roman Kovalev. eds. 2008. “The” Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans ; [papers ... Presented in the Three Special Sessions at the 40th and 42nd Editions of the International Congress on Medieval Studies Held at Kalamazzo in 2005 and 2007]. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 2. Banates 3. Zupanik, leader of zupania - autonomous Slavic administrative unit \"According to Klaic ... zupanias were established as autonomous Slavic administrative units only where the Avars were in hegemony. Above them was banates, whose governor was of Avaric origin. We have no [sic] any data or sample case to help us imagine ethnic origin of zupans, but if the zupanias were organized according to any tribal criteria, Klaic would be exactly right. However, these were geographical units, whose governors might be both Avars and Slavs, preferably the former. ... Governor of zupa would be something like zupanik.\"§REF§(Karatay 2003, 50) Osman Karatay. 2003. In Search of the Lost Tribe: The Origins and Making of the Croatian Nation. KaraM. Corum.§REF§<br> \"The Avar power, having been in warfare with all surrounding states and nations for 250 years, seems to have lost its authority over bans and zupans of Bosnia, coincidedly with its weakening in the last decades, if not earlier. Sudden collapse of this state at the end of the 8th century left Bosnian begs with Avaric and Bulgaric origin stateless. According to N. Klaic, well before the Franks' coming and declining the Avar state, Bosnian begs were de facto independent.\"§REF§(Karatay 2003) Osman Karatay. 2003. In Search of the Lost Tribe: The Origins and Making of the Croatian Nation. KaraM. Corum.§REF§<br> 4. Slavic tribal leader<br> 3. Tribal leaders<br> Avars themselves may have been made up of two tribes, the Var and Chunni, of the same origin and language as those who joined later who adopted the name 'Avars'.§REF§(Szadecky-Kardoss 1990, 222) Samuel Szadecky-Kardoss. The Avars. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"The ethnic composition of the Avar state was not homogenous. Bayan was followed by 10,000 Kutrighur warrior subjects already at the time of the conquest of Gepidia. In 568 he sent them to invade Dalmatia, arguing that casualties they may suffer while fighting against the Byzantines would not hurt the Avars themselves. A little later, fleeing from the Turk supremacy, 10,000 further warriors of the tribes Tarniakh, Kotzager (= ? Kutrighur) and perhaps Zabender (= ? Sabir) joined the Avars. It is probable, even if the sources do not say so explicitly, that these tribes joined the Avars in the Carpathian basin, and not on the Pontic steppe.\"§REF§(Szadecky-Kardoss 1990, 222) Samuel Szadecky-Kardoss. The Avars. Denis Sinor ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 481, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"The sequence Tazena-Kaleb-Wa'zeb follows from father to son, but in fact only the later hagiographies and king lists call Tazena a king, naming his father as another Ella Amida. Only for Wa'zeb, therefore, do we have primary evidence from Aksumite documents for hereditary succession on the throne. In spite of this paucity of evidence, the flourishing urban society of Aksum, with its prosperous trade and lack of defensive installations seems to indicate that the transmission of power was relatively stable over a considerable period.\"§REF§(Munro-Hay 1991, 158) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§ King W'ZB? mid-6th CE<br> 2. Palatial staff. Royals had slaves.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"In the fourth century, Aksum became the first significant empire to accept Christianity when King Ezana (320-350) was converted by his slave-teacher, Frumentius (d. 383), a Greek Phoenician.\"§REF§(Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.§REF§<br> No information on the administrative system \"which appears to have been poorly developed. Near relatives of the king assumed an important part in the direction of affairs.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Quote based on old data?<br> \"Archaeological evidence indicates that by Aksumite times there had developed a partly urbanized stratified society consisting of monarchy, surrounding elite, 'middle class', and peasant/slave class.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 147) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes ...\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Treasurer and Secretary Perhaps in the example two offices were combined into one?) \"The hellenized Syrians, Aedesius and Frumentius, who had been made royal slaves, were later promoted, one to the office of wine-pourer, the other to the position of secretary and treasurer to the Aksum king.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Vassal tribute was either sent or taken by the king who visited \"accompanied by a numerous retinue\".§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Lesser official Government officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration. Levies and tributes were collected from the provinces.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> 4. Scribes Government officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Aksum scholars and scribes also taught calligraphy and manuscript illumination - decoration with designs, colors, and minature images, and they highly esteemed the composition of poetry.\"§REF§(Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.§REF§<br> 5.<br> 3. Manager of a Mint inferred<br> 4. Mint worker Coiners.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Vassal king (negus) Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> \"Control was established over a number of vassal states that sent tributes to the king.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ This control was presumably fully established in the subsequent Aksum period.<br> Challenge of the Aksum monarch e.g Ezana was to enforce the submission of the northern Ethiopian principalities.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ i.e. control over principalities was lacking in this period.<br> \"The king exercised direct power in the capital territory, and he delegated power to regional leaders in the provincial areas.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ This reference probably refers to the next Aksum periods.<br> \"The Axum Empire was ruled by a divine monarch, an emperor who delegated power to subordinate kings, who in turn rendered him tribute.\"§REF§(Newman et al. 1997, 231) Mark Newman. Lanny B Fields. Russell J Barber. Cheryl A Riggs. 1997. The Global Past: Prehistory to 1500. Macmillan Higher Education.§REF§<br> \"The state was divided into Aksum proper and its vassal kingdoms the rulers of which were subjects of the Aksum king of kings, to whom they paid tribute.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Vassal of a vassal Some vassal kings had their own vassals e.g. those in southern Arabia and Upper Nubia.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Negus of a city Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 4. Negus of a tribe The neguses of the four tribes of Bega (Beja) ruled over about 1100 people, Agbo principality about 1000-1500.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 482, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"The sequence Tazena-Kaleb-Wa'zeb follows from father to son, but in fact only the later hagiographies and king lists call Tazena a king, naming his father as another Ella Amida. Only for Wa'zeb, therefore, do we have primary evidence from Aksumite documents for hereditary succession on the throne. In spite of this paucity of evidence, the flourishing urban society of Aksum, with its prosperous trade and lack of defensive installations seems to indicate that the transmission of power was relatively stable over a considerable period.\"§REF§(Munro-Hay 1991, 158) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§ King W'ZB? mid-6th CE<br> 2. Palatial staff. Royals had slaves.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ \"In the fourth century, Aksum became the first significant empire to accept Christianity when King Ezana (320-350) was converted by his slave-teacher, Frumentius (d. 383), a Greek Phoenician.\"§REF§(Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.§REF§<br> No information on the administrative system \"which appears to have been poorly developed. Near relatives of the king assumed an important part in the direction of affairs.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Quote based on old data?<br> \"Archaeological evidence indicates that by Aksumite times there had developed a partly urbanized stratified society consisting of monarchy, surrounding elite, 'middle class', and peasant/slave class.\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 147) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"high-quality grave goods, have been interpreted as those of 'middle-class' Aksumites ... It might be expected that such a class would include government officials, scribes ...\"§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Treasurer and Secretary Perhaps in the example two offices were combined into one?) \"The hellenized Syrians, Aedesius and Frumentius, who had been made royal slaves, were later promoted, one to the office of wine-pourer, the other to the position of secretary and treasurer to the Aksum king.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Vassal tribute was either sent or taken by the king who visited \"accompanied by a numerous retinue\".§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Lesser official Government officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Leading chiefs as well as civil servants managed the administration. Levies and tributes were collected from the provinces.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§<br> 4. Scribes Government officials, scribes.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"Aksum scholars and scribes also taught calligraphy and manuscript illumination - decoration with designs, colors, and minature images, and they highly esteemed the composition of poetry.\"§REF§(Murray 2009) Stuart A P Murray. 2009. The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.§REF§<br> 5.<br> 3. Manager of a Mint inferred<br> 4. Mint worker Coiners.§REF§(Connah 2016, 141) Graham Connah. 2016. African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. Vassal king (negus) Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> \"Control was established over a number of vassal states that sent tributes to the king.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ This control was presumably fully established in the subsequent Aksum period.<br> Challenge of the Aksum monarch e.g Ezana was to enforce the submission of the northern Ethiopian principalities.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ i.e. control over principalities was lacking in this period.<br> \"The king exercised direct power in the capital territory, and he delegated power to regional leaders in the provincial areas.\"§REF§(Falola 2002, 58, 60) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.§REF§ This reference probably refers to the next Aksum periods.<br> \"The Axum Empire was ruled by a divine monarch, an emperor who delegated power to subordinate kings, who in turn rendered him tribute.\"§REF§(Newman et al. 1997, 231) Mark Newman. Lanny B Fields. Russell J Barber. Cheryl A Riggs. 1997. The Global Past: Prehistory to 1500. Macmillan Higher Education.§REF§<br> \"The state was divided into Aksum proper and its vassal kingdoms the rulers of which were subjects of the Aksum king of kings, to whom they paid tribute.\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Vassal of a vassal Some vassal kings had their own vassals e.g. those in southern Arabia and Upper Nubia.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 3. Negus of a city Aksumite term for ruler was 'negus', and \"Each 'people', kingdom, principality, city and tribe had its own negus. Mention is made of army neguses ...\"§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§<br> 4. Negus of a tribe The neguses of the four tribes of Bega (Beja) ruled over about 1100 people, Agbo principality about 1000-1500.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 483, "polity": { "id": 379, "name": "mm_bagan", "long_name": "Bagan", "start_year": 1044, "end_year": 1287 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>\"The Burmese Glass Palace Chronicle (GPC) records that Alaungsithu (113-1169/70), probably toward the end of his reign, introduced major administrative changes at Pagan. Although this source was compiled in the nineteenth century, it probably refers to an actual series of administrative actions, the significance of which is enhanced by the fact that there are no similar accounts of large-scale reforms in the GPC.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 130) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br>1. King<br> According to Sir John Marshall: \"there were many other Burmese centres or settlements around Pagan which would have had an equal chance of becoming centres themselves as they were all under the rule of local chiefs who invariably enjoyed the title of man - the King. Subsequently the man of Pagan became mankri - the great King - and was recognized as the leader of all Burmans.\"§REF§(Soni 1991, xxix) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.§REF§<br>The Pagan \"ruined metropolis\" is notable for \"The stupendous vastness of the ruins\" as well as \"The utter paucity of secular structures in the ruins\".§REF§(Soni 1991, 2) Sujata Soni. 1991. Evolution of Stupas in Burma. Pagan Period: 11th to 13th centuries A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Chief Minister inferred \"By the fourth quarter of the twelfth century, with the advent of Narapatisithu (Cansu II), dedicatory inscriptions came to be written exclusively in the Burmese language, an administrative hierarchy was firmly in place\".§REF§(Wicks 1992, 122) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> The Burmese Glass Palace Chronicle (19th century) suggests in the second half of the 12th century CE \"The administrative hierarchy consisted of queens, concubines, and ministers\".§REF§(Wicks 1992, 130) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 3. Secretaries Ministers had secretaries.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 149) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 2. \"Treasurers of the king's fisc.\" 3. Secretaries Treasurers had secretaries.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 149) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 3. Lesser Minister Tax-assessor (kamkun).§REF§(Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§ Was the kamkun a single official based at the court or a number of officials based in each region?<br> 4. Secretaries Ministers had secretaries.§REF§(Wicks 1992, 149) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 3. Construction project manager inferred ad hoc position \"The 10,000 klyap of silver would have been used to purchase supplies and pay the wages of those involved in constructing the monastery.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 132) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 4. Construction worker<br> 3. Superintendent of salt wells \"It is probable that at least some commercial activities were administered by the state. We read, for example, that in 1285 the 'king of Mian [Burma] sent his superintendent of salt wells Abilixiang, to Taigong city [Tagaung]', indicating that salt production was at least under nominal government control.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 147) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§<br> 4.<br>_Regional government_<br> 2. 3. Village-president (sangrih) 4. Head of a hamlet (tuik sukri) \"Very little information is available regarding the collection of revenue or tax assessment prior to the end of the twelfth century, although there is evidence for a rudimentary administrative hierarchy. By the middle of the century references can be found to the head of a hamlet (tuik sukri), the village-president (sangrih), and the tax-assessor (kamkun), each of whom would have been involved in the proper collection of the king's due.\"§REF§(Wicks 1992, 128) Robert S Wicks. Money, Markets, And Trade In Early Southeast Asia. The Development of Indigenous Monetary Systems To AD 1400. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.§REF§" }, { "id": 484, "polity": { "id": 226, "name": "ib_banu_ghaniya", "long_name": "Banu Ghaniya", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1227 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 3, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Ruler<br> Banu Ghaniya were an \"Almoravid family of Sanhaja Berbers. The Banu Ghaniya, established in the Balearic Islands, strove to reinstate Almoravid rule in the Almohad-dominated Maghrib during the 12th and 13th centuries. They targeted Ifriqiya and campaigned in the region of Bejaia, Constantine, and Algiers. After enjoying some success, the Ghaniya were defeated by the Almohads.\"<br>_Court government_ (Similar to Amoravid structure?)<br> 2. Vizier? 3. Treasury? \"The struggle of the Banu Ghaniya was thus designed to recover the heritage of the Faitimids, Zirids and Almoravids in the control of trade between the Mediterranean and the Sudan; whereas the Almohad project, despite the attraction of Spain, remained on an east-west axis, across the Maghrib, without that Saharan and Sudanese dimension that carried the African gold that was vital to the Mediterranean economy.\"§REF§(Saidi 1997, 21) O Saidi. The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads. UNESCO. 1997. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Paris.§REF§<br> \"Using a new strategy, the caliph first took Majorca, in 1203, thus depriving the Banu Ghaniya of their refuge in the Balearics which they had used as a military and commercial base that enabled them to maintain links with Aragon, Genoa and Pisa against the Almohads.\"§REF§(Saidi 1997, 20) O Saidi. The Unification of the Maghrib under the Almohads. UNESCO. 1997. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. UNESCO. Paris.§REF§<br> 4.<br>In Tunisa in 1187 CE the Almohads \"retained control of only the administrative capital Tunis and Mahdiyya.\"§REF§(Abun-Nasr 1987, 100) Jamil M Abun-Nasr. 1987. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press. Cambrige.§REF§" }, { "id": 485, "polity": { "id": 308, "name": "bg_bulgaria_early", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Early", "start_year": 681, "end_year": 864 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> Ruler transition not always father to son. Accord to John the Exarch, a Bulgarian writer and translator born in the mid-ninth century, succession could be lateral, older to younger brother, then sons of elder brother.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 265) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"there was a kind of noble class in Bulgaria that was perhaps divided into an inner circle around the Khan himself and his family and an outer circle including, for example, the holders of minor offices.\"§REF§(Ziemann 2007, 618) Daniel Ziemann. The rebellion of the nobles against the baptism of Khan Boris (865-866). Joachim Henning ed. 2007. Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: Byzantium, Pliska, and the Balkans. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§<br> 2. Kavhan Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. Administrators The Bulgarian \"state and church administrations were similar to those of the empire, as was the tax system\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 21) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> After 880 CE: \"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Provincial governors Omurtag places provincial governors in Pannonia.§REF§(Miller 1923, 234) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br> 2-3. Provincial level First half of the ninth century CE: \"The inventories record the highly complex organization of the Bulgar military, several of the titles of its officers, their responsibilities within the core area of the state and its 'outer' provinces, and the general division of two levels of authority exercised by the members of the upper social class of boilas and the lower nobility, the bagaines.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 8) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 4. Clan leader. Clan was the basis of the social system.§REF§(Miller 1923, 231) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 486, "polity": { "id": 312, "name": "bg_bulgaria_medieval", "long_name": "Bulgaria - Middle", "start_year": 865, "end_year": 1018 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. King<br> \"Although the evidence eludes us, there can be no doubt that he also acquired the role of the supreme lawgiver. Omurtag could then convincingly present himself as the ultimate source of authority - political, religious and judicial - in the realm. None of his nobles held a position that even approached his\".§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 292) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> Ruler transition not always father to son. Accord to John the Exarch, a Bulgarian writer and translator born in the mid-ninth century, succession could be lateral, older to younger brother, then sons of elder brother.§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 265) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> \"there was a kind of noble class in Bulgaria that was perhaps divided into an inner circle around the Khan himself and his family and an outer circle including, for example, the holders of minor offices.\"§REF§(Ziemann 2007, 618) Daniel Ziemann. The rebellion of the nobles against the baptism of Khan Boris (865-866). Joachim Henning ed. 2007. Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: Byzantium, Pliska, and the Balkans. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin.§REF§<br> 2. Kavhan Around 813 CE an inscription records \"the names and titles of the state and army's (saract) two chief officials, the kavhan and the ichurgu-boila\".§REF§(Petkov 2008, 7) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 3. Administrators The Bulgarian \"state and church administrations were similar to those of the empire, as was the tax system\".§REF§(Crampton 2005, 21) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> \"literacy was central to Omurtag's regime, for recording and publicizing the services extracted from the nobility.\"§REF§(Sophoulis 2012, 291) Panos Sophoulis. 2012. Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> After 880 CE: \"The new alphabet also facilitated the production of important secular texts such as a legal code, Zakon Sudnni Liudim; and without an alphabet it is difficult to imagine how the Bulgarian state could have carried out administration in the Slavo-Bulgarian language.\"§REF§(Crampton 2005, 15) R J Crampton. 2005. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br> 2. Provincial governors Omurtag places provincial governors in Pannonia.§REF§(Miller 1923, 234) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§<br> 2-3. Provincial level First half of the ninth century CE: \"The inventories record the highly complex organization of the Bulgar military, several of the titles of its officers, their responsibilities within the core area of the state and its 'outer' provinces, and the general division of two levels of authority exercised by the members of the upper social class of boilas and the lower nobility, the bagaines.\"§REF§(Petkov 2008, 8) Kiril Petkov. 2008. The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§<br> 4. Clan leader. Clan was the basis of the social system.§REF§(Miller 1923, 231) William Miller. The Rise and Fall of the First Bulgarian Empire (679-1018). J B Bury. J R Tanner. C W Previte-Orton. Z N Brooke. eds. 1923. The Cambridge Medieval History. Volume IV. The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up\">https://archive.org/stream/RiseAndFallOfTheFirstBulgarianEmpire-ZenithOfBulgariaAndSerbia-/bulgaria_bury-ROM1923#page/n19/mode/2up</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 487, "polity": { "id": 321, "name": "es_castile_k", "long_name": "Castile Kingdom", "start_year": 1065, "end_year": 1230 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>MonarchyRoyal AssemblyCuria/Corte(Representative Assembly)Town<br>§REF§EVELYN S. PROCTER, Curia and Cortes in Le6n and Castile, 1072-1295. (Cambridge Iberian and Latin American Studies.) Cambridge, Eng., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980§REF§" }, { "id": 488, "polity": { "id": 400, "name": "in_chandela_k", "long_name": "Chandela Kingdom", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1308 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King (Svamin)<br>\"In the Candella kingdom the king was the head of the state and administration.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 117]</a> __Council of ministers__<br>2. Chief minister (manthrimukya)\"The king had absolute authority on all the affairs of the state, but like other rulers, the Candella king had also a council of ministers, of whom one was the chief minister (manthrimukya).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 122]</a> 3. Other ministers\"It is evident from the inscriptions that, besides the Prime minister, there were other ministers of the state in charge of various departments. No writer excepting Sukra specifies the different portfolios of the councillors. According to Sukra, the ministry, whose strength was to be ten, was to consist of Purohita, Pradhana, Saciva, Mantri, Pradvivaka, Pandita, Sumantra, Amatya, and Duta, but Sukra adds that according to some, the Purohita and the Duta were not to be members of the ministry. [...] Sukra defines Pradhana as the Prime minister, Pradvivaka, the minister of justice and Sumantra the minister of the treasury. So the Mantrimukhya, Dharmadhikara and Bhandagarika or Kosadhipati of the Candella inscriptions may be regarded as respective synonyms of Sukra's Pradhana, Pradvivaka and Sumantra. [...] Sukra calls the revenue minister Amatya and Dr. Altekar believes that his duty was 'to have a correct inventory of villages, towns and forests in the country and of the income expected from each. His office also had an accurate account of the land under cultivation, the land lying fallow, as also if the expected produce from the different mines'. But Dr. Kane's view that the words Mantri, Saciva and Amatya are usually interchangeable, though sometimes distinguished, seems applicable to Candella administration. These three titles were frequently used in the inscriptions, and the duties and qualifications associated with their bearers indicate little differences among them. [...] Another important officer of the state was the minister of foreign affairs. [...] It is difficult to ascertain how much authority the minister could exercise in the affairs of peace and war. At a time of continuous dynastic struggle, it seems unlikely that the king and the Prime minister would have left any matter of real importance for a lesser minister to decide.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, pp. 129-131]</a> 4. Karanika\"Kielhorn translates Karanika as a writer of legal documents, but he was more probably a government servant in charge of registration of a state department or office.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 149]</a> 4. Kayastha\"The writers of some of the Candella inscriptions are also mentioned as Kayasthas. [...] According to Dr. Kane, the Kayastha was a scribe or writer in the revenue department of the king. Dr. Beni Prasad believes that a number of secretaries or clerks were attached to the central and to the subordinate offices, and were subdivided into grades, and that Kayastha was the general term applied to them. The Rewa inscription, however, strongly suggests that the Kayasthas were not merely scribes or clerks, but had considerable administrative power. It is, of course, possible that the Kayasthas were usually civil officers or clerks, but Muktasimha enjoyed some special power and privileges, probably for his past services and experience. It may also be that Kayastha had already become the name of a caste and had no governmental significance.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 149]</a> 4. Atavikas\"The Atavikas mentioned in the Copper Plates were government officers in charge of forests and wild tribes\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 149]</a> .<br>5. Scribes and clerks<br>__Provincial government__<br>\"The state [...] was divided into many districts, called Visayas or Mandalas. These were in turn sub-divided into Pattalas which comprised several gramas. The terms Astadadasaka, Dvadasaka, etc., were used to mean a unit of eighteen villages, twelve villages and so on. The word Pancela is not known from other inscriptions, but possibly means a group of five villages.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 132]</a> 2. Samantas\"Most probably the Visayas or Mandalas were in charge of vassals or Samantas of the king.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 132]</a> 3. Fort officer\"The administration of the streets or wards of the towns (Pratoli) was entrusted to an officer who lived in the fort, and whose duty was to keep down wickedness.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 150]</a> 3. Mahattara\"The villages were probably ruled by some sort of village council comprised of the important members of the village, viz., Brahmanas, Vaidyas and other respectable dignitaries, and the head of the Council was apparently mentioned in the Candella grants as the mahattara (elder of a town or village).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 117]</a> 4. Village council<br>Queen(s)\"Nothing is known about the position of the queen in the affairs of the state. But if there be any truth in the traditional stories of the part played by Malandevi, Paramardi's queen, in carrying out negotiations with Prithviraja, organising defence and making decisions on important problems, the Candella queen had great influence on administrative affairs.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, p. 122]</a> royal officers <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATJMGIDM\">[Bose 1956, pp. 119-120]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 489, "polity": { "id": 401, "name": "in_chauhana_dyn", "long_name": "Chauhana Dynasty", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1192 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Yuvaraja\"He was mostly but not always the king's eldest son.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, p. 222]</a> __Central government__<br>3. Mahamantrin\"The Mahamantrin was in charge of royal seals, exercised general supervision over all departments, specially revenue, and generally was the most trusted and influential member of the ministry.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, p. 224]</a> 4. Other ministersIncluding Sandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, p. 225]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. Feudal governors <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, pp. 227-230]</a> 3. General Assembly\"In villages, village unions, and towns, whether they were directly under a ruler or a feudal chief, considerable power lay in the hands of the people. They had a General Assembly, called the Mahajana, which sanctioned new imposts, policed its charge, evidenced grants and held general discussions regarding local affairs and sometimes even state policies.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SI5HWMDE\">[Sharma 1959, p. 230]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 490, "polity": { "id": 399, "name": "in_chaulukya_dyn", "long_name": "Chaulukya Dynasty", "start_year": 941, "end_year": 1245 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 9, "administrative_level_to": 9, "comment": "levels.<br>1. King<br>__Ministry__<br>2. ChancellorThe \"Mahamatya who was in charge of the Sri-karana and usually the passport and foreign trade also (Sri-karanadi samasta mudra vyapara) was the chief among them, which is shown by the frequent references only to this particular minister in the Chaulukya records (both inscriptions and colophons of MSS.) to the exclusion of all others. Hence he has always been called the Prime-Minister, but we think that 'Chancellor' would be a better term to describe his office, and the 'Chancellory' to describe the Sri-karana.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 222]</a> 3. Mahamatyas (ministers)\"Each department was under a Mahamatya <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 222]</a> \"For the purpose of administration the government seems to have been divided into several karanas or 'secretariats' that is departments. The work Lekhapaddhati, which is a collection of model documents, begins with a verse in which the names of the following karanas are found:<br>1. Sri-karana: Chief Secretariat.[...]<br>2. Vyaya-karana: The accounts department.[...]<br>3. Dharmadikarana: Department of justice.<br>4. Mandapika-karana: Department for collecting Sulka; that is various taxes, hence may be called the department in charge of excise, customs and octroi.\"[...]<br>5. Velakula-karana: Department in charge of harbour. [...]<br>6. Jala-Patha-karana: Department in charge of roads and waterways. [...]<br>7. Ghatikagriha-karana: The exact significance of this department is not clear. [...]<br>8. Tankasala-karana: Department in charge of mint. [...]<br>9. Amsuka-karana: Department in charge of weaving fine clothes. [...]<br>10. Dravya-karana: Department in charge of stores.<br>11. Bhandagara-karana: Department in charge of royal granary. [...]<br>12. Varigriha-karana: Department in charge of irrigation. [...]<br>13. Devavesma-karana: Department in charge of palaces. [...]<br>14. Ganika-karana: Department in charge of prostitutes. [...]<br>15. Hastisala-karana: Department in charge of elephant's stable.<br>16. Asvasala-karana: Department in charge of horse's stable.<br>17. Kalabhasala-karana: Department in charge of camel's stable.<br>18. Sreni-karana: Department in charge of guilds. [...]<br>19. Vyapara-karana[...] concerned mainly with the general supervision of trade, and the collection of import and export duties[...].<br>20. Tantra-karana: Political department, in the same sense as the word was used in British India, that is a department which dealt with the feudatories. [...]<br>21. Koshthagara-karana: Department in charge of treasury.<br>22. Upakrama-karana: Department in charge of examining ministers; may be analogous to modern public services commissiom. [...]<br>23. Karma-karana: [...] executive department.<br>24. Sthana-karana: According to the Arthasastra (II, 36) an officer called sthanika was to be appointed in charge of one fourth of a city or a fort. [...]<br>25. Deva-karana: Department in charge of temples. [...]<br>26. Sandhi-karana: [...] department of peace and war [...].<br>27. Mahakshapatala-karana: [...] department of conveyance, registration, accounts, and record. [...]<br>28. Mahanasa-karana: The department in charge of kitchen. [...]<br>29. 'Jayanasala-karana: [...] It has been suggested that the department was in charge of armour. [...]<br>30. Satragara-karana: Department in charge of poor houses. [...]<br>31. Antahpura-karana: Department in charge of the interior of the palace.<br>32. Koshthika-karana: It was probably a department in charge of store houses or granaries.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 212-220]</a> 4. Other officers\"Besides the mahamatyas, there were other officers called mahamantrins, mantrins, and sachivas, but our information about their status is very meagre as they are only casually mentioned in one or two inscriptions.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 223-224]</a> __Provincial government__<br>2. Feudatory princes <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 254-255]</a> 2. Mahamandalesvara\"At the head of the province or the mandala was the mahamandalesvara, but it appears that sometimes a province was governed by a dandanayaka. [...] Between the mahamandalesvara and dandanayaka, the rank of the former was higher[...].\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 225]</a> 3. Dandanayaka<br>4. Provincial officersThe designation of several provincial officers are known, but \"our knowledge of their nature and duties is based on inference and surmise.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 227-228]</a> 5. Provincial bureaucracyThe people in charge of the \"actual working of the machinery of administration\", about whom \"hardly any information is available\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 232]</a> 6. PanchakulaOfficial in charge of individual cities. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, pp. 232-233]</a> 7. Pancha-mukha-nagaraCity council, which \"included apart from the panchakula, the priests, the merchants, and the industrialists\". <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 233]</a> 8. Other city officers\"The Anavada inscription only mentions the panchakula amongst the pancha-mukha-nagara, but there must have been other officers also to carry on the administration of the city.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 234]</a> 9. Village officers\"From inscriptions and from the documents in the Lekhapaddhati we learn the names of several village officers, who were most probably appointed by the authorities of the pathaka or mandala to administer to the needs of the village, maintain peace and collect the revenue.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KXBH3VEF\">[Majumdar 1956, p. 234]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 491, "polity": { "id": 277, "name": "kz_chionite", "long_name": "Chionites", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 388 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>\"There seem to have been two subgroups of Xionites, which were known in the Iranian languages as the Karmir Xyon and Spet Xyon. The prefixes karmir (\"red\") and speta (\"white\") likely refer to Central Asian traditions in which particular colours are associated with cardinal points: red usually symbolises \"south\" and white \"west\". The Karmir Xyon were known in European sources as the Kermichiones or \"Red Huns\", and some scholars have identified them with the Kidarites and/or Alchon. The Spet Xyon or \"White Huns\" appear to have been the known in India by the cognate name Sveta-huna, and are often identified, controversially, with the Hephtalites.\" §REF§Harold Walter Bailey, Iranian Studies, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. BSOAS, vol. 6, No. 4 p. 945 (1932)§REF§<br>“They organised themselves into Northern \"Black\" (beyond the Jaxartes), Kidarites or Southern \"Red\" (in Hindu Kush south of the Oxus), Eastern \"Blue\" (in Tianshan), and Western Hephthalites or \"White\" (around Khiva) hordes. ”<br>\"The Chionites who moved through Sogdiana to Iran, where they probably were absorebed by the settle population, may have been the first wave (of the 'Altaic migrations'...Two kinds of movement of the tribes appear in history, either a billiard ball effect of one tribe pushing another ahead of it, or a movement travelling through territory belonging to another tribe or settle dork. The latter seems to have been the case with the Chionites who went through Sogdiana on their way sou, as did the Huns and the Avars also in their invasions of Europe. As usual, they gathered others on the way in a kind of confederacy, which was the normal manner of creating a steppe state.\" §REF§Frye, Richard., and Litvinsky, Boris. 1996 Ch24.2 The Northern Nomads, Sogdina and Chorasmia. in: History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. ( de Laet, Sigfried J., Herrmann, Joachim.) p466 UNESCO§REF§" }, { "id": 492, "polity": { "id": 246, "name": "cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period", "start_year": -740, "end_year": -489 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 5, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "Levels in the \"Court government\", including the King or Duke.<br>1. King or Duke<br><br>_Court government_<br> 2. Grand officer inferred level c656 BCE there was a \"grand officer of the state of Chu\"§REF§(Miller 2015, 87-88) Miller, Harry ed. 2015. The Gongyang Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals: A Full Translation. Palgrave Macmillan.§REF§<br> 3. Chancellor inferred level Court officials (Chancellor, Secretaries, etc)<br> 3. Chief Chronicler? inferred level<br> 4. Scribe inferred level<br> 3. Official who organized state mining or road works inferred level 4. Site manager inferred level 5. Miner or road worker inferred level<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Provincial leader and county leader (same level) Provincial / commandery governors; military generals; local elite lineages<br> \"During the Spring and Autumn Period, the powerful states such as Qin and Chu set up a new administrative system of provinces and counties in each of the places they conquered through wars of annexation. In general, counties were based in the center of the state, while provinces were based in the outlying areas. The governorships of the provinces and counties were no longer hereditary positions. Rather governors were appointed and dismissed directly by the kings or lords. These governors in the provinces and counties comprised the first bureaucracy in Chinese history.\"§REF§(Zhang 2015, 144) Zhang, Qizhi. 2015. An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Springer.§REF§<br> 3. Provincial bureaucracy<br> 4. Scribe inferred level<br> 3. Town heads<br>NB: unclear exactly how much administrative hierarchy there was at the local (town, village, etc) level, but the number 4 based on states during this period having short chains-of-command and less state penetration into the local levels relative to later periods after the ‘centralizing’ reforms of the Qi, Chu, and Qin (DH)" }, { "id": 493, "polity": { "id": 249, "name": "cn_chu_k_warring_states", "long_name": "Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period", "start_year": -488, "end_year": -223 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 7, "administrative_level_to": 7, "comment": " <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4HTIEKS\">[Feng 2013, p. 194]</a> 1. Ruler<br>2. Court officials (Chancellor, Secretaries, etc)3. Assistants / Secretaries / scribes4. Provincial / commandery governors; military generals5. County administrators6. Town heads7. Village-level chiefs", "description": null }, { "id": 494, "polity": { "id": 299, "name": "ru_crimean_khanate", "long_name": "Crimean Khanate", "start_year": 1440, "end_year": 1783 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 4, "administrative_level_to": 5, "comment": null, "description": "levels. \"the khanate's governmental structures and institutions often followed the Ottoman model.\"§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>1. Khan<br> \"Haji Girei established his capital at Bakhchisarai on the Crimean peninsula but continued to lay claim to the title of 'Great Khan of the Great Horde, of the Crimean Throne, and of the Kipchak Steppe,' thereby asserting his sovereignty over the Pontic steppe and the forest-steppe from Moldavia to the Volga and as far north as Seversk and the upper Don.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 6) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br>1. Kurultay Tribal council?<br> \"the Tatar tribes, who chose the khans in the kurultay and constantly forced them to negotiate their policies.\"§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br> 2. Treasury<br> \"A smaller Tatar population sedentarized in the towns and villages of the Crimean peninsula. Large numbers of Genoese, Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, and Karaim Jews resided in the largest Crimean towns (Kaffa, Evpatoriya, Azov) as subject millets and paid the cizzje capitation tax into the khan's treasury; taxes and duties on their trade yielded even greater revenue.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 6) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§ 3. 4. 5.<br> 2. \"the Crimean Khanate ... was transformed by the incorporation of forms of political and social organization borrowed from the Ottomans. Tatar customary law (yasa, tore), for instance, coexisted with sharia law and Ottoman state law (kanun), while the khanate's governmental structures and institutions often followed the Ottoman model.§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§<br>Ottoman central government of this era had a grand vizier, chancellor, land registry official, treasurers, and many sub-clerks.<br>_Provincial government_<br> 2. Beys If as Ottoman, a provincial ruler.<br> 2?. Mirzas does this mean prince? \"Over time the weakening of the khans' authority over their beys and mirzas encouraged the growth of a separatist spirit in the khanate.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 8) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br> 2. Rulers of four clans \"The four clans who had invited him [first khan Haji Girei] to rule over them nomadized across the southern edge of the steppe, just above Perekop and the Black Sea and Azov coasts. By the end of the century there were about 200,000 souls in their domains (ulusy), rising to 500,000 by 1550.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 6) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br> The Khans recruited \"the support of the Shirin clan, whose bey held the rights to a share of Kaffa's tolls, and by pitting the Shinins, the khan Haji Girei, and the Genoese against each other. Khan Mengli Girei was spared his life and restored to the throne after pledging vassalage to the sultan.\"§REF§(Davies 2007, 7) Brian L Davies. 2007. Warfare, State And Society On The Black Sea Steppe. Routledge. Abingdon.§REF§<br> 3. (Sub-) Tribal leaders \"Among the khanate's most interesting characteristics is its peculiar political organization. As heir to the empire of the 'greatest ruler of the East,' Genghis Khan, the Crimean Khanate retained steppe institutions and practices throughout its existence. In particular, the khans' political authority was limited by the most powerful elements in society, the Tatar tribes, who chose the khans in the kurultay and constantly forced them to negotiate their policies.\"§REF§(Klein 2012, 3) Denise Klein. Introduction. Denise Klein. ed. 2012. The Crimean Khanate between East and West. (15th-18th Century). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden.§REF§" }, { "id": 495, "polity": { "id": 715, "name": "tz_east_africa_ia_1", "long_name": "Early East Africa Iron Age", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 1, "comment": "levels. Likely no hierarchical administrative organization; dispersed network of homesteads instead. \"The ubiquity of Urewe [ceramics], coupled with its relatively small size, suggests that these vessels were produced and used by family-groups, and on a regular, domestic level. However, it is evident that Urewe-related activities also transcend the purely utilitarian realm, with the remarkable emphasis placed on quality of production. On the domestic level, this investment in commonplace objects may be an example of ceramics being used as tools of social cohesion or as the 'channels through which society implants its values in the individual—every day at mealtimes' (David et al. 1988: 379). As such, the importance of family and the home is emphasised through investment in key domestic goods—ceramics. This picture of small-scale, familial units fits well with the wider evidence from archaeology, which suggests these early communities probably consisted of dispersed networks of homesteads, rather than centralised societies (Reid 1994/5; Van Grunderbeek et al. 1983).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZBIZGHGA\">[Ashley 2010, p. 146]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 496, "polity": { "id": 533, "name": "ug_early_nyoro", "long_name": "Early Nyoro", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1449 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": "levels.<br>1. Polity chiefs<br>2. Village heads<br>\"Polities during this period seem to have been no more than small chiefdoms, presumably comprising a chiefly settlement and neighbouring villages.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6ITEA4NM\">[Taylor_Robertshaw 2000, p. 17]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 497, "polity": { "id": 716, "name": "tz_early_tana_1", "long_name": "Early Tana 1", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 2, "administrative_level_to": 4, "comment": "levels. Inferred from the following: \"A central hierarchy or ruling strata to control social relations and enforce political order would be necessary to co-ordinate the market workforce and other important functional relations of the site. The existence of an administration can be inferred firstly from the general organisation. The sheer scale of economic activities strongly suggests that such a central paramount authority was established. Secondly, the higher returns that spilled out from the wealth in circulation and increase in the output from craft production and transportation must have provided adequate stimuli for wealthy and elite groups to exercise their control over these sectors and consequently promote the growth of social hierarchy and differentiation.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGM3RG7F\">[Juma 2004]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 498, "polity": { "id": 717, "name": "tz_early_tana_2", "long_name": "Early Tana 2", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "levels.<br>\"The noticeable decline in the import and internal output of this period set against the expansion of the site and population is an expression of increased complexity that may imply a division of labour that relocated the centres for craftwork to elsewhere, away from the Unguja Ukuu site as the public core area for political functions, administration and defence. This must have overtly distinguished Unguja Ukuu as a seat of urban conduct with an aggregation of buildings, groups of immigrants bringing in the old coinage, a market for subsistence resources from the periphery, and providing services to the population within the site territory and beyond.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGM3RG7F\">[Juma 2004]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 499, "polity": { "id": 429, "name": "mr_wagadu_1", "long_name": "Early Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": 1, "administrative_level_to": 2, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>\"Le royaume aurait commencé modestement dans l’Aouker par une simple confédération de tribus Sarakollés dont chacune exerçait son autorité sur un espace bien déterminé.\" The kingdom had begun modestly in Aouker by a simple Sarakollés confederation of tribes, each of which exercised authority over a well-defined space.§REF§(Kabore, P. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/\">http://lewebpedagogique.com/patco/tag/ouagadou/</a>)§REF§<br>\"Sudanic states had their origin in groups led by patriarchs, councils of elders, or village chiefs. The state came into existence when a local elder, an immigrant warrior, or perhaps a priestly ruler established his control over other communities.\"§REF§(Lapidus 2012, 590)§REF§<br>Clan<br> (General reference for West African states) \"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 53)§REF§<br>Kinship group<br> (General reference for West African states) \"the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 53)§REF§<br>\"Nothing is known about the political methods or history of Ghana under its early kings. What probably happened was that heads of large families or descent-lines among the Soninke, encouraged by the needs and opportunities of the trade in gold and other goods with Berber merchants of the Sahara, saw an advantage in having a single ruler, so they elected a king from among themselves. This king's duty was to organize the trade and keep good relations with the Saharan traders, as well as acting as senior religious leader and as representative on earth of the 'founding ancestors' of the Soninke people. ... He made gifts and gave rewards to all who served him.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 27) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>In West Africa \"Early states were simple in their government ... Some were ruled by a single chief or king and his counsellors. Others were governed by a council of chiefs or elders. Others again were formed by several neighbouring peoples whose chiefs were bound in loyalty to one another. Elsewhere, at the same time, there were people who found it better to get along without any chiefs.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Traditional groups such as clans ... or age-sets of people born at about the same time, had influence in these early states, as in later times, because they could underpin a system of law and order.\"§REF§(Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 500, "polity": { "id": 363, "name": "af_ghaznavid_emp", "long_name": "Ghaznavid Empire", "start_year": 998, "end_year": 1040 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": "Professional spies<br> \"Such a system, reinforced by an efficient postal system serving only the ruler, had been the very heart of Mahmud’s state. Now Nizam al-Mulk proposed to emulate it.\" However, Nizam al-Mulk failed to emulate it under the Seljuks. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VDEDRURK\">[Starr 2013]</a>", "description": null }, { "id": 501, "polity": { "id": 218, "name": "ma_idrisid_dyn", "long_name": "Idrisids", "start_year": 789, "end_year": 917 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Administrative_level", "administrative_level_from": null, "administrative_level_to": null, "comment": null, "description": "levels.<br>1. Imam<br> Idris II was 'declared Imam' in 808 CE.§REF§(Boum and Park 2016, 257) Aomar Boum. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield.§REF§<br>_Court government_<br>The Idrisids ruled through a court.§REF§(Boum and Park 2016, 294) Aomar Boum. Thomas K Park. 2016. Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield.§REF§ Idris II organized the first central government.§REF§(Esposito 2003) John L Esposito ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. New York.§REF§<br>\"The merchants, scholars and administrators formed an elite, the khassa, that made a further contribution to the wealth of the city by consuming the services of a growing class of artisans, who made up the 'ama, or generality of the population.\"§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§<br>Planner. Manager of workmen. Workmen.<br>\"The Idrisid dynasty also contributed significantly to the dissemination of Malikism by involving its scholars in political and diplomatic decisions. Idris II appointed a Maliki scholar, 'Umar ibn Mus'ab al-Azdi, to select the site where the second Idrisid capital, Fez, was to be built. He also sent Abu-l-Hasan 'Abdallah ibn Malik al-Ansari al-Khazraji to purchase the land for the city.\"§REF§(M'Baye 2011) El Hadji Ravane M'Baye. The Islamization of Africa. Idris El Hareir. Ravane M'baye. ed. 2011. The Spread of Islam Throughout the World. Volume Three. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br>_Provincial government_<br>Iklim (Province)<br> Nāhiya (Small District) Kûra (Main District) Rustâk (Agricultural Unit)<br>§REF§al-Mukaddasî, Ahsan al-Takâsîm (985 A.D.)§REF§<br> 2. Berber tribal chiefs The chief of the Awraba tribe helped Idris establish the state in 789 CE.§REF§(El Hareir 2011, 396) Idris El Hareir. Islam in the Maghrib (21-641/1041-1631). Idris El Hareir. Ravane M'baye. ed. 2011. The Spread of Islam Throughout the World. Volume Three. UNESCO Publishing.§REF§<br> The Awraba tribe were Berbers.§REF§(Pennell 2013) C R Pennell. 2013. Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. London.§REF§<br> 3." } ] }