Official Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Official Religions.
GET /api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 441, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "id": 403, "polity": { "id": 647, "name": "er_medri_bahri", "long_name": "Medri Bahri", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1889 }, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1889, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB the literature consulted does not provide an exact date when Islam overtook Christianity as the most widespread religion; very tentatively marking this date as 1750, but in need of expert confirmation. “By the 14th century, all the Bilen, Tirgrinya, and Tigre-speaking peoples were Orthodox Christians as were many of the Belew in the lowlands. During this period, the Eritrean region was a center for a monastic revival that accompanied the preaching of Ewostatewos and led to the founding of the great monasteries of Debre Bizen, Debre Maryam, and Debre Merqorewos. In the 15th century, these institutions received huge land grants from Ethiopian emperors anxious to appease the regionalist sentiments of the Tigrinya-based Ewostatian movement. But during the 1500s, Islam spread in the region, and by the mid-1800s, Orthodox Christians were confined almost exclusively to the Tigrinya-speaking population of Kebessa.” §REF§ (Connell and Killion 2011, 40) Connell, Dan and Killion, Tom. 2011. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Second Edition. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/24ZMGPAA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 24ZMGPAA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 404, "polity": { "id": 658, "name": "ni_kwararafa", "long_name": "Kwararafa", "start_year": 596, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": 1500, "year_to": 1789, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 62, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Kwararafa Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It was towards the final phase of this era of conquest [1610-1790] that Kwararafan history began to merge into Jukun history. Now situated in the Benue Valley, Kwararafan began to experience waves of Jukun migrations, and the Jukun before long became the dominant group in the region.” §REF§ (Afolayan 2005: 247-248) Afolayan, Funso, 2005. “Benue Valley Peoples: Jukun and Kwararafa”, in Shillington, K., ed. Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn), pp.247-248. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGGEJWF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGGEJWF9 </b></a> §REF§ “The King of the Jukun is not supposed to suffer from the limitations of ordinary men, and it is sacrilege to say of him that he ‘eats’ or ‘sleeps’ or ‘dies’. When he eats the people say ‘The King has withdrawn’, when he sleeps they say ‘he is up above,’ and when he dies they say that ‘he has returned to the heavens.’ It must never be said of him that he is ill, and if serious illness overtakes him he is secretly strangled. It is improper to speak of his ‘body,’ as though he had an ordinary body-there is a special world used which carries with it the significance of kingly personality-divinely dynamized.” §REF§ (Meek 1943, 111) Meek, C.K. 1943. ‘The Religions of Nigeria.’ Africa Journal of the International African Institute. Vol 14:3. Pp 106-117. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CHGBCIDX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CHGBCIDX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 405, "polity": { "id": 658, "name": "ni_kwararafa", "long_name": "Kwararafa", "start_year": 596, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": 1790, "year_to": 1820, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 58, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jukun Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It was towards the final phase of this era of conquest [1610-1790] that Kwararafan history began to merge into Jukun history. Now situated in the Benue Valley, Kwararafan began to experience waves of Jukun migrations, and the Jukun before long became the dominant group in the region.” §REF§ (Afolayan 2005: 247-248) Afolayan, Funso, 2005. “Benue Valley Peoples: Jukun and Kwararafa”, in Shillington, K., ed. Encyclopedia of African History (1st Ed., Vol. 1–3). (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn), pp.247-248. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZGGEJWF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZGGEJWF9 </b></a> §REF§ “The King of the Jukun is not supposed to suffer from the limitations of ordinary men, and it is sacrilege to say of him that he ‘eats’ or ‘sleeps’ or ‘dies’. When he eats the people say ‘The King has withdrawn’, when he sleeps they say ‘he is up above,’ and when he dies they say that ‘he has returned to the heavens.’ It must never be said of him that he is ill, and if serious illness overtakes him he is secretly strangled. It is improper to speak of his ‘body,’ as though he had an ordinary body-there is a special world used which carries with it the significance of kingly personality-divinely dynamized.” §REF§ (Meek 1943, 111) Meek, C.K. 1943. ‘The Religions of Nigeria.’ Africa Journal of the International African Institute. Vol 14:3. Pp 106-117. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CHGBCIDX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CHGBCIDX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 406, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": 1080, "year_to": 1190, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ancient Cambodia turned definitively to state Buddhism under king Jayavarman VII at the end of the twelfth century, after four centuries of state Saivism.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2009, 111) Sharrok, P.D. 2009 ‘Garuda, Vajrapani and religious change in Jayavarman Vll's Angkor.’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Vol 40:1. Pp. 111-151. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCKW2Q23\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZCKW2Q23 </b></a>§REF§ “Although this survey attests the presence of Buddhism in Cambodia for seven centuries before he came to power, Jayavarman VII made a major break with tradition when he made Buddhism the state cult for the first time.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2013, 9) Sharrok, P.D. 2013. ‘The tantric roots of the Buddhist pantheon of Jayavarman VII.’ In Materializing South East Asia’s Past. Edited by Marijke J. Klokke and Veronique Degroot. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZQ9EUIU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZQ9EUIU </b></a> §REF§ “In 1080 the Mahidhara dynasty established Buddhism as the power behind the throne and in 1182 Jayavarman VII made it the state religion. The Buddhism of the Khmers was mostly tantric from 600-1300. At some as yet undetermined point, probably in the late 13th century, the Khmers then turned to a Thai- or Burmese-influenced Theravada. […] How the Theravada arrived in Angkor remains obscure. Pali inscriptions and temples with Theravadin iconography suddenly appear at the end of the 13th century, strategically positioned beside the royal palace. And an eyewitness imperial Chinese emissary in 1296 describes a village level Buddhism which sounds Theravadin in spirit and ritual.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2013, 13) Sharrok, P.D. 2013. ‘The tantric roots of the Buddhist pantheon of Jayavarman VII.’ In Materializing South East Asia’s Past. Edited by Marijke J. Klokke and Veronique Degroot. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZQ9EUIU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZQ9EUIU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 407, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": 1190, "year_to": 1220, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 7, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ancient Cambodia turned definitively to state Buddhism under king Jayavarman VII at the end of the twelfth century, after four centuries of state Saivism.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2009, 111) Sharrok, P.D. 2009 ‘Garuda, Vajrapani and religious change in Jayavarman Vll's Angkor.’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Vol 40:1. Pp. 111-151. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCKW2Q23\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZCKW2Q23 </b></a>§REF§ “Although this survey attests the presence of Buddhism in Cambodia for seven centuries before he came to power, Jayavarman VII made a major break with tradition when he made Buddhism the state cult for the first time.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2013, 9) Sharrok, P.D. 2013. ‘The tantric roots of the Buddhist pantheon of Jayavarman VII.’ In Materializing South East Asia’s Past. Edited by Marijke J. Klokke and Veronique Degroot. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZQ9EUIU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZQ9EUIU </b></a> §REF§ “In 1080 the Mahidhara dynasty established Buddhism as the power behind the throne and in 1182 Jayavarman VII made it the state religion. The Buddhism of the Khmers was mostly tantric from 600-1300. At some as yet undetermined point, probably in the late 13th century, the Khmers then turned to a Thai- or Burmese-influenced Theravada. […] How the Theravada arrived in Angkor remains obscure. Pali inscriptions and temples with Theravadin iconography suddenly appear at the end of the 13th century, strategically positioned beside the royal palace. And an eyewitness imperial Chinese emissary in 1296 describes a village level Buddhism which sounds Theravadin in spirit and ritual.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2013, 13) Sharrok, P.D. 2013. ‘The tantric roots of the Buddhist pantheon of Jayavarman VII.’ In Materializing South East Asia’s Past. Edited by Marijke J. Klokke and Veronique Degroot. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZQ9EUIU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZQ9EUIU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 408, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": 1598, "year_to": 1651, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Qasimi Dynasty was born in the midst of Zaydi messianic expectations and Imam al-Mutawakkil clearly meant to exploit if not fulfil, the expectations. If his father had been the great deliverer and his brother the vanquisher of the Ottomans, he was the re-creator of the ideal Muslim community; his efforts to emulate the Prophet Muhammed are noteworthy in this regard” §REF§Hathaway, J. (2005). The Mawzaע Exile at the Juncture of Zaydi and Ottoman Messianism. AJS review, 29(1), 111-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQCTSWNA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQCTSWNA </b></a>§REF§ This second quote suggests that from the mid-Qasim Dynasty onwards, Zaydism (including Hadawi teachings) fell out of favour and Qasimis turned to Sunni Islam: “The expansion of the Qasimi state into Sunni areas led to unprecedented levels of interaction between Zaydi and Shafi'i scholars. The effect was that Zaydis acquired greater awarness of the wider Sunni world and began studying Sunni works, namely the collections of hadlth, with an intensity never before seen, and some even adopted Sunni views.” §REF§ (Haykel 2003, Pg. 41) B. Haykel. 2003. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZQNUAHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZQNUAHA </b></a> §REF§ “In the words of one of Husayn al-Huthi's peers, ‘especially under the rule of the Qasimi imams, the Zaydis had become more Sunni than ahl al-bayt’ (here: neglecting the legacy of the Prophet's House).” §REF§ Hamidi, A. (2009). Inscriptions of violence in Northern Yemen: haunting histories, unstable moral spaces. Middle Eastern Studies, 45(2), 165-187. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V62I3SKJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V62I3SKJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 409, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": 1652, "year_to": 1805, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Qasimi Dynasty was born in the midst of Zaydi messianic expectations and Imam al-Mutawakkil clearly meant to exploit if not fulfil, the expectations. If his father had been the great deliverer and his brother the vanquisher of the Ottomans, he was the re-creator of the ideal Muslim community; his efforts to emulate the Prophet Muhammed are noteworthy in this regard” §REF§Hathaway, J. (2005). The Mawzaע Exile at the Juncture of Zaydi and Ottoman Messianism. AJS review, 29(1), 111-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQCTSWNA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQCTSWNA </b></a>§REF§ This second quote suggests that from the mid-Qasim Dynasty onwards, Zaydism (including Hadawi teachings) fell out of favour and Qasimis turned to Sunni Islam: “The expansion of the Qasimi state into Sunni areas led to unprecedented levels of interaction between Zaydi and Shafi'i scholars. The effect was that Zaydis acquired greater awarness of the wider Sunni world and began studying Sunni works, namely the collections of hadlth, with an intensity never before seen, and some even adopted Sunni views.” §REF§ (Haykel 2003, Pg. 41) B. Haykel. 2003. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZQNUAHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZQNUAHA </b></a> §REF§ “In the words of one of Husayn al-Huthi's peers, ‘especially under the rule of the Qasimi imams, the Zaydis had become more Sunni than ahl al-bayt’ (here: neglecting the legacy of the Prophet's House).” §REF§ Hamidi, A. (2009). Inscriptions of violence in Northern Yemen: haunting histories, unstable moral spaces. Middle Eastern Studies, 45(2), 165-187. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V62I3SKJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V62I3SKJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 410, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": 378, "year_to": 514, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 93, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "South Arabian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Though Judaism spread rapidly in this polity in this era, and though archaeological evidence suggests that much of the population abandoned its previous polytheistic beliefs as a result, sources consulted also suggest that Judaism was only declared the polity's official religion after King Dhu Nuwas's conversio in the early sixth century CE. This suggests that, up until then, South Arabian religion had been the official cult. “Both Judaism and Christianity flourished in the pre-Islamic Yemen, spreading extensively throughout the country during the second Himyari era (about 300-525). [...] By the early part of the sixth century A. D., Judaism featured strongly in the Yemen as a result of the conversion to it of the ýIimyari king Yusuf Ascar, generally known as Dhu- Nuwas, who subsequently declared his new faith the official religion of the state. [...] In the early part of the sixth century A. D. rivalry between the two newly introduced monotheistic religions - i. e. Judaism and Christianity - led the country to an armed struggle. In A. D. 515 the leadership of the Himyari Kingdom fell to Dhu-Nuwas, who had already adopted Judaism. The new king led the movement against the Abyssinians, who were occupying the Yemen at that time. The movement also took on an anti-Christian flavour, leading to several attacks against the Christians, culminating in the famous massacre of the Christians at Najran in A.D. 523.”§REF§(Al-Mad’aj, ‘A. A. M. M. 1988: 7-9) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VE7EKPTQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VE7EKPTQ </b></a>§REF§ \"There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter.\"§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§" }, { "id": 411, "polity": { "id": 354, "name": "ye_himyar_2", "long_name": "Himyar II", "start_year": 378, "end_year": 525 }, "year_from": 515, "year_to": 525, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Though Judaism spread rapidly in this polity in this era, and though archaeological evidence suggests that much of the population abandoned its previous polytheistic beliefs as a result, sources consulted also suggest that Judaism was only declared the polity's official religion after King Dhu Nuwas's conversio in the early sixth century CE. This suggests that, up until then, South Arabian religion had been the official cult. “Both Judaism and Christianity flourished in the pre-Islamic Yemen, spreading extensively throughout the country during the second Himyari era (about 300-525). [...] By the early part of the sixth century A. D., Judaism featured strongly in the Yemen as a result of the conversion to it of the ýIimyari king Yusuf Ascar, generally known as Dhu- Nuwas, who subsequently declared his new faith the official religion of the state. [...] In the early part of the sixth century A. D. rivalry between the two newly introduced monotheistic religions - i. e. Judaism and Christianity - led the country to an armed struggle. In A. D. 515 the leadership of the Himyari Kingdom fell to Dhu-Nuwas, who had already adopted Judaism. The new king led the movement against the Abyssinians, who were occupying the Yemen at that time. The movement also took on an anti-Christian flavour, leading to several attacks against the Christians, culminating in the famous massacre of the Christians at Najran in A.D. 523.”§REF§(Al-Mad’aj, ‘A. A. M. M. 1988: 7-9) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VE7EKPTQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VE7EKPTQ </b></a>§REF§ \"There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter.\"§REF§(Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham.§REF§" }, { "id": 412, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 930, "year_to": 999, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 154, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Old Norse Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“And it is clear that at the Althing of 930 the entire power structure of the country was intended for practitioners of heathen beliefs, and that the Christians obtained no part in thegovernance of the country. The position of Christians in the governing structure of tenth century Iceland was, therefore, quite weak. ” §REF§ (Gíslason 1990, 227) Gíslason, Jónas. 1990. ‘Acceptance of Christianity in Iceland in the year 1000 (999)’. In Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, N. 13. Pp. 223–255. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/62IIU8CI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 62IIU8CI </b></a> §REF§ “The institutional structure necessary to support Christianity did not develop in Iceland until after its incorporation into Norway in 1262, in spite of the formal conversion of the country in 1000.\"§REF§ (Durrenberger 1984, 3-4) Durrenberger, E. Paul. 1984. ‘Icelandic Saga Heroes: The Anthropology of Natural Existentialists’. In Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly. Vol. 9:1. Pp. 3-8. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2THFRG68\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2THFRG68 </b></a> §REF§ “In the eleventh century the Church was gradually establishing itself in Iceland. Shortly after 1100; with the Tithe Law of 1096, the adoption of the old code of Church law in 1123, and the ecclesiastical labors of Bishop Gizurr, St. Jon of Hólar and their contemporaries, an order was arrived at which was to continue until the last decades of the century. This order prepared the soil from which grew that peculiar and interesting mode of Christian life which I here call “twelfth-century Christianity. […] The rule of the Church and the rule of the chieftains interlocked. The clergy were under secular jurisdiction, but on the other hand the bishops sat in the lögrétta, and some of them held their own goðorð besides, as did also a large number of priests. Whoever built a church on his land had full control over church and revenues, and his heirs had the same rights after him; church ownership thus became one of the cornerstones of the chieftains’ wealth, as has already been pointed out. With the ordination of numerous chieftains, the ruling class became calmer and more peaceable, it became educated through the learning brought by the church.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 107) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§ “In 1190 the matter was finally clinched with a strict prohibition against admitting holders of godord to holy orders. […] The Church moved away from the influence of the chieftains, became a state within the state, in opposition to the secular authority. With this separation the gentle, humane Christianity of the twelfth century died. The Church insisted on supremacy, on unconditional submission. Now there came new developments to make this separation of “church and state” memorable and painful. In 1196 Pope Celestine III wrote to the archbishop forbidding so abominable a practice as lay jurisdiction over ecclesiastical matters. [..] In 1201 Bishop Brandr died. His successor, the zealot Guthmundr Arason, agreed wholeheartedly with the archbishop that Holy Church and God's clergy suffered too much tyranny at the hands of secular chieftains, and when he assumed office he intended to force them into immediate obedience. […] The Christianity of the twelfth century disappears during his time. The chieftains become entirely secular.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 113-114 - 116) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 413, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1262, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“And it is clear that at the Althing of 930 the entire power structure of the country was intended for practitioners of heathen beliefs, and that the Christians obtained no part in thegovernance of the country. The position of Christians in the governing structure of tenth century Iceland was, therefore, quite weak. ” §REF§ (Gíslason 1990, 227) Gíslason, Jónas. 1990. ‘Acceptance of Christianity in Iceland in the year 1000 (999)’. In Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, N. 13. Pp. 223–255. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/62IIU8CI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 62IIU8CI </b></a> §REF§ “The institutional structure necessary to support Christianity did not develop in Iceland until after its incorporation into Norway in 1262, in spite of the formal conversion of the country in 1000.\"§REF§ (Durrenberger 1984, 3-4) Durrenberger, E. Paul. 1984. ‘Icelandic Saga Heroes: The Anthropology of Natural Existentialists’. In Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly. Vol. 9:1. Pp. 3-8. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2THFRG68\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2THFRG68 </b></a> §REF§ “In the eleventh century the Church was gradually establishing itself in Iceland. Shortly after 1100; with the Tithe Law of 1096, the adoption of the old code of Church law in 1123, and the ecclesiastical labors of Bishop Gizurr, St. Jon of Hólar and their contemporaries, an order was arrived at which was to continue until the last decades of the century. This order prepared the soil from which grew that peculiar and interesting mode of Christian life which I here call “twelfth-century Christianity. […] The rule of the Church and the rule of the chieftains interlocked. The clergy were under secular jurisdiction, but on the other hand the bishops sat in the lögrétta, and some of them held their own goðorð besides, as did also a large number of priests. Whoever built a church on his land had full control over church and revenues, and his heirs had the same rights after him; church ownership thus became one of the cornerstones of the chieftains’ wealth, as has already been pointed out. With the ordination of numerous chieftains, the ruling class became calmer and more peaceable, it became educated through the learning brought by the church.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 107) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§ “In 1190 the matter was finally clinched with a strict prohibition against admitting holders of godord to holy orders. […] The Church moved away from the influence of the chieftains, became a state within the state, in opposition to the secular authority. With this separation the gentle, humane Christianity of the twelfth century died. The Church insisted on supremacy, on unconditional submission. Now there came new developments to make this separation of “church and state” memorable and painful. In 1196 Pope Celestine III wrote to the archbishop forbidding so abominable a practice as lay jurisdiction over ecclesiastical matters. [..] In 1201 Bishop Brandr died. His successor, the zealot Guthmundr Arason, agreed wholeheartedly with the archbishop that Holy Church and God's clergy suffered too much tyranny at the hands of secular chieftains, and when he assumed office he intended to force them into immediate obedience. […] The Christianity of the twelfth century disappears during his time. The chieftains become entirely secular.” §REF§ (Sveinsson 1953, 113-114 - 116) Sveinsson, Einar Ol. 1953. The Age of the Sturlungs Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century. In Islandica an Annual Relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Edited by Jöhann S. Hannesson. Vol 36. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UEXE8SEI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UEXE8SEI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 414, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": 386, "year_to": 445, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects. Buddhism was the obvious choice. From 460 on, the Northern Wei emperor began to have huge statues of the Buddha carved near the capital, Pingcheng (present-day Yungang, in the northern part of present Shanxi Province. Those statues, monuments marking the eastern end of the Silk Road, represented the reincarnations of the current and former rulers of the Northern Wei. Through these carvings, the Northern Wei emperors declared themselves the representatives of the Buddha and therefore the legitimate rulers of China.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \" It was after the conquest of the Northern Liang and the unifi cation of the north in 439 that the emperor ’ s religious policy clearly shifted toward Daoism. In 440 the emperor changed his reign name to Great Peace ( Taiping ). In 442 he received Daoist initiation by “ receiving registers ” from Kou Qianzhi. In 446, after the discovery of weapons in a monastery in the capital, Taiwu announced an imperial proscription of Buddhism — which he labeled “ barbarian ” ( hu ) — and the establishment of a Daoist state. [...] The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 415, "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "long_name": "Northern Wei", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534 }, "year_from": 446, "year_to": 557, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Adopting Confucianism as the state religion was not acceptable to many nobles of the Northern Wei royal lineage, who took pride in their steppe traditions, nor was it appealing to their Chinese subjects. Buddhism was the obvious choice. From 460 on, the Northern Wei emperor began to have huge statues of the Buddha carved near the capital, Pingcheng (present-day Yungang, in the northern part of present Shanxi Province. Those statues, monuments marking the eastern end of the Silk Road, represented the reincarnations of the current and former rulers of the Northern Wei. Through these carvings, the Northern Wei emperors declared themselves the representatives of the Buddha and therefore the legitimate rulers of China.\"§REF§(Liu 77, 2010) Xinru Liu. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \" It was after the conquest of the Northern Liang and the unifi cation of the north in 439 that the emperor ’ s religious policy clearly shifted toward Daoism. In 440 the emperor changed his reign name to Great Peace ( Taiping ). In 442 he received Daoist initiation by “ receiving registers ” from Kou Qianzhi. In 446, after the discovery of weapons in a monastery in the capital, Taiwu announced an imperial proscription of Buddhism — which he labeled “ barbarian ” ( hu ) — and the establishment of a Daoist state. [...] The ascendance of the Daoists was short - lived, as Kou ’ s death in 448 was soon followed by the execution in 450 of the prime minister Cui Hao — who had introduced Kou Qianzhi at court and who played a major part in establishing the Daoist state — and by emperor Taiwu ’ s death in 452. Later northern emperors reverted to more inclusive policies, but all followed Taiwu ’ s example and “ received registers ” during their reigns.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 72) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 417, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1282, "year_to": 1284, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The short reign of the Ilkhan Tegüder (1282-4), known also as Ahmad, was notable for several reasons. This was the first time that the Mongols in Iran were ruled by a Muslim. [...] Whatever his personal proclivity in religious matters, Tegüder Ilkhan made a determined effort to present himself as an orthodox ruler in the public sphere. Among his first actions was a letter to Baghdad, proclaiming his adherence to Islam and enjoining the enforcement of the sharia (Islamic law) as in the time of the caliphs, particularly vis-á-vis the ahl al-dhimma (the \"protected people,\" mainly Christians and Jews), who were to pay the jizya and wear their distinctive garb.\"§REF§(Amitai 2001, 15, 26-27) Amitai, R. 2001. The Conversion of Tegüder Ilkhan to Islam. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 25: 15-43. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/amitai/titleCreatorYear/items/SVU7SRNW/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“During the reign of Ghazan Khan (1295-1304), the Ilkhanate truly emerged as an Islamic Empire; Islamization, however, was not the only method by which the Mongols legitimized their state. Nor was it the way that subjects dwelling within the Ilkhanate viewed the state. Naturally, before Ghazan’s reign it is difficult to argue that the Ilkhanate was an Islamic state. Indeed, the Ilkhans made no pretence of it and adhered to the traditional forms of legitimization: that the Mongols ruled through the strength and will of the Eternal Blue Heaven (mongke koke tengri).” §REF§ (May et al. 2020, 6) May, Timothy et al. 2020. ‘Introduction’ In New Approaches to Ilkhanid History. Edited by Timothy May et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NCUDTFG4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NCUDTFG4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 418, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": -175, "year_to": -51, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 238, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Celtic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The druids are involved in matters of religion. They manage public and private sacrifices and interpret religious customs and ceremonies. Young men flock to them in large numbers to gain instruction, and they hold the druids in great esteem. For they decide almost all disputes, both public and private: if some crime has been committed, if there has been murder done, if there is a dispute over an inheritance or over territory, they decide the issue and settle the rewards and penalties.” §REF§ (Caesar et al 245) Caesar, Gaius Iulius, Carolyn Hammond, Aulus Hirtius, and Gaius Iulius Caesar. 1998. Seven Commentaries on the Gallic War. Reissued. The Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XYHYAU7U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XYHYAU7U </b></a> §REF§ After the Gallic Wars and the total domination of Gaul by the Roman Republic the official religion was Roman Religion. “Throughout the Roman world there were wildly different images of 'Roman' religion; as we saw in our discussion of coloniae, different communities in the provinces must have constructed their own versions of what they thought was Roman. Of course in earlier chapters of this book we have raised just this question in relation to Rome itself: what was to count as official Roman religion? The negotiability of that category even at the very centre of the Roman world, the changing definitions of 'Romanness', is obviously relevant to the 'export' of Roman religion to provincial communities — as is clearly illustrated in the cult of Magna Mater. This cult, as we have seen, was 'officially' introduced to Rome in the late third century B.C. From there, it became a common feature of the towns of Italy and the provincial coloniae and municipia in North Africa, Spain, the Danube region and especially Gaul.” §REF§ (Beard et al 337) Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. 1998. Religions of Rome: A History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 419, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": -50, "year_to": -27, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The druids are involved in matters of religion. They manage public and private sacrifices and interpret religious customs and ceremonies. Young men flock to them in large numbers to gain instruction, and they hold the druids in great esteem. For they decide almost all disputes, both public and private: if some crime has been committed, if there has been murder done, if there is a dispute over an inheritance or over territory, they decide the issue and settle the rewards and penalties.” §REF§ (Caesar et al 245) Caesar, Gaius Iulius, Carolyn Hammond, Aulus Hirtius, and Gaius Iulius Caesar. 1998. Seven Commentaries on the Gallic War. Reissued. The Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XYHYAU7U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XYHYAU7U </b></a> §REF§ After the Gallic Wars and the total domination of Gaul by the Roman Republic the official religion was Roman Religion. “Throughout the Roman world there were wildly different images of 'Roman' religion; as we saw in our discussion of coloniae, different communities in the provinces must have constructed their own versions of what they thought was Roman. Of course in earlier chapters of this book we have raised just this question in relation to Rome itself: what was to count as official Roman religion? The negotiability of that category even at the very centre of the Roman world, the changing definitions of 'Romanness', is obviously relevant to the 'export' of Roman religion to provincial communities — as is clearly illustrated in the cult of Magna Mater. This cult, as we have seen, was 'officially' introduced to Rome in the late third century B.C. From there, it became a common feature of the towns of Italy and the provincial coloniae and municipia in North Africa, Spain, the Danube region and especially Gaul.” §REF§ (Beard et al 337) Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. 1998. Religions of Rome: A History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 420, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": 285, "year_to": 380, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"In contrast, however, to Aurelian’s recent preference for Sol Invictus, the Tetrarchs turned to more traditional polytheism. They identified themselves most closely with Jupiter, ruler of the gods and (as Jupiter Optimus Maximus) Rome’s protector, and with Hercules, Jupiter’s son and mankind’s helper. Moreover, the Tetrarchs openly articulated the belief that the maintenance of Rome’s rule rested on respect for religion and tradition, and on ritual worship of the state gods. At the same time, unlike Augustus, Trajan, and most other emperors, the Tetrarchs personally exploited religious conventions as a means to distance themselves from their subjects. They encouraged the practice of prostration (Latin, adoratio, Greek, proskynesis), whereby anyone coming into their presence had to fall to his knees in a gesture customary in prayer and supplication. They decorated their clothing and shoes with brilliant gems and gold; the diadems they wore also had religious significance. According to some later authors, Diocletian even allowed himself to be adored and greeted as a god. Although Constantine was ultimately to associate himself with a very different god, he still retained the quasi-religious court rituals instituted by Diocletian, and so did his successors for centuries.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 445-446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§ “Although Christianity (p.93) was not declared the official state religion of the empire until 380 (by Emperor Theodosius), the adoption of the religion by Constantine was the linchpin of Christianity’s legitimacy. Constantine, who claimed to have had a battlefield apparition- conversion in 312 (defeating his coregent Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in Rome), united the western and eastern parts of the empire and created at least a regional homogenization of Christianity three centuries after Jesus Christ.\"§REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 92-93) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 421, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "tr_roman_dominate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394 }, "year_from": 380, "year_to": 394, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"In contrast, however, to Aurelian’s recent preference for Sol Invictus, the Tetrarchs turned to more traditional polytheism. They identified themselves most closely with Jupiter, ruler of the gods and (as Jupiter Optimus Maximus) Rome’s protector, and with Hercules, Jupiter’s son and mankind’s helper. Moreover, the Tetrarchs openly articulated the belief that the maintenance of Rome’s rule rested on respect for religion and tradition, and on ritual worship of the state gods. At the same time, unlike Augustus, Trajan, and most other emperors, the Tetrarchs personally exploited religious conventions as a means to distance themselves from their subjects. They encouraged the practice of prostration (Latin, adoratio, Greek, proskynesis), whereby anyone coming into their presence had to fall to his knees in a gesture customary in prayer and supplication. They decorated their clothing and shoes with brilliant gems and gold; the diadems they wore also had religious significance. According to some later authors, Diocletian even allowed himself to be adored and greeted as a god. Although Constantine was ultimately to associate himself with a very different god, he still retained the quasi-religious court rituals instituted by Diocletian, and so did his successors for centuries.” §REF§ (Boatwright, Gargola, and Talbert 2004, 445-446) Boatwright, Mary T., Gargola, Daniel J., and Talbert, Richard J. A. 2004. Romans: From Village to Empire. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AKNJNXWG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AKNJNXWG </b></a> §REF§ “Although Christianity (p.93) was not declared the official state religion of the empire until 380 (by Emperor Theodosius), the adoption of the religion by Constantine was the linchpin of Christianity’s legitimacy. Constantine, who claimed to have had a battlefield apparition- conversion in 312 (defeating his coregent Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in Rome), united the western and eastern parts of the empire and created at least a regional homogenization of Christianity three centuries after Jesus Christ.\"§REF§ (Ekelund Jr. and Tollison 2011, 92-93) Ekelund Jr., Robert B. and Robert D. Tollison. 2011. Economic Origins of Roman Christianity. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8UUZNR4E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8UUZNR4E </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 422, "polity": { "id": 790, "name": "et_habesha", "long_name": "Habesha", "start_year": 801, "end_year": 1136 }, "year_from": 891, "year_to": 1136, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The decline of Aksum did not immediately result in either the disappearance of its kings or the waning of Christian influence in the highlands of Ethiopia. Numerous traditions appear to indicate that from the seventh century onward the center of gravity of the Christian kingdom moved southward. Although it is impossible to follow this expansion of the kingdom and church in any detail, both Arabic and Ethiopian sources portray the ninth century as a time of military campaigns, church building, and evangelization as far south as the Amhara region. Thus, Aksumite culture survived and even spread into regions not under its influence during its heyday.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 42) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 423, "polity": { "id": 790, "name": "et_habesha", "long_name": "Habesha", "start_year": 801, "end_year": 1136 }, "year_from": 850, "year_to": 890, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Aksum, according to the Ethiopian sources, ceased to be the capital only from the late ninth century, a few decades before the city was destroyed by the Jewish, or pagan, Queen Judith (Yodit in Tigringna). The reign of Judith lasted, according to Ethiopian chronicles, between 850 and 890 AD. This appears to tally quite well with the first account of the Arab sources which mention a capital other than Aksum. […] The precise dating of the reign of Queen Judith would most probably remain unknown, but the wide chronological discrepancy could indeed be narrowed by more rigorous source criticism. Arab and Coptic sources confirm that the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia was ruled by a pagan or Jewish queen.” <ref>(Negash, 2006 no page number) Negash, T. 2006. The Zagwe period re-interpreted: post-Aksumite Ethiopian urban culture. Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazioni 61(1): 120-137. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/enricocioni/items/WGTE6WKE/library </ref>" }, { "id": 424, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 102, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"‘We desire that all peoples whom Our grace rules shall live by the very religion that the divine Peter, the apostle, gave to the Romans… we order all those who follow this law to assume the name of Catholic Christians, and considering others as demented and insane, we command that they shall bear the disgrace of heresy, and that their places of assembly not acquire the name of churches.\r\nCODEX THEODOSIANUS\r\n\r\n\"This law, issued on Feb. 27, 380 by the emperors Gratian and Theodosius I, represented the culmination of the process of Christianization begun under Constantine I at the beginning of the fourth century. General surveys of the Later Roman Empire or Late Antiquity often designate this constitution as the point when ‘Orthodox’ Christianity was made the official religion of the empire, following a brief rapprochement with paganism under Julian (r. 361-363). As such, it marked not only a dramatic shift from the religious syncretism which the Roman state had hitherto practiced, but was also to serve as a touchstone of Byzantine law. Henceforth, only Christians following the rite of the imperial church (those whom I will describe in what follows for the sake of convenience as ‘Orthodox’) could enjoy the rights of full Roman citizens. By contrast, over the following centuries various curtailments were introduced with regard to marriage, inheritance, officeholding and testamentary capacity for non-Orthodox or ‘heretical’ Christians, pagans, and Jews.\"§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 166) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§" }, { "id": 425, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1256, "year_to": 1294, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The first few Ilkhans – Hülegü, Abaqa, Arghun, and even Ghazan (initially) – favoured Buddhism, albeit they also continued to adhere to elements of their old belief system, which historians have clumped together under the term “shamanism.” You might say that Shamanism, or perhaps Tenggerism, was a kind of state religion, insofar as it informed the Hülegüids idea of the world and their place in it, but classing them simply as believers in “Mongolian Shamanism” is misleading.\" (Michael Hope, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, December 2023)\r\n\r\n\"The short reign of the Ilkhan Tegüder (1282-4), known also as Ahmad, was notable for several reasons. This was the first time that the Mongols in Iran were ruled by a Muslim. [...] Whatever his personal proclivity in religious matters, Tegüder Ilkhan made a determined effort to present himself as an orthodox ruler in the public sphere. Among his first actions was a letter to Baghdad, proclaiming his adherence to Islam and enjoining the enforcement of the sharia (Islamic law) as in the time of the caliphs, particularly vis-á-vis the ahl al-dhimma (the \"protected people,\" mainly Christians and Jews), who were to pay the jizya and wear their distinctive garb.\"§REF§(Amitai 2001, 15, 26-27) Amitai, R. 2001. The Conversion of Tegüder Ilkhan to Islam. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 25: 15-43. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/amitai/titleCreatorYear/items/SVU7SRNW/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“During the reign of Ghazan Khan (1295-1304), the Ilkhanate truly emerged as an Islamic Empire; Islamization, however, was not the only method by which the Mongols legitimized their state. Nor was it the way that subjects dwelling within the Ilkhanate viewed the state. Naturally, before Ghazan’s reign it is difficult to argue that the Ilkhanate was an Islamic state. Indeed, the Ilkhans made no pretence of it and adhered to the traditional forms of legitimization: that the Mongols ruled through the strength and will of the Eternal Blue Heaven (mongke koke tengri).” §REF§ (May et al. 2020, 6) May, Timothy et al. 2020. ‘Introduction’ In New Approaches to Ilkhanid History. Edited by Timothy May et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NCUDTFG4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NCUDTFG4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 426, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1295, "year_to": 1339, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The short reign of the Ilkhan Tegüder (1282-4), known also as Ahmad, was notable for several reasons. This was the first time that the Mongols in Iran were ruled by a Muslim. [...] Whatever his personal proclivity in religious matters, Tegüder Ilkhan made a determined effort to present himself as an orthodox ruler in the public sphere. Among his first actions was a letter to Baghdad, proclaiming his adherence to Islam and enjoining the enforcement of the sharia (Islamic law) as in the time of the caliphs, particularly vis-á-vis the ahl al-dhimma (the \"protected people,\" mainly Christians and Jews), who were to pay the jizya and wear their distinctive garb.\"§REF§(Amitai 2001, 15, 26-27) Amitai, R. 2001. The Conversion of Tegüder Ilkhan to Islam. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 25: 15-43. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/amitai/titleCreatorYear/items/SVU7SRNW/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“During the reign of Ghazan Khan (1295-1304), the Ilkhanate truly emerged as an Islamic Empire; Islamization, however, was not the only method by which the Mongols legitimized their state. Nor was it the way that subjects dwelling within the Ilkhanate viewed the state. Naturally, before Ghazan’s reign it is difficult to argue that the Ilkhanate was an Islamic state. Indeed, the Ilkhans made no pretence of it and adhered to the traditional forms of legitimization: that the Mongols ruled through the strength and will of the Eternal Blue Heaven (mongke koke tengri).” §REF§ (May et al. 2020, 6) May, Timothy et al. 2020. ‘Introduction’ In New Approaches to Ilkhanid History. Edited by Timothy May et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NCUDTFG4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NCUDTFG4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 427, "polity": { "id": 697, "name": "in_pandya_emp_2", "long_name": "Pandya Dynasty", "start_year": 590, "end_year": 915 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 428, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 429, "polity": { "id": 639, "name": "so_ajuran_sultanate", "long_name": "Ajuran Sultanate", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“At the top of the Ajuran hierarchy was the imam, a title used only by Shi’ite Islamic administrations.” §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Ajuran Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie. Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5U3NQRMR/library §REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 430, "polity": { "id": 646, "name": "so_ifat_sultanate", "long_name": "Ifat Sultanate", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1375 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Ifat was the second sultanate to be formed in the region of Shawa, in what is currently central Ethiopia. It was Umar Walasma who founded the Walasma dynasty (1280–1520s), which spearheaded Muslim resistance to the expanding Christian kingdom.” §REF§ (Hassen 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Hassen, Mohammed, 2016. ‘Ifat Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXDQBFFT/library §REF§ \"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 431, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 203, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Prepalatial Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 432, "polity": { "id": 654, "name": "so_isaaq_sultanate", "long_name": "Isaaq Sultanate", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“With a long tradition of trading connections to the Arabian Peninsula, the Somalis were converted to Islam at an early date[...].” §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ \"African Islam, at least south of the Sahara, has been strongly influenced by Sufism. This has made it much more eclectic, flexible, and less vulnerable, if not wholly immune, to external stridency than might otherwise have been the case.\" §REF§ (Reid 2011, 59) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/CZB48WKQ/collection§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 433, "polity": { "id": 614, "name": "cd_kanem", "long_name": "Kanem", "start_year": 800, "end_year": 1379 }, "year_from": 1080, "year_to": 1893, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"After the eleventh century the Sayfuwa [dynasty] began to incorporate Islamic principles into their political system\" (Gronenborn 2002: 103)", "description": "" }, { "id": 434, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 12, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Bamana Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Historically, Bamana culture was distinguished from other Mandekan peoples such as the Soninke and Maninka by the relatively slow progress that Islam was able to make against local traditional religion. Muslim families who were mostly of Soninke origin were present in the Bamana Segou state beginning with the time of its founder, Mamary Biton Kulubali (c. 1712-c. 1755), but the rulers (''faamaw'') and most of the population continued in the traditional system of belief until the burning of the ''boliw'' and forced conversions following the Islamic conquest of Al-Hajj Umar in 1861. There were Muslims in Segou from the time of its founding, but the four great ''boliw'' were the cornerstones of the state religion and power structure, and the profound faith in their protective qualities doubtless had a good deal to do with the Bamana's extended resistance to Islam. A Segou ''faama'' could not govern without control of the four great ''boliw'', which were critical to the acquisition and maintenance of political power.\"§REF§D. Conrad , 2008, in J.P. Colleyn (ed.) ''Bamana: the art of existence in Mali'' pp. 35-43. New York: Museum of African Art.§REF§", "description": "" }, { "id": 435, "polity": { "id": 610, "name": "gu_futa_jallon", "long_name": "Futa Jallon", "start_year": 1725, "end_year": 1896 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Furthermore, the Islamic religious cause had triumphed with Fulbe political ascendancy. Already Fugumba represented something of the power of religion in the eyes of the triumphant Fulbe populations for whom it was both the first city and their holy centre. Infused with the saintly breath of Tcherno Samba, a Fula cleric of formidable spiritual and intellectual stature, it assumed a tutorial role over the religious and political affairs of Futa Jallon. It blessed and consecrated kings, judged and settled disputes and reserved to itself a surprising degree of powers of review over political developments.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M3J4HTAF\">[Sanneh 1981, p. 46]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 436, "polity": { "id": 261, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_1", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty I", "start_year": 617, "end_year": 763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"The growth and transformations of Daoism in this period were no less dramatic. Most dramatic of all was the religion’s precipitous rise within the Tang imperial court, where in many instances it came to shape, or even to replace, the ancient rites central to the establishment and endurance of the state and the imperial clan. These developments were perhaps most complete in the mountain ranges that were sacred both to the court and to local religious groups, where Tang emperors proclaimed that the true spirits of the ranges were not the older deities that had been worshipped there for centuries but the newer gods of Daoism. In a very literal way, this transformed China into a Daoist realm. [...] Daoist priests and adepts, taking advantage of this new glamour, made the Tang the period of their religion’s greatest influence upon Chinese political and cultural life. Monks, priests, and other religious adepts had of course often had the ears of rulers in China (as elsewhere); Daoist priests, for example, had been influential presences at court during the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties. But not since Han times had the power associated with these relationships been as great as it was in the Sui and Tang.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SGG5RZ8N\">[Copp_Nadeau 2012, pp. 76-77]</a> “To accommodate the Daoist religion, the Tang and Song courts both constructed a genealogical connection between the royal family and a key Daoist deity: Laozi in the case of the Tang, and Zhao Xuanlang in the case of the Song. Under this policy, the Daoist religion was given a special place in imperial ideology. Daoist rituals were regularly performed to legitimize the dynasty and many Daoist priests enjoyed a remarkable place in society, to the extent that quite a few local officials governed with dual authorities: one from the imperial court, the other from the Daoist authority.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZAQ7CDH\">[Liu 2012, pp. 78-79]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 437, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 249, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mesopotamian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Most likely local gods/chief gods may become important already by the end of this period. However, although religion across S. Mesopotamia shares common elements, the key gods are local entities and relevant for towns/villages in a given region.\" (pers. comm. Mark Altaweel) <br> \"Ubaid society may have experienced some social differentiation, but it may have been masked, as political leaders sought to provide economic backing to their supporters, sometimes using religion to bolster their positions.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CZGVV6T\">[Ross_Steadman 2017, p. 60]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 438, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "“Since, moreover, it is politically expedient for ruler and ruled to be of one faith, it may reasonably be assumed that, at least from the time they seized power, the Arsacids were professed Zoroastrians.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DGMIWEDZ\">[Boyce 2012]</a> “There is neither proof of the Arsacid rulers ’ religious orientation nor any indication that the kings of kings interfered with the various cults. The simultaneous reverence of such a diversity of traditional Mesopotamian, Greek, Arab, and Iranian, as well as monotheistic gods which is mirrored in the diversity of local temple architecture (Downey 1988 ), makes the Arsacid period a most interesting field for research.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEH35732\">[Hauser 2012, p. 1016]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 440, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": 1256, "year_to": 1294, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"The first few Ilkhans – Hülegü, Abaqa, Arghun, and even Ghazan (initially) – favoured Buddhism, albeit they also continued to adhere to elements of their old belief system, which historians have clumped together under the term “shamanism.”\" (Michael Hope, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, December 2023)", "description": "" }, { "id": 441, "polity": { "id": 643, "name": "et_showa_sultanate", "long_name": "Shoa Sultanate", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1285 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite. This literate elite is represented by the faqīh Ibrāhīm b. al-Ḥasan, “ qāḍī al-quḍā (lit. “cadi of the cadis”) of Šawah” whose death occurred in 1255. The title “cadi of the cadis” refers to the judge at the head of the judiciary of a state or of a city, and therefore presupposes a sophisticated judicial hierarchy.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TA84VGHX\">[Chekroun_Hirsch_Kelly 2020, pp. 94-95]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 442, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"the Sasanian empire [...] held Zoroastrianism as the official religion\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MUKJ4G5K\">[Daryaee 2009, p. 96]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 443, "polity": { "id": 406, "name": "in_kalachuri_emp", "long_name": "Kalachuris of Kalyani", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1184 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 444, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"Islamic Jaraka had replaced Songhay magic as the chief ritual support of kingly authority.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4BMBC2JJ\">[Hunwick_Lewis 1966, p. 307]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 445, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": "\"In its reshaped role, the Abbasid caliphate became the defender of a Sunni theology and patron of an official narrative of early Islam that centered on honoring Companions of the Prophet, such as Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Muʿawiya against contrary views of the Muʿtazila, and more importantly against those of the Shiʿa.\" (pp. 194-195) But also: \"Fanning sectarian strife did not immediately translate into political mobilization, as it might have done in an earlier period under the Buyids and the Fatimids. The increased preoccupation with the Crusades was one factor; but the Abbasids had also over time devised ways of accommodating the Shiʿi voice through new political measures, such as appointing a Shiʿi vizir.\" (pp. 236-237) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/84PTZMDF\">[El-Hibri 2021, pp. 194-237]</a>", "description": "" } ] }