Official Religion List

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        {
            "id": 253,
            "polity": {
                "id": 147,
                "name": "jp_heian",
                "long_name": "Heian",
                "start_year": 794,
                "end_year": 1185
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
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            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 215,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Shinto",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB It may not be appropriate to use the name “Shinto” to label indigenous Japanese religious beliefs and practices in this era. “That being said, however, it remains extremely difficult to discuss Shinto in the ages before the term itself is widely used, that is, from the fifteenth century on. Up to that point, Shinto is a collective designation for jingi, state-sponsored Kami rites, and miscellaneous Kami cults. This usage is inevitably imprecise and unsatisfactory in various ways. To uphold the significance of institutional, social, and ritual continuities forces one to struggle for clarity where little is to be found, but others have also accepted this challenge.” §REF§(Hardacre 2017: 44) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“During the second period (the Heian period), from roughly the ninth to the twelfth century, Confucianism and Buddhism were gradually assimilated by the Japanese,  so that something like a “division of labor” developed among religious and semi-religious systems. While national and communal cults remained the prerogatives of Shinto, public and private morality were delegated to the Confucian system and spiritual and metaphysical problems become the concerns of Buddhism.” §REF§(Kitigawa 1987, 276) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§ \r\n\r\n“Buddhism was initially accepted in Japan for cultural and political reasons as much as for magico-religious reasons, first by the influential uji groups and later by the imperial court. […] the sponsorship of Buddhism shifted from the uji groups to the imperial court […]” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 266) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§ \r\n\r\n“In the early Heian period new religious attitudes and teachings were demanded. Two prominent men appeared to contribute to their formation – each in his own way. There were men of different types, but common to both were the aims of establishing a united center for Japanese Buddhism and a policy of securing support from the aristocracy formulating national policy. They attempted to derive their knowledge of Buddhist knowledge of Buddhist teaching from China directly rather than by accepting what was known in the established Buddhist schools of the Nara period. Both of them erected headquarters on sacred mountains and emphasized learning, monastic disciplines, esoteric cults, and mysteries.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 59) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“At the funeral procession for Emperor Diago in A.D. 930, professional Nembutsu priests, selected from among the Tendai priests, lined both sides of the street at eighty-six places where the funeral procession passed, repeating Nembetsu prayers for the deceased emperor’s spirit and ringing special bells and gongs.” §REF§ (Hori 1968, 97) Hori, Ichiro. 1968. Folk Religion in Japan. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4ACW2ZM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4ACW2ZM </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“The government issued an edict in 807, for instance, forbidding sorcerers, diviners, and priests to seduce the surreptitious masses, but the government was powerless to control the abuse of religious rites by practitioners of Onmyōdō (the Yin-yang and the Taoistic magic) and other occult systems. In fact, some of these practitioners were called upon even by the court in time of pestilence; or to aid in the selection of the heir apparent.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 57) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“After the death of Saicho in 822 Kūkai undoubtedly became the dominant religious figure in Japan, while Shingon became, to all intents and purposes, a national religion.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 64) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 254,
            "polity": {
                "id": 151,
                "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama",
                "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama",
                "start_year": 1568,
                "end_year": 1603
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 213,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Shinto-Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Buddhist teachings that were recognized as orthodox during the medieval period had mikkyō as their base, combined with the exoteric teachings or kengyō (Buddhist and other teachings outside of mikkyō) of each of the eight schools-Tendai, Kegon, Yuishiki (HossG), Ritsu, etc. These eight sects, sometimes called kenmitsu or exoteric-esoteric Buddhism, acknowledged their interdependence with state authority, and together they dominated the religious sector. This entire order constituted the fundamental religious system of medieval Japan. §REF§ (Toshio, 12) Toshio, Kuroda. 1981. ‘Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion. Journal of Japanese Studies. Vol 7. Pp. 1-21. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3E7W8DUK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3E7W8DUK </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 255,
            "polity": {
                "id": 150,
                "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai",
                "long_name": "Warring States Japan",
                "start_year": 1467,
                "end_year": 1568
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 213,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Shinto-Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Buddhist teachings that were recognized as orthodox during the medieval period had mikkyō as their base, combined with the exoteric teachings or kengyō (Buddhist and other teachings outside of mikkyō) of each of the eight schools-Tendai, Kegon, Yuishiki (HossG), Ritsu, etc. These eight sects, sometimes called kenmitsu or exoteric-esoteric Buddhism, acknowledged their interdependence with state authority, and together they dominated the religious sector. This entire order constituted the fundamental religious system of medieval Japan. Shinto was drawn into this Buddhist system as one segment of it, and its religious content was replaced with Buddhist doctrine, particularly mikkyō and Tendai philosophy. The term kenmitsu used here refers to this kind of system. At the end of the twelfth century, various reform movements arose in opposition to this system, and there even appeared heretical sects which stressed exclusive religious practices-the chanting of the nembutsu, zen meditation, etc. Nonetheless, the kenmitsu system maintained its status as the orthodox religion until the beginning of the sixteenth century.” §REF§ (Toshio, 12) Toshio, Kuroda. 1981. ‘Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion. Journal of Japanese Studies. Vol 7. Pp. 1-21. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3E7W8DUK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3E7W8DUK </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 256,
            "polity": {
                "id": 149,
                "name": "jp_ashikaga",
                "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1336,
                "end_year": 1467
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 7,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“By far the most influential religious sect during the Ashikaga period was Zen, especially the Rinzai Zen tradition, which became de facto the official religion. §REF§ (Kitigawa, 24) Kitigawa, Joseph. 2002. ‘Japanese Religion’. In The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Edited by: Joseph Kitigawa. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N7RF7C5P\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N7RF7C5P </b></a>§REF§“The Ashikaga family came from the Kanto where they had already been patrons of Rinzai Zen monks. Takauji, his brother Tadayoshi, and the Ashikaga shoguns carried on from the Hojo the practice of promoting metropolitan Zen monasteries to the various ranks of the gozan system. With their bakufu based in Kyoto, it was natural that the Ashikaga should have particularly favored newly established Kyoto monasteries like the Tenryuji or Shokokuji, with which they had close ties and which were dominated by monks from Zen lineages that they patronized such as that of Muso Soseki. The Kamakura gozan survived, but for the next century or more it was the Kyoto gozan monasteries, their subtemples and provincial satellites patronized by the Ashikaga and their leading vassals and headed by monks of the Muso and Shoichi lineages that dominated the gozan network and the whole Zen establishment. §REF§ (Collcutt, 599) Collcutt, Martin. 2008. ‘Zen and the gozan’. In Cambridge History of Japan: Medieval Japan. Edited by Kozo Yamamura. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TV6ENUR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TV6ENUR </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 257,
            "polity": {
                "id": 263,
                "name": "jp_nara",
                "long_name": "Nara Kingdom",
                "start_year": 710,
                "end_year": 794
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 213,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Shinto-Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB The term \"Shinto-Buddhism\" is an attempt at reflecting the complementarity of Buddhism and Kami worship in Japanese religious beliefs and practices at this time. We are open to alternative suggestions from experts.\r\n\r\nNBB It may not be appropriate to use the name “Shinto” to label indigenous Japanese religious beliefs and practices in this era. “That being said, however, it remains extremely difficult to discuss Shinto in the ages before the term itself is widely used, that is, from the fifteenth century on. Up to that point, Shinto is a collective designation for jingi, state-sponsored Kami rites, and miscellaneous Kami cults. This usage is inevitably imprecise and unsatisfactory in various ways. To uphold the significance of institutional, social, and ritual continuities forces one to struggle for clarity where little is to be found, but others have also accepted this challenge.” §REF§(Hardacre 2017: 44) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“During the Nara period, Buddhism enjoyed royal favor, overshadowing that extended to Shinto, for the government depended on Buddhism as the chief civilizing agency which would help solidify the nation. §REF§ (Kitagawa, 30) Kitagawa, Joseph. 1966. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5H6CUE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z5H6CUE8 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“In 710 the first capital, modeled after the Chinese capital of Ch‘ang-an, was established in Nara, which was designed to serve as the religious as well as the political center of the nation. During the Nara period the imperial court was eager to promote Buddhism as the religion best suited for the protection of the state. Accordingly, the government established in every province state-sponsored temples (kokubunji) and nunneries (kokubunniji).” §REF§ (Kitagawa, 14) Kitagawa, Joseph. 1966. Japanese Religion. Columbia: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5H6CUE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z5H6CUE8 </b></a>§REF§ \r\n\r\n“The reason for government support was that the Buddhist clergy was in charge of rituals designed to protect the realm as well as the body of the sovereign.” §REF§ (Farris, 46) Farris, William Wayne. 2009. Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ANZMF89I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ANZMF89I </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“The government continued to invest unusually large sums of money for the construction of the capital and costly Buddhist temples.” §REF§ (Kitagawa, 30) Kitagawa, Joseph. 1966. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5H6CUE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z5H6CUE8 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“In the Nara period the Emperor Shomu went further by proclaiming in 741 that every province there was to be on state-supported official temple [of Buddhism]. Clearly, the aim of the government in sponsoring Buddhism was not the salvation of the people but the protection of the state. For this purpose, the government was not discriminatory, so long as the cult or religion was willing to be at its service. […] The court frequently summoned Shinto and Buddhist functionaries to ‘pray’ for rain, relief from pestilence, and other practical benefits, and in return for these services, large estates were donated to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, and the clergy were showered with honors and favors by the court.” §REF§ (Kitagawa, 35) Kitagawa, Joseph. 1966. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5H6CUE8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Z5H6CUE8 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 258,
            "polity": {
                "id": 145,
                "name": "jp_kofun",
                "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period",
                "start_year": 250,
                "end_year": 537
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 217,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Kofun religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "NB None of the consulted sources refer to any belief system from this time as \"Kofun religion\". Indeed, none of the sources consulted really name indigenous Japanese belief systems. In the absence of a name, we have tentatively named the belief system after the common name for this phase of Japanese history. Needless to say we are open to the possibility of replacing this name with anything an expert would consider more appropriate.\r\n\r\n“The tide of immigrants produced a division within Japan between clans with chieftains whose spiritual authority rested upon continental (including Buddhist) rites, and “native” groups whose leadership rested on the performance of rites for the Kami. Immigrants were associated with advanced Chinese techniques of construction, the technology for making iron tools and weapons, and the bureaucratic skills necessary to manage large estates and governmental affairs. These groups took the lead in introducing and supporting Buddhism, which provided the religious basis for their own authority. By contrast, the “native” clans were associated with agriculture and drew their religious legitimation from the performance of agriculturally based rites for the Kami. The immigrant clans increasingly built Buddhist temples and sponsored Buddhist rites there, while the native clans worshipped the Kami in shrines, built in imitation of Buddhism’s permanent structures. This division of society, combined with the determination of the Yamato rulers to remain in control of the whole, lay in the background of the late sixth-century struggle over the official adoption of Buddhist ritual into the court, to be discussed later.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 24-25) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\nThe following quotes refer to Early Kofun. “From at least the time of Himiko, religious belief had influenced the conduct of secular government, and religious authority was used to sanction the seizure and maintenance of temporal power. At the beginning of the Burial Mound period, certain powerful clans began to assume control over specific territories, and it seems that they found it necessary to claim the religious authority attached to the worship of their regions' important kami. In particular, they embraced such kami as the kunitama (province soul) that protected a region's lands or the water kami that guaranteed the area abundant rain and harvest. Clan members claimed common ancestry, although many blood-tie claims were probably fictitious. A tutelary kami was sometimes adopted as the clan's ancestral kami. But judging from the names of kami listed in the Engishiki, this was not a common development. For example, the Mononobe, Nakatomi, Izumo, and Munakata clans did not consider their tutelary kami to be their ancestral kami.” §REF§ (Takaeshi 1993, 336) Takaeshi, Matsumae. 1993. ‘Early Kami Worship’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§  \r\n\r\n“We know Early Kofun elites were familiar with the images of the Queen Mother, King Father and the beasts (tigers) which appear on the deity-beast mirrors so highly valued at that time. The underlined attributes in the earlier section futher correlate with Early Kofun society and material culture. Stone ornaments and especially staffs made of jade or jade substitutes were important grave goods beginning in EK-2 (Figure 7.4). Textual concordances between attributes of females such as Himiko/Princess Yamato and the Queen Mother of the West can also be cited: these females all possessed divine powers and were associated with political rulership; both the Queen Mother and Princess Yamato had marriages to gods. The hime-hiko ruling pair identified as a protohistoric pattern in western Japan may reflect the mythological pairing of authority figures such as the Queen Mother and King Father. Mountains play a large role in contextualizing these females’ activities: the Queen Mother’s home was a mountain, Princess Yamato’s husband was a mountain deity, and both the Princess and Himiko were reportedly buried in artificial mountains, the tombs Hashi-no-haka and a Great Mound of 100 Paces Across, respectively. If Himiko  Princess Yamato is considered the earthly analog of the Queen Mother, then the link between religious cult and political power is complete. As the Queen Mother was a legitimizer of political rule, so were the female shamanessess who functioned as the preeminent figures in the Miwa polity. If the Wei-dynasty deity-beast bronze mirrors bearing images of the Queen Mother of the West were procured under the aegis of Himiko, this would have given the Sujin regime from the mid-3rd century a religious aura that provided not only legitimization in terms of a new religion but also the material goods for encouraging adherence to the cult beliefs” §REF§ (Barnes 2007, 181-182) Barnes, Gina. 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Oxford: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RZPURGD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RZPURGD7 </b></a> §REF§ \r\n\r\n“The ideology of such a cult would have been the source of authority for the Miwa Court. It constituted a ‘new constellation of power’ (Yoffee 1993: 71) of the type that signalled a reorganization and realignment of resources into the hands of the elite who were responsible for the maintenance of, participation in, and promulgation of the cult. Miwa Court power has traditionally been presented in Japanese under the rubric ‘political authority’ (seiken) and more recently as ‘kingly authority’ (hken). These secular concepts, however, do not entirely capture the charisma of the Miwa cult figures or the attractiveness that was inherent in Mounded Tomb Culture. Perhaps a new concept of shinken (godly authority) is necessary to convey the nature of ‘the institutional code within which the use of power as medium [was] organized and legitimized’ (Parsons 1986: 113).” §REF§ (Barnes 2007, 184) Barnes, Gina. 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Oxford: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RZPURGD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RZPURGD7 </b></a> §REF§ \r\n\r\n“The last half of the fourth century when the Yamato kings were buried in the Saki area was not simply a time of Yamato expansion made possible by the use of armies equipped with iron weapons but when the Yamato kings became deeply involved in kami worship at a different kind of shrine: the Isonokami. Kings continued to honor the kami of Mt. Miwa, but after palaces and mounds were built farther north - apparently because the kings came to be tied to the strong clans (uji) in that area - Isonokami seems to have become the leading Yamato shrine. By studying its connections with the Yamato kings and powerful clans and reflecting on the nature and implications of the shrine's sacred treasures and unique traditions, historians are gaining a clearer picture of the religiopolitical control structure that emerged in Yamato during the final years of the fourth century.” §REF§ (Brown 1993, 119) Brown, Delmer. 1993. ‘The Yamato Kingdom. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§ \r\n\r\nThe following quotes refer to Middle Kofun. “The view that a fifth-century ruler was more like a secular ruler than a priestly king is further substantiated by what is recorded in Nihon shoki and Kojiki chapters on Ojin and Nintoku, two Yamato kings buried in the Kawachi-Izumi area. Unlike the chapter for the earlier Sujin reign, which is replete with myths about special ties between the Yamato rulers and local kami, the Ojin and Nintoku chapters include very few references to kami. […] One ceremony held at the beginning of a new reign was religious in character but did not involve the worship of a local kami. Called the Yasojima festival and scheduled for the year after enthronement, it was focused on priests and miko (shamans) proceeding to the capital at Naniwa where the souls of the Yasojima (\"eighty islands\") were ritually attached to the current Yamato king. In associated rites and myths, the islands of Onogoro and Awaji are prominent, and instead of honoring a local kami, the Yasojima festival underscores a Yamato king's origins in distant places of the Inland Sea. Ueda notes that Awaji was also prominent in the Izanami-Izanagi creation of the Japanese islands and that the mysterious birth of Ojin - born to Jingu after her return from a victorious campaign in Korea - linked kami \"from across the sea\" to such distant lands as Izumo” §REF§ (Brown 1993, 127) Brown, Delmer. 1993. ‘The Yamato Kingdom. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§ “Following the hiving off of military and ritual functions from the body of the ruler, we see a trend in the late fifth and early sixth centuries for providing religious legitimization of the ruler's superior position. This was accomplished by appropriating a local shrine to the sun god Amateru in the eastern province of Ise and converting it to a national imperial shrine to the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu (Matsumae 1978), claimed subsequently to be the progenitor of the imperial line. […] Matsumae's analysis of sun-goddess worship in Japan (1978) asserts that Ise was chosen as the spot for the imperial shrine because a solar deity was already being worshiped there but had no powerful elite serving it. The Ise cult belonged solely to the local folks and was therefore easily available for appropriation by the Yamato kings. […] In the fourth century, we have postulated that the heads of the small polities attained their positions by becoming the living representatives of the ancestral gods, mediating between them and the commoners. A crucial aspect of this mediation was the performance of rituals for which the accoutrements were interred with the paramount when he died. Upon the establishment of Ise, the Yamato ruler himself became a god and was the object rather than the perpetrator of ritual performance. Kiley states that the acknowledgment of the emperor as a \"'manifest god' . . . served to routinize the royal office . . . and [was] part of the general process of political centralization that led to the creation of a bureaucratically administered national imperium\" (1973b:31). §REF§ (Barnes 1988, 273-274) Barnes, Gina. 1988. Protohistoric Yamato: archaeology of the first Japanese state. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies and Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SETQF4FI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SETQF4FI </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 259,
            "polity": {
                "id": 152,
                "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate",
                "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate",
                "start_year": 1603,
                "end_year": 1868
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 213,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Shinto-Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "It seems that Buddhism and Shinto could both be considered \"official\" religions, in the sense of religions closely associated with governmental rule.\r\n\r\n\"By the mid-seventeenth century, an elaborate system for the administration and control of religious institutions was put in place, resting on four principal mechanisms: (1) ab- solute prohibition of Christianity (completed with the 1637 suppression of the Shimabara Rebellion), annual sectarian investigations to enforce the ban; (2) incor- poration of all Buddhist temples and clerics into a fixed number of sects with rigid rules; (3) incorporation of the entire population into the Buddhist temples as their parishioners; (4) placing the Yoshida house in charge of certain shrine affairs. Taken together, these measures created a system in which Buddhism came to function as part of the framework of social control, and shrines remained largely overshadowed by the temples that administered them. [...] While the shogunate sought to adapt Buddhism to its purpose of enforcing the ban on Christianity, however, there were powerful figures who opposed official pro- motion of Buddhism. Such men as Hoshina Masayuki (1611–1672), Tokugawa Mitsukuni (1628–1700) of Mito, and Ikeda Mitsumasa (1609–1682) of Okayama,and others took a strong interest in Confucianism and Shinto. [...] Mitsumasa and the others exemplified a current of anti-Buddhist sentiment among those in the ruling class that was linked to promotion of Confucianism and faith in the Kami.\"§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 239-240) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Almost every expression of Japanese nationalism in both the Tokugawa and Meiji Periods (and, indeed, earlier) can be seen as an expression of national Shintō. In fact national Shintō can perhaps be best understood as a sacred form of nationalism. National Shinto in this sense then was steadily on the increase throughout the Tokugawa Period, and certainly by the end of it there would have been general consensus on its primary tenents concerning the special divine ancestry and nature of the emperor, and Japan as the “land of the gods” among those of almost all religious commitments.” §REF§ (Bellah 1957, 54) Bellah, Robert. 1957. Tokugawa Religion. Glencoe: The Free Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7EWWEIP8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7EWWEIP8 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 260,
            "polity": {
                "id": 146,
                "name": "jp_asuka",
                "long_name": "Asuka",
                "start_year": 538,
                "end_year": 710
            },
            "year_from": 587,
            "year_to": 710,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 1,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“According to the Nihon shoki, in 587 Great King Yōmei (r. 585−587) converted to Buddhism, with Soga encouragement, and a priest was installed in the palace. It appears that the Soga then began a campaign of war and assassination against the Nakatomi and Mononobe, eventually prevailing. Thereafter, there was no serious opposition to state sponsorship of Buddhism, which spread rapidly, due to the belief that Buddhist rites were highly effective in producing this-worldly benefits.”§REF§(Hardacre 2017: 28) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“The world of clans and kami was modified irreversibly by the sixth and seventh centuries through the introduction of Buddhist and Confucian thought, as well as by the subsequent consolidation of state and society on a Chinese pattern with Buddhism as a state-patronised religion.” §REF§ (Ellwood and Pilgrim 1985, 22) Ellwood, Robert and Pilgrim Richard. 1985. Japanese Religion: A Cultural Perspective. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VRQCT8UW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VRQCT8UW </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Even though Shōtoku was idealized as the paragon of Buddhist piety, learning, and sainthood, he shared his contemporaries’ fascination with the magico-religious aspects of Buddhism. However this did not diminish his great contribution to the transformation of Buddhism from a uji-centered religion to a court-sponsored national religion.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 106) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“ […] the significance of this religious policy must be seen to lie in the fact that the Buddhism that was introduced as a religion of certain clans was now transformed into the religion of the throne and empire.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 26) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Shotoku, by way of illustration, in elevating Buddhism to the status of a de facto national religion, did in no way belittle the importance of other systems, especially Shinto.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 222) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§ \r\n\r\n“Prince Shōtoku (573-621) […] tried to establish and ‘multi-religious system’, not dissimilar to the system adopted by Wen Ti of the Sui dynasty In China. Shōtoku made every effort to maintain a proper balance among Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 25) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“Regarding the “Seventeenth Article Constitution” supposed to have been promulgated by Shotoku in 604 and often called the first constitution of Japan, many scholars are inclined to hold that it was the work of a later period, dedicated to the memory of Shōtoku. Nevertheless, the spirit of the Constitution reflects something of Shōtoku’s intention. For example, we read in the second article: “Sincerely revere the Three Treasures. The Three Treasures, i.e., Buddha, Dharma, and Samgha, are the supreme refuge of all beings, and are objects of veneration in all nations.” This emphasis on Buddhism is balanced by Confucian ideas hinted at in the third article. Shōtoku is also said to have sent forth another proclamation in 607, advocating the veneration of kami.” §REF§ (Kitigawa 1990, 26) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1990. Religion in Japanese History. New York: Columbia University Press. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KPHNZGTT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KPHNZGTT </b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n“the dependency on Buddhist Law for the protection of the nation is a principle that was established by Prince Naka no Oye with the full concurrence of his chief advisor, Kamatari.” §REF§ Kitigawa 1987, 109) Kitigawa, Joseph. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q7PC3JB7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q7PC3JB7 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 261,
            "polity": {
                "id": 144,
                "name": "jp_yayoi",
                "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": 250
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 221,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Yayoi Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Hierarchically structured villages led by chiefs evolved. The chief performed ritual for the spirits of rice either at his dwelling or at the rice storehouse, where rice and the seeds for the next year’s crop were stored, ensuring the continuity of the seasons and the success of agriculture. Chiefs and others associated with ritual were considered to be closely connected with the Kami or Kami- like themselves. Great caches of swords and other weapons too large to have actually been used functionally are found at some sites, such as Kōjindani in the Izumo area. These finds suggest that symbols of political or military rule, such as swords, merged with religious symbols of power like jewels and mirrors in a concept of leadership that fused religious and secular elements.” §REF§ (Hardacre 2017, 19) Hardacre, Hellen. 2017. Shinto: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7RP3IRVR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7RP3IRVR </b></a> §REF§ “Scholars of modern-day Shinto often divide the religion into two types: the popular Shinto of village shrines, and the state Shinto of rites performed under the auspices of the central government. The former is rooted in early animistic worship and focuses on the veneration of mountain kami, kami of the fields, roadside guardians, and kami that protect the livelihood of the common people. State Shinto, on the other hand, began to emerge in my fourth period when a strong centralized and signified legal order was formed and Japan's \"emperor system\" was developed.” §REF§ (Takaeshi 1993, 326) Takaeshi, M. 1993. ‘Early Kami Worship’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan. Edited by Delmer E. Brown. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FDFQIWT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FDFQIWT </b></a> §REF§  “This perspective is consonant with Gina Barnes and other archaeologists’ perception of a shift in religious sensibilities by the latter part of the Yayoi period. The shift focused on what Barnes refers to as “ritual replacement,” in which ritual activity once focused on agriculture and rice production was replaced by worship of rulers. Worship of the “spirit of the rice” was ritually replaced by worship of the “spirit of the ruler” as society became increasingly hierarchical. Importantly, the transfer from rice to ruler as the object of worship happened concurrently with incipient notions of a state as the primary political identity.” §REF§ (Deal 2017, 193) Deal, William E. 2017. ‘Religion in Archaic Japan’. In Routledge Handbook of Premodern Japanese History. Edited by Karl F. Fruday. New York, NY: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VBIURG65\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VBIURG65 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 262,
            "polity": {
                "id": 529,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV",
                "start_year": 500,
                "end_year": 900
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The dominant discourse that embodied the power relations of the Classic period exhibited continuities with that of the Late/Terminal Formative – the relationship between religion and political power; between sacrifice and fertility; between ancestors, rulers, and the gods; and the quadripartite division of the cosmos. […] The subjectivities of commoners were increasingly subjugated when it came to regional leadership, warfare, and large-scale public rituals carried out at ceremonial centers.” […] “To summarize, imagery on tomb art and carved-stone monuments shows how Classic-period political authority was more exclusionary and less communal than during the Formative (A. Joyce 2004:207–11; Urcid 2005:154 5). Genealogy became a key element of ideologies that legitimated the social position of corporate groups as well as rulers. Using Giddens’ (1979:193–5) framework for understanding how ideology creates, maintains, and justifies sectional interests, genealogy can be seen as having reified status distinctions among corporate groups since the prominence of apical ancestors was fixed. The imagery presented apical ancestors of noble groups as instrumental in the cosmic creation and their continued propitiation was crucial to world-centering rituals. This belief universalized the social position of the nobility by making nobles intermediaries between commoners and the divine, since nobles were both descended from and had privileged access to important ancestors. Wealth and status was further reified since rights to property, privileges, and special offices were held via membership in the corporate group. Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices. Status within the group was further reified as a function of a person’s proximity to the apical ancestor. Indications that important offices could be inherited, such as that of rainmaker and paramount sacrificer, suggest the means through which other nobles as well as commoners could be excluded from positions of power.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 197, 215-217) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§ The Monte Alban IIIB and IV periods in Monte Alban correspond to the Xoo phase. “Most major Xoo phase sites are built around a standardized nucleus of monumental buildings and administrative areas consisting of a palace, a ballcourt, a TPA compound, and a probable marketplace. This common layout suggests that the elite directly controlled community ritual and religion, as well as economic and political matters. Architectural standardization of the TPA suggests institutionalized religion, as do the widespread appearance of Cociyo urns and representations of a mythical male-female pair, 1 Jaguar and 2 Maize (figure 7.16).” […] “During Period IIIA, Monte Alban’s developmental trajectory was interrupted, in my opinion as a result of the Teotihuacan presence at Monte Alban. However, in the subsequent Xoo phase, earlier traditions were revived, Period II temples were renovated, and emphasis turned to elite families who controlled the economy, politics, and religion. Public religion was standardized with TPA compounds, ballcourts, and representations of some deities. Commoners practiced mortuary rites involving uniform grave types and locations, as well as rituals associated with the interment. Creativity and the highest artistic expressions were monopolized by the elite and incorporated in the elaborate tombs inside their palaces. In Periods I and II public religion and manifestations of deities were varied, in process of formation, and modeled on domestic ritual. By the Xoo phase, rituals, beliefs, and deities were standardized and the maximum display was no longer by elite persons in a public setting, but by elite families bringing the public, communal manifestations back into their own households by way of mortuary rituals. Instead of integrating the community through a public ritual, the community was integrated into the family through a domestic ritual.” §REF§ (Winter 2002, 78, 81-82) Winter, Marcus. 2002. ‘Monte Albán: Mortuary Practices as Domestic Ritual and their Relation to Community Religion’. In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica. Edited by Patricia Plunket. Los Angeles, CA: The Cotsen Institute of archaeology, University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X6V5WSFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X6V5WSFI </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 263,
            "polity": {
                "id": 528,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban III",
                "start_year": 200,
                "end_year": 500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The dominant discourse that embodied the power relations of the Classic period exhibited continuities with that of the Late/Terminal Formative – the relationship between religion and political power; between sacrifice and fertility; between ancestors, rulers, and the gods; and the quadripartite division of the cosmos. […] The subjectivities of commoners were increasingly subjugated when it came to regional leadership, warfare, and large-scale public rituals carried out at ceremonial centers.” […] “To summarize, imagery on tomb art and carved-stone monuments shows how Classic-period political authority was more exclusionary and less communal than during the Formative (A. Joyce 2004:207–11; Urcid 2005:154 5). Genealogy became a key element of ideologies that legitimated the social position of corporate groups as well as rulers. Using Giddens’ (1979:193–5) framework for understanding how ideology creates, maintains, and justifies sectional interests, genealogy can be seen as having reified status distinctions among corporate groups since the prominence of apical ancestors was fixed. The imagery presented apical ancestors of noble groups as instrumental in the cosmic creation and their continued propitiation was crucial to world-centering rituals. This belief universalized the social position of the nobility by making nobles intermediaries between commoners and the divine, since nobles were both descended from and had privileged access to important ancestors. Wealth and status was further reified since rights to property, privileges, and special offices were held via membership in the corporate group. Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices. Status within the group was further reified as a function of a person’s proximity to the apical ancestor. Indications that important offices could be inherited, such as that of rainmaker and paramount sacrificer, suggest the means through which other nobles as well as commoners could be excluded from positions of power.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 197, 215-217) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 264,
            "polity": {
                "id": 527,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_2",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban II",
                "start_year": -100,
                "end_year": 200
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Not until the start of Monte Albán II can one point to public buildings with the stereotyped ground plan and features of the Zapotec temple—a ground plan that was preserved, with only minor changes, from 200 B.c. to the sixteenth century A.D. The Zapotec temple, according to ethnohistoric documents, was a two-room structure. In the slightly higher inner chamber, to which laymen never penetrated, lived the Zapotec “priests”. Although it may be an exaggeration, some documents state that the bigai'ia or minor priests “never left the temple” (Espmdola 1580:139); at the very least, a great deal of their behavior was hidden from view. To the slightly lower outer chamber came worshipers with quail, dogs, turkeys, or other creatures to be sacrificed at the temple. These they delivered to the bigaha “through whose hands everything passed” (Espmdola 1580:138). These fulltime religious functionaries performed the actual sacrifices, sometimes filling a basin (set in the floor) with sacrificial blood into which colored feathers were dipped. Church and state were united to the extent that priests were recruited from the sons of the nobility, and the Zapotec lord himself underwent a year of religious training before he took office. After all, his royal ancestors were semidivine interceders between his community and the great supernatural forces whose favor the Zapotec sought to incur (Topic 97). The appearance of the standard two-room temple is our first archaeological clue to the origins of state religion. By the time it appears—almost simultaneously with the palace—it is fairly certain that the Zapotec possessed full-time priests who had, in effect, taken a great deal of religion out of the hands of the common man. Men who could have sacrificed their own quail at 1000 B.c. probably had to bring it to the temple for professional sacrifice at 100 B.c. It is also probably no accident that the small handmade figurines used for the construction of ritual scenes in households of the Early and Middle Formative had totally disappeared by Monte Albán II. The evolution of state religion presumably involves a mechanism called linearization (Flannery 1972c:413), in which a special-purpose arm (the priesthood) of a higher-order system (the state) takes over an activity (certain rituals) that had formerly been performed by a lower-order system (the individual, family, or sodality).” §REF§ (Flannery &amp; Marcus 1983, 82) Flannery, Kent and Joyce Marcus. 1983. The Cloud people: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. New York: Academic Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZNCR3XRZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZNCR3XRZ </b></a> §REF§ “Among the cultural legacies of the Formative, as pointed out in Chapter 3, one could include almost all the techniques of agriculture known in the Otomanguean area, and almost all the skills of village life—loom weaving, pottery making, adobe construction, and stone masonry. The use of a 260- day calendar, ceremonial bloodletting, human and animal sacrifice, formalized religious art, and a substantial body of ritual maintaining the involvement of ancestors in the ongoing life of the community could be cited as well. Both redistributive and reciprocal exchange systems were present, and many of the Precolumbian networks along which products moved from one valley to another had been permanently established. […] Monte Albán represented a new administrative level in the Oaxaca site hierarchy, above secondary centers like San Jose Mogote and Dainzii, tertiary centers like Tomaltepec, and hamlets like Abasolo; it was the first administrative center of valley-wide significance. We have already suggested that a professional Zapotec ruling class evolved as the elite of Monte Albán allowed ties to their former valley-floor polities to wither, becoming instead “the lords of Monte Albán.” Reverence for the ancestors continued, but the small hand-made figurines of the Formative vanished; now it was royal ancestors who were most important, represented by the more elaborate anthropomorphic urns of Classic-period Zapotec tombs. This pattern of ancestor worship survived into the Colonial period, and even today the binigulaza are important to the Zapotec.” §REF§ (Flannery &amp; Marcus 1983, 357) Flannery, Kent and Joyce Marcus. 1983. The Cloud people: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. New York: Academic Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZNCR3XRZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZNCR3XRZ </b></a>§REF§ “The origin and early development of Monte Albán occurred during the Late Formative period, which lasted from 500 B.C. to A.D. 200 and included Period Ia (500-300 B.C), Ic (300-100 B.C.), and II (100 B.C.-A.D. 200) of the Valley of Oaxaca ceramic sequence (Caso, Bernal, Acosta 1967). Social complexity increased considerably during the Late Formative. Increasing heterogeneity is suggested by evidence for the emergence of a variety of craft specialists roles among nonelites, while elites appear to have taken on the role of ritual specialists. […] The nonagrarian role of the elites is suggested by evidence that they increasingly acted as ritual specialists, directing religious ceremonies, especially those in public settings (Flannery and Marcus 1976a:382-83; 1976b:217-19; 1983a). Elites controlled certain ritually significant forms of esoteric knowledge, including astronomy and the calendar, and were able to communicate this information via writing. Communal rituals appear to have been carried out by elites in distinct precincts characterized by monumental public buildings and elite residences as well as large plazas or patios such as the Main Plaza at Monte Albán (Flannery and Marcus I983 b; Whalen I98I:I04; Winter and Joyce I994). Symbols and artifacts used in ritual contexts, including hieroglyphic writing, calendrics, urns, and incense burners, have been found almost exclusively within these precincts, often as offerings in high-status burials (Feinman I986:365; Flannery and Marcus I983c; Marcus I983 a; Winter I989a: 48-61). […] Instead of reciprocity or coercion, we argue, elite power during the Late Formative resulted primarily from an ideological transformation, probably initiated by the elites, that resulted in their becoming ritual specialists. The ritual role of elites gave them more ability to influence the workings of the natural and supernatural world and to intercede on the behalf of nonelites (Demarest 1992, Grove and Gillespie 1992a, Masson, Orr, and Urcid 1992, Monaghan 1994, Schele and Freidel 1990, Spores 1983a). Elites served as cosmic mediators for their followers through the performance of rituals such as bloodletting, human sacrifice, and divination. Political power and wealth resulted from ritual power; non- elites provided the elites with productive resources, such as foodstuffs and labor, often in ritualized contexts that supported the elites and their special abilities to affect the cosmo. […] The sanctity of the elites was also expressed by the development of highly standardized and elaborate forms of symbolic expression, including hieroglyphic and calendric inscriptions (Marcus I992a) and the marking of astronomical phenomena (Peeler I989), that represented a growing body of knowledge accessible only to the elite. The Late Formative marks the earliest appearance of pottery vessels with representations of Cocijo, the Zapotec god of lightning. Cocijo is depicted only on elaborate vessels, including urns, usually recovered from high- status burials, public buildings, or elite residences (Caso, Bernal, and Acosta I967). Ethnohistorical sources show that Cocijo was perhaps the most powerful Zapotec supernatural, controlling forces such as clouds, wind, and rain (Marcus I983b). Elites and especially royal ancestors were seen as having special relationships with this deity. Therefore, literacy, calendric and astronomical knowledge, and associations with Cocijo were symbols of an emerging elite identity separate from that of nonelites. While elites apparently acted as mediators between divine forces and nonelites, their ritual and political responsibilities may also have involved ensuring success against human enemies (Joyce I99I, I994b, c). […] The two main sources of elite power, religion and warfare, were probably part of a complex ideology. A major link between religion and warfare with deep roots in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica was the ritual sacrifice of war captives (Boone I984, Freidel I986). If most of the danzantes represent sacrificial victims, then the sacrifices may have taken place among the public buildings of the Main Plaza in ritual contexts. Ethnohistorical data show that war captives were sacrificed to Cocijo (Mar- cus I983b), the deity on many Period II urns. The appearance of ball courts during Period II may also reflect the linkage between religion and warfare (Orr I993).” §REF§ (Joyce &amp; Winter 1996, 36-39) Joyce, Arthur A. and Marcus Winter. 1996. ‘Ideology, Power, and Urban Society in Pre-Hispanic Oaxaca’. Current Anthropology. Vol. 6:1. Pp. 33-47. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB79C3IQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB79C3IQ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 265,
            "polity": {
                "id": 524,
                "name": "mx_rosario",
                "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario",
                "start_year": -700,
                "end_year": -500
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 223,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Otomanguean Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In Middle Formative Oaxaca, sacrifice in the context of the sacred covenant appears to have been a key idiom in the construction and negotiation of both elite and commoner agencies. Religious beliefs were ideological, in that they legitimate the advantages that elites had in terms of acquiring surplus goods and labor. Commoners, in turn, gained from their association with powerful elites. Elites attracted followers both by providing access to prestige goods and by conducting important rituals. Commoners had the means to express either allegiance to or distance from particulars nobles through their choice of those to whom they sacrificed goods and labor. Commoners could also express resistance to elite authority by contacting the sacred without the assistance of elite ritual specialists” […] “Thus loss of followers apparently created a crisis for nobles at San José Mogote. Immediately following the burning of the Structure 25 temple, archaeological evidence suggests major changes in the use of Mound 1that may have been the result of an elite response to this political crisis After the temple was destroyed, a series of high-status residences were built over the ruins (Flannery and Marcus 1983a) […] Yet another possible elite response to increasing factionalism during the late Rosario phase concerns human sacrifice. The firs: good evidence for ritual human sacrifice in the Oaxaca Valley is found on Mound 1 at San José Mogote (Marcus and Flannery 1996: 129-30). […] The creation of an elite-ceremonial precinct on Mound 1, coupled with the evidence for human sacrifice, suggests a change on structural principles involving the sacred covenant. Based on the available data, these developments seem to have been part of a creative, though perhaps risky elite state, to bolster commoner support and reinforce their coalition The demographic decline at San José Mogote suggests that the traditional means that Etla nobles used to attract followers and mobilize resources, by appeal to the covenant, were no longer as effective as they once were. Commoners appear to have been resisting elite demands to increase sacrificial offerings of goods and, especially, labor In response, nobles acted, still through the sacred covenant, to provide supporters with a more potent form of sacrificial offering human sacrifice By offering human sacrifices to the deities of earth and sky, nobles at San José Mogote were demonstrating both their ritual potency and their generosity to supporters. In terms of the sacred covenant. the innovation of human sacrifice would have been familiar to commoners and would have been an attempt to make their allegiance to nobles appear more attractive.” §REF§ (Joyce 2000, 76, 78) Joyce, Arthur A. 2000. ‘The founding of Monte Albán: Sacred propositions and social practices’ In Agency in Archaeology. Edited by Marcia-Anne Dobres and John E. Robb. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7T32SIJP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7T32SIJP </b></a> §REF§ “Evidence from Mound 1 at San José Mogote indicates a major change in political discourse by the latter half of the Rosario phase, including the emergence of the first hereditary nobles in the Valley of Oaxaca. An important component of an emerging noble identity was the belief in their special ritual abilities that made them mediators between people and the sacred. The construction of high-status residences on Mound 1 transformed the structure from an area strictly for public ceremonial activities to an area combining public politico-religious buildings and elite residences in a distinct precinct. For the first time in Oaxaca a high-status residence was spatially and symbolically segregated from the rest of the community and incorporated into the ceremonial center. On a daily basis, people would have been constantly reminded of the sacred power of the ruling family as they viewed the inhabitants of Mound 1 from residential sectors of the site below. The linkage of noble status and divine authority would have been inscribed architecturally in Mound 1 by the close spatial association of the temples and the high-status residence. The residential complex consisting of Structures 25, 26, and 30 was larger and more elaborate architecturally than typical residences with at least three buildings surrounding a central patio. The association of high-status residences with the ceremonial precinct suggests that the authority of noble families and perhaps the corporate groups to which they belonged included the ability to mobilize labor for communal projects.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 125) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§ “Thus, an Early Formative social system that devoted more energy to the construction of public ritual buildings than to the construction of elite residences or burial monuments of chiefs persisted but on a grander scale. Later in the Rosario phase, however, this temple and its platform were superseded by an elite residence)” §REF§ (Blaton et al. 1999, 44) Blaton, Richard, Feinman, Gary M., Kowalewski, Stephen A. and Nicholas, Linda M. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MKUUHR65\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MKUUHR65 </b></a> §REF§ “The worship of ancestors appears to have continued from a stage of egalitarian Early Formative society when ancestors were active in the ongoing affairs of everyday life, to a later stage of Early and Middle Formative ranked society when ancestors were used to legitimize the chief's rank and office. The chief's well-being was presumably seen as coincident with the well-being of the village, because the chiefsancestors were closely identified with the supernatural forces. The chief was thus viewed as the primary mediator with the supernatural forces through his close contacts with his own ancestors. The ancestors of the village population at large may have been honored by the villagers themselves, but they had no close association with any of the supernaturals. Thus, while chiefly ancestor worship may have been public, the worship of lower-ranking ancestors was part of household ritual (Flannery and Marcus 1976b).” […] “Based on the shared beliefs of Otomanguean speakers, we can conclude that the supernatural forces of (1) sky (lightning) and (2) earth (earthquake) were of great importance. Therefore, we might expect sky (lightning) and earth (earthquake) to be represented in the iconography of the Formative period. In ranked Formative societies, we might expect chiefs to serve as intermediaries between the supernatural forces and the villagers, performing certain rites on behalf of the entire community, perhaps in special public buildings set aside for this purpose. The worship of the ancestors may give a group or subgroup of villagers solidarity while confirming their bonds of kinship. In very large villages (e.g. several hundred people) more than one subgroup may be present, and these groups may honor different apical ancestors. Once these corporate descent groups begin to identify themselves as separate groups, honoring different ancestors, they might need a way to demonstrate their group affiliation.” §REF§ (Marcus 1989, 154) Marcus, Joyce. 1989. ‘Zapotec chiefdoms and the nature of Formative religions”. In Regional Perspective on the Olmec. Edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehsta URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTF7G9RT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CTF7G9RT </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 266,
            "polity": {
                "id": 532,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_5",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban V",
                "start_year": 900,
                "end_year": 1520
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The covenant was a key aspect of prehispanic ideologies since it established and reinforced both the hierarchical relationship between people and deities and that between commoners and nobles. The covenant concealed the domination of nobles as domination (Giddens 1979:193–5) since the interests of the nobility were universalized by linking their ritual practices to the maintenance of fertility and prosperity of all people. Noble status was reified by tracing the close relationship between elites and the divine to the cosmic creation and the sacred births of noble ancestors. The sacred covenant therefore established reciprocal ritual, political, and material obligations between nobles and commoners that nevertheless legitimated the privileged position of the nobility. Sacrifice was also a concept through which enemies were defined since sacrificial victims were most often war captives.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 63) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§ The Monte Alban Chila phase corresponds to the Late Postclassic period “The identification of the Main Plaza as a place of creation represents another appropriation of the ceremonial precinct by the nobility, although in this case it is an appropriation of the plaza’s past to legitimate political relations in the Late Postclassic present. The appropriation of the symbolism of the Main Plaza by the nobility is also indicated by the continued use of the plaza for ritual purposes, especially the reuse of earlier tombs. The most elaborate example of tomb reuse was Tomb 7, which was built as early as the Terminal Formative (Martínez López 2002:227). During the Chila phase, Tomb 7 was reused to inter at least nine people with one of the most elaborate offerings ever discovered in the Americas, including hundreds of artifacts of gold, silver, copper, amber, jet, coral, shell, obsidian, turquoise, rock crystal, ceramic, and tecali along with more than a dozen bones carved with codex-style images (Caso 1969). The tomb was opened on multiple occasions for rituals and the placement of additional interments. Ceremonies in Tomb 7 were highly restricted with only important nobles and religious specialists participating. The codices indicate, for example, that powerful bundles associated with deified ancestors were cared for and propitiated by a specialized group of high priests (Pohl 1994:31–2). As a place of creation and the burial of powerful ancestors, the Main Plaza embodied a shared origin and ancestry of Zapotec peoples, although one that legitimated noble authority and internalized distinct elite and commoner identities. In addition to rituals, a defensive wall was also built over the South Platform creating a fortress for people living in surrounding communities. Late Postclassic commemorative practices, including the interment of nobles and ritual offerings, have been noted in other abandoned ceremonial centers including Cerro de las Minas, Huamelulpan, Yucuñudahui, San José Mogote, and Macuilxóchitl (Faulseit 2008:27; Flannery &amp; Marcus 1983f:290; Hamann 2008b; Markens et al. 2008:208; Spores 1984:55; Winter 1991:34–6; 2007: 104).” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 276) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§ “The emergence of a new political elite in the Valley of Oaxaca at the beginning of the Late Postclassic period appears to have been based on a new ideology emphasizing descent from founding ancestors of individual city-states and control over the symbols of community well-being. The enactment of public rituals may have shifted in large part away from temples to the city-state royal palace, as the palace became the new seat of political and religious authority.” §REF§ (Winter at al. 2007, 205, 207-208) Winter, Marcus, Markens, Robert, Martínez López, Cira and Herrera Muzgo T., Cira. 2007. ‘Shrines, Offerings, and Postclassic Continuity in Zapotec Religion’. In Commoner Ritual and Ideology in Ancient Mesoamerica. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIPNU8N8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GIPNU8N8 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 267,
            "polity": {
                "id": 84,
                "name": "es_spanish_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Spanish Empire I",
                "start_year": 1516,
                "end_year": 1715
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Archaeological research on missionizing efforts in South America, under the Spanish crown highlight their regional and temporal variation. Steven Wernke points out that the Catholic Church was deeply divided over the efficacy and morality of voluntary conversions versus the forceful eradication of idolatry.” […] “Catholic missions in frontier regions of the Americas pursued a much more marginalized existence in comparison to the major centers and interests of the Spanish Crown. For many Native Americas, this led to a life somewhat less spiritually and politically fettered from European interference. Even in sixteenth-century central Mexico, a central target of early Spanish colonization and missionization, the conversion process was hampered by a ‘desperate shortage of manpower.’ For more distant places like Florida and Yucatan, even when Spain was able to establish some kind of permanent foothold, the hinterlands continued to enjoy considerable autonomy. In both areas, the Indigenous chiefly structure managed to persist intact, even in the towns were liked to Spanish administrative oversight.” §REF§ (Cobb: 2021) Cobb, Charles R. 2021. ‘Indigenous Negotiations of Missionization and Religious Conversion.’ In The Routledge Handbook of the Archaeology of Indigenous-Colonial Interaction in the Americas. Edited by Lee Panich and Sara Gonzalez. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X64P9KX4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X64P9KX4 </b></a> §REF§ “In 1574, Philip II issued the Ordinance of Patronage (Ordenanza del Patronazgo), a major policy statement that placed all clerics under royal ecclesiastical authority.” §REF§ (Burkholder :2013) Burkholder, Mark A. 2013. Spaniards in the Colonial Empire: Creoles vs. Penisulars? Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9JR3UW76\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9JR3UW76 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 268,
            "polity": {
                "id": 525,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early",
                "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I",
                "start_year": -500,
                "end_year": -300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Temple construction probably began in Period I (buildings L and K-sub are examples) and was especially common in Period II. The precise nature of temple ceremonies is not known. […] From earliest times at Monte Alban (and probably earlier at San José Mogote if the Rosario phase example from mound 1is valid) some residences and temples were spatially associated, this association implies that high-status individuals wielded both religious and political power. […] most temples at Monte Alban seem to be associated spatially with residences of the people who presumably performed the rituals and thus suggest that religion was created and used by the elite to control the population.” §REF§ (Winter 2002, 67, 72) Winter, Marcus. 2002. ‘Monte Albán: Mortuary Practices as Domestic Ritual and their Relation to Community Religion’. In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica. Edited by Patricia Plunket. Los Angeles, CA: The Cotsen Institute of archaeology, University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X6V5WSFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X6V5WSFI </b></a> §REF§ “The origin and early development of Monte Albán occurred during the Late Formative period, which lasted from 500 B.C. to A.D. 200 and included Period Ia (500-300 B.C), Ic (300-100 B.C.), and II (100 B.C.-A.D. 200) of the Valley of Oaxaca ceramic sequence (Caso, Bernal, Acosta 1967). […] The nonagrarian role of the elites is suggested by evidence that they increasingly acted as ritual specialists, directing religious ceremonies, especially those in public settings (Flannery and Marcus 1976a:382-83; 1976b:217-19; 1983a). Elites controlled certain ritually significant forms of esoteric knowledge, including astronomy and the calendar, and were able to communicate this information via writing. Communal rituals appear to have been carried out by elites in distinct precincts characterized by monumental public buildings and elite residences as well as large plazas or patios such as the Main Plaza at Monte Albán (Flannery and Marcus I983 b; Whalen I98I:I04; Winter and Joyce I994). Symbols and artifacts used in ritual contexts, including hieroglyphic writing, calendrics, urns, and incense burners, have been found almost exclusively within these precincts, often as offerings in high-status burials (Feinman I986:365; Flannery and Marcus I983c; Marcus I983 a; Winter I989a: 48-61). […] […]The Late Formative marks the earliest appearance of pottery vessels with representations of Cocijo, the Zapotec god of lightning. Cocijo is depicted only on elaborate vessels, including urns, usually recovered from high- status burials, public buildings, or elite residences (Caso, Bernal, and Acosta I967). Ethnohistorical sources show that Cocijo was perhaps the most powerful Zapotec supernatural, controlling forces such as clouds, wind, and rain (Marcus I983b). Elites and especially royal ancestors were seen as having special relationships with this deity.” §REF§ (Joyce &amp; Winter 1996, 36-38) Joyce, Arthur A. and Marcus Winter. 1996. ‘Ideology, Power, and Urban Society in Pre-Hispanic Oaxaca’. Current Anthropology. Vol. 6:1. Pp. 33-47. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB79C3IQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB79C3IQ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 269,
            "polity": {
                "id": 526,
                "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late",
                "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": -100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 222,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Zapotec Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Public religion at Monte Alban had many dimensions—buildings and spaces for communal celebrations, calendrics that determined timing of celebrations, and presence of deities in various guises. Public religion was essentially created at Monte Alban, and the chronological sequence allows us to see how it emerged and developed. Household religion and ritual began back in the village stage and may have provided antecedents for public religion. Archaeological data from Monte Alban offer material for examining how they were interrelated.” […]  “Architecture provides the clearest evidence for public ritual at Monte Alban (figure 7.5). Temples and ballcourts are two easily recognizable kinds of buildings associated with rituals. Temples are one-room or two-room structures, built on raised platforms, and often incorporated circular columns to support roof beams. Temple construction probably began in Period I (buildings L and K-sub are examples) and was especially common in Period II. The precise nature of temple ceremonies is not known. […] From earliest times at Monte Alban (and probably earlier at San José Mogote if the Rosario phase example from mound 1is valid) some residences and temples were spatially associated, this association implies that high-status individuals wielded both religious and political power. […] most temples at Monte Alban seem to be associated spatially with residences of the people who presumably performed the rituals and thus suggest that religion was created and used by the elite to control the population.” §REF§ (Winter 2002, 67, 72) Winter, Marcus. 2002. ‘Monte Albán: Mortuary Practices as Domestic Ritual and their Relation to Community Religion’. In Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica. Edited by Patricia Plunket. Los Angeles, CA: The Cotsen Institute of archaeology, University of California. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X6V5WSFI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X6V5WSFI </b></a> §REF§ “The nonagrarian role of the elites is suggested by evidence that they increasingly acted as ritual specialists, directing religious ceremonies, especially those in public settings (Flannery and Marcus 1976a:382-83; 1976b:217-19; 1983a). Elites controlled certain ritually significant forms of esoteric knowledge, including astronomy and the calendar, and were able to communicate this information via writing. Communal rituals appear to have been carried out by elites in distinct precincts characterized by monumental public buildings and elite residences as well as large plazas or patios such as the Main Plaza at Monte Albán (Flannery and Marcus I983 b; Whalen I98I:I04; Winter and Joyce I994). Symbols and artifacts used in ritual contexts, including hieroglyphic writing, calendrics, urns, and incense burners, have been found almost exclusively within these precincts, often as offerings in high-status burials (Feinman I986:365; Flannery and Marcus I983c; Marcus I983 a; Winter I989a: 48-61). […] The ideological changes of the Late Formative would have represented the interests of the elites as universal, everyone being dependent on the effectiveness of their ritual. The sanctity of the elites was also expressed by the development of highly standardized and elaborate forms of symbolic expression, including hieroglyphic and calendric inscriptions (Marcus I992a) and the marking of astronomical phenomena (Peeler I989), that represented a growing body of knowledge accessible only to the elite. The Late Formative marks the earliest appearance of pottery vessels with representations of Cocijo, the Zapotec god of lightning. Cocijo is depicted only on elaborate vessels, including urns, usually recovered from high- status burials, public buildings, or elite residences (Caso, Bernal, and Acosta I967). Ethnohistorical sources show that Cocijo was perhaps the most powerful Zapotec supernatural, controlling forces such as clouds, wind, and rain (Marcus I983b). Elites and especially royal ancestors were seen as having special relationships with this deity. Therefore, literacy, calendric and astronomical knowledge, and associations with Cocijo were symbols of an emerging elite identity separate from that of nonelites. While elites apparently acted as mediators between divine forces and nonelites, their ritual and political responsibilities may also have involved ensuring success against human enemies (Joyce I99I, I994b, c).” §REF§ (Joyce &amp; Winter 1996, 36-38) Joyce, Arthur A. and Marcus Winter. 1996. ‘Ideology, Power, and Urban Society in Pre-Hispanic Oaxaca’. Current Anthropology. Vol. 6:1. Pp. 33-47. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB79C3IQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB79C3IQ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 270,
            "polity": {
                "id": 523,
                "name": "mx_san_jose",
                "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose",
                "start_year": -1150,
                "end_year": -700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 223,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Otomanguean Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“During the late Early Formative, people continued many earlier rituals such as the use of figurines, feasting, and autosacrifice, although there is evidence for the emergence of new ceremonial practices conducted in public buildings and communal cemeteries. These rituals engaged larger groups and contributed to the production of a sense of shared communal history and identity.” […] “People in Etla may have helped build the ceremonial center at San José Mogote, but there is no evidence that they were compelled by a strong centralized authority as suggested by Marcus and Flannery (1996:110). If people from other settlements participated in communal labor projects and rituals at San José Mogote, it is more likely to have been the product of cooperative social ties among households and corporate groups rather than coercion by a powerful ruler. In addition to egalitarian principles that limited inequality, I argue that the dominant discourse also included a strong communal identity, particularly in relation to the divine, with public rituals held in ceremonial centers and cemeteries. The community produced by these ritual practices perhaps extended beyond individual settlements such as at San José Mogote where people from surrounding settlements may have participated in public ceremonies. Shared ceramic styles, the emulation of Olmec-style ceramic designs, and similarities in public architecture suggest broader cultural affiliations shared by Valley of Oaxaca communities. Differences in mortuary ritual, ornamentation, and crafting, however, suggest variation among communities in cultural principles and resources within the Valley of Oaxaca. […] People were also forging community identities inscribed in public buildings and communal cemeteries. The evidence suggests that practices of affiliation such as large-scale construction projects and communal rituals were corporate endeavors and not under the direction of a centralized authority. These projects resulted from negotiations among households and corporate groups with relatively modest differences in wealth, power, and status.” §REF§ (Joyce 2010, 95, 116) Joyce, Arthur A. 2010. Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FUKFR9MV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FUKFR9MV </b></a> §REF§ “The worship of ancestors appears to have continued from a stage of egalitarian Early Formative society when ancestors were active in the ongoing affairs of everyday life, to a later stage of Early and Middle Formative ranked society when ancestors were used to legitimize the chief's rank and office. The chief's well-being was presumably seen as coincident with the well-being of the village, because the chiefsancestors were closely identified with the supernatural forces. The chief was thus viewed as the primary mediator with the supernatural forces through his close contacts with his own ancestors. The ancestors of the village population at large may have been honored by the villagers themselves, but they had no close association with any of the supernaturals. Thus, while chiefly ancestor worship may have been public, the worship of lower-ranking ancestors was part of household ritual (Flannery and Marcus 1976b).” […] “Based on the shared beliefs of Otomanguean speakers, we can conclude that the supernatural forces of (1) sky (lightning) and (2) earth (earthquake) were of great importance. Therefore, we might expect sky (lightning) and earth (earthquake) to be represented in the iconography of the Formative period. In ranked Formative societies, we might expect chiefs to serve as intermediaries between the supernatural forces and the villagers, performing certain rites on behalf of the entire community, perhaps in special public buildings set aside for this purpose. The worship of the ancestors may give a group or subgroup of villagers solidarity while confirming their bonds of kinship. In very large villages (e.g. several hundred people) more than one subgroup may be present, and these groups may honor different apical ancestors. Once these corporate descent groups begin to identify themselves as separate groups, honoring different ancestors, they might need a way to demonstrate their group affiliation.” §REF§ (Marcus 1989, 154) Marcus, Joyce. 1989. ‘Zapotec chiefdoms and the nature of Formative religions”. In Regional Perspective on the Olmec. Edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehsta URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CTF7G9RT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CTF7G9RT </b></a> §REF§ “Men’s rituals appear to have been conducted at small public buildings which look like forerunners of the yoho tiya, or “lineage house” of the later Zapotec. These small public buildings were probably analogous of Men’s Houses in societies like those of Melanesia, and they contained no evidence of women’s activities or tools. It appears that women’s ritual was practiced in and near the home, the yoho of later Zapoted society. This pattern – men’s ritual being conducted in the “lineage house” and women’s ritual being practiced in the house- continued into the San José phase, 1150 – 850 BC. […] By the end of San Josè phase, it becomes increasingly difficult to recognize differences between men’s and women’s ritual because the emergence of hereditary differences in rank gradually began to flood the symbolic system with information on status differences. The differences on men’s and women’s ritual activities thus became masked by an increase in information about the differences between high – and low- status families. It is also the case that smaller communities began to lose their autonomy as they became satellites of larger villages. These larger communities eventually monopolized a great deal of the ritual activity formerly carried out by individual families. This appropriation of ritual by large region centres ultimately impoverished the ritual inventories of hamlets” §REF§ (Marcus 1993, 69-70) Marcus, Joyce. 1993. ‘Men’s and Women’s Ritual in Formative Oaxaca’. In Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica. Edited by David C. Grove and Rosemary A. Joyce. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAS9TRAT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SAS9TRAT </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 271,
            "polity": {
                "id": 522,
                "name": "mx_tierras_largas",
                "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas",
                "start_year": -1400,
                "end_year": -1150
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 223,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Otomanguean Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“In her treatment of Otomanguean religion and ideology in the Formative period, Jovce Marcus (1989) has focused on the role of ancestor worship in the creation and legitimation of elite power. She argues that the power of nobles was legitimated because elite ancestors were closely associated with supernatural forces, especially the powerful forces associated with earth and sky. Living Zapotec elites, acting as ritual specialists, could access these supernatural forces by contacting their ancestors through various petitions and offerings. While elite ancestors were important in Oaxacan religion, I would like to stress the ideological implications of another element of Pre-Columbian religion. Building on the work of John Monaghan (1990, 1994, 1995), the central aspect of Otomanguean and other Mesoamerican religions can be understood as a covenant formed between humans and the supernatural forces/deities that control the cosmos, especially those of earth and sky. The covenant is a creation myth setting out the fundamental relationships between humans and the sacred. Versions of this creation myth are central themes in many sixteenth-century indigenous documents, including the Mixtec codices (Vienna and Nuttall), the Quiché Maya Popol Vuh, and in Mexica writing and oral literature (Hamann n.d.; Monaghan 1990, 1994, Taggart 1983, Tedlock 1986). Iconographic representations of portions of this creation myth have also been found on sculpture as well as painted pottery and murals that date to the Formative and Classic periods (Schele and Freide] 1990). The covenant establishes relationships of debt and merit between humans and the sacred, with sacrifice as a fundamental condition of human existence (Monaghan in press)” §REF§ (Joyce 2000, 73-74) Joyce, Arthur A. 2000. ‘The founding of Monte Albán: Sacred propositions and social practices’ In Agency in Archaeology. Edited by Marcia-Anne Dobres and John E. Robb. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7T32SIJP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7T32SIJP </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 272,
            "polity": {
                "id": 791,
                "name": "bd_khadga_dyn",
                "long_name": "Khadga Dynasty",
                "start_year": 650,
                "end_year": 700
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 1,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Khadga kings were devout Buddhists.” (Basak 1934: 203) \"This Brahmanical royal dynasty [i.e. the Vangas] seems to have been overthrown by a line of Buddhist kings whose names contained the word khadgu as an essential element[...], generally referred to as the Khadga dynasty\"§REF§(Majumdar 1943: 86) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4QJ84HB </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 273,
            "polity": {
                "id": 793,
                "name": "bd_sena_dyn",
                "long_name": "Sena Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1095,
                "end_year": 1245
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 5,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Moreover, since the Senas had brought from the south a fierce devotion to Hindu culture (especially Śaivism), their victorious arms were accompanied everywhere in Bengal by the establishment of royally sponsored Hindu cults. As a result, by the end of the eleventh century, the epicenter of civilization and power in eastern India had shifted from Bihar to Bengal, while royal patronage had shifted from a primarily Buddhist to a primarily Hindu orientation.\" §REF§ (Eaton 1993: 14) Eaton, Richard. 1993. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier: 1204 -1760. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 274,
            "polity": {
                "id": 781,
                "name": "bd_nawabs_of_bengal",
                "long_name": "Nawabs of Bengal",
                "start_year": 1717,
                "end_year": 1757
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 4,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Islam",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Muslim rulers, noted for their devotion to religion, took steps for the integration of the social and cultural life of the Muslims of Bengal. Mosques, Khanqas and madrasas were established in every Muslim locality and these were endowed with land-grants. The shaikhs, saiyids and 'ulama' were accorded a respectable position in the society and they were granted madad-i-m'aash for maintenance. All facilities were provided for the works of the preachers and teachers. The mosques, khanqas and madrasas served as integrating forces of the Muslim society and culture. The rulers took lead in the celebration of religious rites and festivities and thus strengthened the religious feeling of the Muslim Community. They sent presents to the holy cities of Makkah and Madinah and provided facilities to the people to go to the Hajj. The rulers observed the Islamic Law in the conduct of the state. They owed allegiance to the 'Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad and maintained connections with the Islamic world. These worked for the solidarity of the Muslims and the development of the Muslim culture in Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 211. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 275,
            "polity": {
                "id": 777,
                "name": "in_nanda_dyn",
                "long_name": "Magadha - Nanda Dynasty",
                "start_year": -413,
                "end_year": -322
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 2,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Jainism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Possibly Jainism, but this is far from clear. The following quote suggests it as a possibility, based on the hostility of the Hindu authors of the Puranas, and the dynasty's tendency to give prominent positions to Jains and to form important ties with Jain leaders (assuming that is what it means by \"patriarchs\"): \"The Puranic chroniclers represent the dynasty as harbingers of Sudra rule and as irreligious (adharmika). The last statement is significant in view of the traditional connection of the family with Jain ministers and patriarchs. But the evidence on the point is of a character which makes it difficult to build too much on it.\"§REF§(Raychaudhuri 1988 [1967]: 26) Seshat URL:  <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WNBQTNP7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WNBQTNP7 </b></a>§REF§ In a text that cannot be copied and pasted, the author mentions a Bengali inscription according to which a local Jain sculpture had been taken by a Nanda ruler several centuries prior, and that the king who had commissioned the inscription had managed to retrieve it and return it to Bengal. The author of the paper suggests that the fact that the Nanda ruler and his successor evidently cared for the sculpture--given its survival in apparently good condition--\"undoubtedly shows a leaninhg for Jainism either on the part of the king, or of the people, or, perhaps, of both.\" §REF§(Majumdar 1984: 134-135) Seshat URL <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/89U3UKRQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 89U3UKRQ </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 276,
            "polity": {
                "id": 396,
                "name": "in_pala_emp",
                "long_name": "Pala Empire",
                "start_year": 750,
                "end_year": 1174
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 1,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Patronized by the rulers, Buddhism secured a firm footing in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala dynasty. Buddhism started weakening in other parts of India from the eight century A.D. and after one or two centuries, it ceased to have any footing in the rest of India with the exception of Kashmir and Nepal and a few isolated regions. But it became very powerful and found a safe refuge in Bengal and Bihar during four centuries reign of the Pala kings.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 94-95) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “A study of the official seal of these two royal families [Pala dynasty and Chandra dynasty] reveals that they bear the emblem of Dharmachakra mudra and invariably an invocation to Lord Buddha. This Dharmachakra means the first preaching of Lord Buddha at the old place of Mrigadava or the modern Sarnath and this concept is described by a sign of Chakra or wheel between two deers. The kings of these dynasties are described as Parama-Saugata or the great followers of Sugata or Buddha.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 95-96) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “While numerous inscriptions of the Palas leave no doubt about their adherence to Buddhism, they do not tell us much about their activities in furtherance of this faith.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 96) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “According to Taranatha, Gopala, the founder to the royal dynasty of the Palas, who was a devotee and benefactor of Buddhism, revived the Nalanda monastery, erected several new monasteries in his dominion, and offered lavish gifts to the Buddhist clergy.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 96) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “Dharmapala was a great admirer of the teaching of Prajnaparamita-sutras and made Haribhadra, the great commentator of the Sutra, and an exponent of the yogachara philosophy, his spiritual preceptor.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 96) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “The next king Devapala was also a zealous advocate of Buddhism. His remarkable achievement was the restoration and enlargement of Sri-Traikutaka temple, which was buried in sand. The Pala kings and also the other contemporary Buddhist kings helped the Buddhist society and promoted social welfare. Later Pala rulers also followed this tradition.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 97) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§ “Though staunch Buddhists in character, some of the Pala rulers abandoned the paternal religion and accepted new religions. These kings were Narayanapala, his son Mahipala I and Mahipala I’s son Nayapala. The Bhagalpur copper plate of Narayandapala does not address the king as Parama-Saugata. The king donated the village Makuika situated in Kaksa visaya, within Tira-bhukti, to the god Siva-bhattaraka, after constructing a great and vast spacious temple in the village Kalasapata and consecrating the image of Siva there. Over and above, it is noted there that the village was donated to the bard of Acharyas of Pasupat followers, entrusted with the task of looking after the temple and worshipping the idol. Special mention was made of the arrangements to meet the expenses of worshipping the god, repairing the temple and deeding and giving medical treatment to the Saiva saints from the income of the donated village. From this proclamation it is apparent that Narayanapala himself loved the Saiva cult and was very much concerned with the worship of god Siva and the well-being of followers of Saiva cult. And it might not be unreasonable to say that king Narayanapala perhaps, gave up the paternal religion of Buddhism and adopted Saivism as his religion.” §REF§ (Bagchi 1993, 98) Bagchi, Jhunu. 1993. The History and Culture of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D. – Cir.  1200 A.D. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/88BDAFJW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 88BDAFJW </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 277,
            "polity": {
                "id": 388,
                "name": "in_gupta_emp",
                "long_name": "Gupta Empire",
                "start_year": 320,
                "end_year": 550
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 3,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Hinduism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Apart from the inscription, the coins of Chandra Gupta II indicate his personal religion of Vaishnavism.” §REF§ (Mookerji 1973, 51) Mookerji, Radhakumud. 1973. The Gupta Empire. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CM336BF3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CM336BF3 </b></a> §REF§ “While considering the question of the religion of the Imperial Guptas, the scholars who have already tackled the subject have reached the unanimous conclusion that the Guptas of the Imperial age were the followers of the Viasnava school and had implicit faith in Vaisnavism.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 285) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “The Gupta monarchs style themselves Paramabhagaratas and this is sufficient to show that they clung to the Vaishnava religion and they were themselves Vaishnava.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 291) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “Saivism was also the accepted religion of both royalty and commonfolk and effectively left its impress on the people in the Gupta times.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 298) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “A study of these monuments reveal that they Gupta monarchs were worshippers of Siva in his different manifestations. They were not only devotees of this god but were equally devoted to the consort of Siva, Parvati, and Karttikeya, the son of Siva and also of the Saptamatrkas all connected to Siva worship. These monuments devoted to the various gods and goddesses of the Saiva pantheon are enough to demonstrate the fact fully that they were worshippers both in Visnu and Siva temples.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 299) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “To achieve this end the Durga cult came in very handy and by offering their prayers to this goddess they were able to win a large empire. That is why we find that they engaged themselves in the worship of Sakti; for they realised that Saktism as an aspect of religion was rooted in Vedic literature, and without Sakti the purusa becomes an inactive principle. The very fact that the worship of Sakti was a fundamental concept in their religion indicates beyond a shadow of doubt that the Gupta monarchs were to some extent Sakta worshippers also.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 308) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 278,
            "polity": {
                "id": 794,
                "name": "in_vanga_k",
                "long_name": "Vanga Dynasty",
                "start_year": 550,
                "end_year": 600
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 3,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Hinduism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"We learn from Hiuen Tsang that a line of Brahmana kings ruled in Samatata in the first half of the seventh century A.D.\"§REF§(Majumdar 1943: 85) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4QJ84HB </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 279,
            "polity": {
                "id": 780,
                "name": "bd_chandra_dyn",
                "long_name": "Chandra Dynasty",
                "start_year": 900,
                "end_year": 1050
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 1,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Buddhism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“So we find that from c. 900 to c. 1050 A.D. South-Eastern Bengal witnessed the rule of a Buddhist dynasty – the Candras.” §REF§ (Chowdhury 1965, 258) Abdul Nomin Chowdhury, 1965. \"Dynastic History Of Bengal (C. 750-1200 A.D.)\". PhD, University of London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BSB9HGAR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BSB9HGAR </b></a> §REF§ “most the rulers of the Deva and Chandra dynasties who ruled South-east Bengal and were contemporaries of the Palas, like the Khadaga rulers during the Gupta period, were Buddhists.” §REF§ (Banu 1991, 6) U.A.B. Razia Akter Banu, 1991. Islam in Bangladesh. Leiden, New York: Brill). Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QCHBXFR6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QCHBXFR6 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 280,
            "polity": {
                "id": 587,
                "name": "gb_british_emp_1",
                "long_name": "British Empire I",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1849
            },
            "year_from": 1701,
            "year_to": 1849,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 64,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Anglican Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Thus, I will argue, an official and conscious Anglican concern for empire, and for missions by the Church of England, dates continuously from the foundation of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) in 1701. The annual sermons, and the published extracts of its missionaries’ reports at its annual general meetings (which were continuous from 1701 until the 1840s) allow investigation into the formation, maintenance and adaptation on and Anglican discourse of the British Empire from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century.” […] “[…] Australia and New Zealand were the first British colonies to implement a new paradigm of imperial Anglicanism that had developed in England during the 1840s.” §REF§ (Strong 2007,6) Strong, Rowan. 2007. Anglicanism and the British Empire c. 1700 – 1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F4DA2SZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F4DA2SZ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 281,
            "polity": {
                "id": 782,
                "name": "bd_twelve_bhuyans",
                "long_name": "Twelve Bhuyans",
                "start_year": 1538,
                "end_year": 1612
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 4,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Islam",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Most Bhuyans were Muslims, it seems. “The Jesuit mission report did not, however, specify the identity of the twelve chieftains, beyond noting that three were Hindus – i.e., those of Bakla (Bakarganj), Sripur (southeastern Dhaka), and Chandecan (Jessore) – and the rest Muslims.” §REF§ Eaton, R. M. (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press, 147.  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UFZ2JWS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UFZ2JWS8 </b></a> §REF§ “The term Bhuyan comes from the Sanskrit word Bhaumika, meaning a “landlord” which is equivalent to the Persian word Zaminder. The Bhuyans are common to both Assam and Bengal and in both countries they are usually referred to as Bara Bhuyans - meaning the twelve landlords, although the term Bara does not mean their number should necessarily be twelve. They rose to political power taking advantage of the then political situation of their respective countries… It is usually believed that the Bhuyans constituted a Hindu caste. But in the Darrang Raj Vamsavali, as well as in Persian sources like the Akbarnama and the Ain-i-Akbari, there are references to Muslim Bhuyans as well. This further confirms that the Bhuyans were a class rather than a caste of people. It appears that taking advantage of political unrest in the country, any person having large extents of land and resources, like arms, established himself as a Bhuyan. In the western Brahmaputra valley, the most influential persons who had both land and military resources were usually Kayasthas who monopolised the high offices in the administration of ancient Assam and the Kalitas who monopolised trade and commerce.” §REF§ Nath, D. (1989). Biswa Singha: Foundation of the Koch Kingdom. In History of the Koch Kingdom, 1515–1615 (pp. 15–44). Mittal Publications, 20–21. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2WJD9XPZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2WJD9XPZ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 282,
            "polity": {
                "id": 589,
                "name": "in_sur_emp",
                "long_name": "Sur Empire",
                "start_year": 1540,
                "end_year": 1556
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 4,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Islam",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The Muslim rulers, noted for their devotion to religion, took steps for the integration of the social and cultural life of the Muslims of Bengal. Mosques, Khanqas and madrasas were established in every Muslim locality and these were endowed with land-grants. The shaikhs, saiyids and 'ulama' were accorded a respectable position in the society and they were granted madad-i-m'aash for maintenance. All facilities were provided for the works of the preachers and teachers. The mosques, khanqas and madrasas served as integrating forces of the Muslim society and culture. The rulers took lead in the celebration of religious rites and festivities and thus strengthened the religious feeling of the Muslim Community. They sent presents to the holy cities of Makkah and Madinah and provided facilities to the people to go to the Hajj. The rulers observed the Islamic Law in the conduct of the state. They owed allegiance to the 'Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad and maintained connections with the Islamic world. These worked for the solidarity of the Muslims and the development of the Muslim culture in Bengal.” §REF§ Raḥīm, M. A. (1970). Cultural Evolution in East Pakistan. Islamic Studies, 9(3), 203–216, 211. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VJMV92XR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VJMV92XR </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 283,
            "polity": {
                "id": 587,
                "name": "gb_british_emp_1",
                "long_name": "British Empire I",
                "start_year": 1690,
                "end_year": 1849
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 64,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Anglican Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Thus, I will argue, an official and conscious Anglican concern for empire, and for missions by the Church of England, dates continuously from the foundation of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) in 1701. The annual sermons, and the published extracts of its missionaries’ reports at its annual general meetings (which were continuous from 1701 until the 1840s) allow investigation into the formation, maintenance and adaptation on and Anglican discourse of the British Empire from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century.” §REF§ (Strong 2007,6) Strong, Rowan. 2007. Anglicanism and the British Empire c. 1700 – 1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F4DA2SZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F4DA2SZ </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 284,
            "polity": {
                "id": 778,
                "name": "in_east_india_co",
                "long_name": "British East India Company",
                "start_year": 1757,
                "end_year": 1858
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 64,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Anglican Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“It was a Christian company” §REF§ (Carson 2012, 2) Carson, Penelope 2012. The East India Company and Religion, 1698-1858 (Woodbridge, Uk: Boydell and Brewer Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/USXTQFKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: USXTQFKH </b></a> §REF§ “Most Company officials believed that the happiness of India would best be safeguarded by a policy of non-interference with Indian religions. [...] This meant leaving Indian religions alone. However, [the leadership of the East India Company] also believed that it was important to uphold Christianity.[…]  Fearing disaffection amongst the sepoys, few Company officials were prepared to interfere with Indian religions.” §REF§ (Carson 2012, 21,23) Carson, Penelope 2012. The East India Company and Religion, 1698-1858 (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/USXTQFKH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: USXTQFKH </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 285,
            "polity": {
                "id": 796,
                "name": "in_gangaridai",
                "long_name": "Gangaridai",
                "start_year": -300,
                "end_year": -100
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 91,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "unknown",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "Very little appears to be known about this polity--the sole sources are Latin and Greek, and therefore may not be entirely reliable, given the geographic and cultural distance between their authors and subject matter. “The veil of darkness that enshrouds the early history of Bengal is partially lifted in the latter half of the fourth century b.c. A considerable portion of the country now constitutes the domain of a powerful nation, whose sway extended over the whole of ancient Vaiiga, and possibly some adjoining tracts. Greek and Latin writers refer to the people as the Gangaridai ( variant Gandaridai) . The Sanskrit equivalent of the term is difficult to determine. Classical scholars take the word to mean \"the people of the Ganges region.\"§REF§(Majumdar 1943: 41) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4QJ84HB </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 286,
            "polity": {
                "id": 385,
                "name": "in_sunga_emp",
                "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire",
                "start_year": -187,
                "end_year": -65
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 31,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Vedic Hinduism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "In 185 B.C.E. Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahman general, overthrew the last Mauryan king and established the Shunga dynasty in a small segment of the earlier empire. Shunga rulers practiced an aggressive Vedic Hinduism. They restored Vedic animal sacrifices, including the Horse Sacrifice, and, according to Buddhist sources, they persecuted Buddhist monks.” §REF§ Walsh, J. E. (2011). A Brief History of India (2nd ed). Facts On File, 49. Sehat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BM8RKXTI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BM8RKXTI </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 287,
            "polity": {
                "id": 409,
                "name": "bd_bengal_sultanate",
                "long_name": "Bengal Sultanate",
                "start_year": 1338,
                "end_year": 1538
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 4,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Islam",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Moreover, although the Bengal sultans continued to inscribe most of their monuments and coins in Arabic, from the mid fourteenth century on, they began articulating their claims to political authority in Perso-Islamic terms. They employed Persianized royal paraphernalia, adopted an elaborate court ceremony modelled on the Sasanian imperial tradition, employed a hierarchical bureaucracy, and promoted Islam as a state-sponsored religion, a point vividly and continuously revealed on state coinage.” §REF§ Eaton, R. M. (1993). The Articulation of Political Authority. In The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier (pp. 22–70). University of California Press, 47. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G6RPXPQR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G6RPXPQR </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 288,
            "polity": {
                "id": 779,
                "name": "bd_deva_dyn",
                "long_name": "Deva Dynasty",
                "start_year": 1150,
                "end_year": 1300
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 6,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"The [royal] family is said to have descended from the moon and was follower of the Vaishnava cult.\" §REF§(Majumdar 1943: 253) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4QJ84HB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T4QJ84HB </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 289,
            "polity": {
                "id": 436,
                "name": "co_tairona",
                "long_name": "Tairona",
                "start_year": 1050,
                "end_year": 1524
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 236,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Tairona Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Spanish references to leaders in the 16th century documents suggest, at the very least, a four tiered civil political structure, with “caciques”, “capitanes”, “mandadores”, and “capitanes de guerra”, as well as designated leaders for neighborhoods or residential wards within larger towns (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1951: 88-89). The sources also make frequent reference to priests, or naomas and the considerable power and authority they wielded. To be sure, the nature of political authority and the relationships between these different, yet apparently overlapping levels or spheres of command among the Tairona is still arduously debated, along with the ways in which they were affected by the colonial encounter (Bray 2003, Langebaek 2007: 73). In any case, that there were no strict boundaries between civil and religious authority should not be surprising at all. Rather, what must be interrogated and explored are the various ways in which these intersect and overlap.” §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 61) Giraldo, Santiago. 2010. Lords of the Snowy Ranges: Politics, Place, and Landscape transformation in two Tairona towns in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. PhD thesis. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/26S6WDDP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 26S6WDDP </b></a> §REF§ “Se ve así como la organización de los poblados, la infraestructura en piedra, el tipo de viviendas y otros vestigios asociados, así como el material cultural indica que la vida de estos pueblos giraba alrededor de actividades y autoridades religiosas, en las cuales probablemente se conjugaban poderes civiles y administrativos, Así mismo, parece posible que dentro de la gran red de pueblos que conformaban la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta existiesen poblaciones donde se concentraba mayor cantidad de actividades religiosas, y las cuales ocupaban un lugar muy importante dentro de cada región. No sería aventurado pensar que cumplían un papel de unión y cohesión dentro de los habitantes de la zona. Dentro de cada valle podría existir una o dospoblaciones de este tipo. En los páramos, actualmente Kogis y arhuacos tienen pueblos de exclusivo carácter ceremonial, a los cuales se desplazan durante ciertas épocas del año para dedicarse a sus actividades ceremoniales (3, 6c). La población encontrada en 1594 correspondería exactamente a este patrón. Lo mismo observó Nicolás de la Rosa durante el siglo XVIII, cuando cuenta como los indígenas que en esta época habitaban la Sierra de Santa Marta no solo tenían “canzamarías” en las poblaciones, sino que fundaban sus principales ceremoniales en las alturas (7). Entre los kogis actuales además de estos pueblos ceremoniales existen numerosos sitios sagrados y de pagamento (donde se ofrencen ofrendas), donde se encuentran construcciones especiales en piedra o piedras talladas, muchas de origen arqueológico y que conservan un significado muy especial para los indígenas (2, 6c). En todos estos datos observamos la existencia de una marcada continuidad histórica en la orientación religiosa de los pueblos que habitaron y habitan la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Esta continuidad la muestra la arqueología, para el periodo comprendido entre los siglos IX y XVI d. C.; los relatos de los cronistas durante el siglo XVI; los documentos de Archivo y las obras de Nicolás de la Rosa y otros viajeros en siglos posteriores, y por último las investigaciones etnológicas sobre los habitantes indígenas del siglo XX en estas tierras. Todas estas fuentes muestran lo mismo: una marcada orientación religiosa que domina la vida de la sociedad, que se ha mantenido durante siglos a pesar de los fuertes cambios en la economía, organización social y tecnología de estos pueblos y que se manifiesta en la organización espacial y urbana de las poblaciones (2, 6b) y en la expresión material de su cultura.” TRANSLATION: “The organisation of the villages, the stone infrastructure, the type of housing and other associated remains, as well as the material culture indicate that the life of these villages revolved around religious activities and authorities, in whom civil and administrative powers were probably combined. It also seems possible that within the large network of villages of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, there were villages where religious activities were concentrated, and which occupied a very important place in each region. It would not be unreasonable to think that they played a unifying and cohesive role among the inhabitants of the area. Within each valley there could be one or two populations of this type. In the paramos, today's Kogis and Arhuacos have villages of an exclusively ceremonial character, where they travel during certain times of the year to dedicate themselves to their ceremonial activities (3, 6c). The population found in 1594 would correspond exactly to this pattern. The same was observed by Nicolás de la Rosa during the 18th century, when he recounts how the Indians who inhabited the Sierra de Santa Marta at that time not only had \"canzamarías\" in the villages, but also established their main ceremonial sites on the heights (7). Among the present-day Kogis, in addition to these ceremonial villages, there are numerous sacred and offering sites, where special stone or carved stone constructions are found, many of archaeological origins, which retain a very special meaning for the indigenous people (2, 6c). In all these data we observe the existence of a clear historical continuity in the religious orientation of the peoples who inhabited and still inhabit the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. This continuity is shown by archaeology, for the period between the 9th and 16th centuries AD; the accounts of the chroniclers during the 16th century; the archival documents and the works of Nicolás de la Rosa and other travellers in later centuries; and finally the ethnological research on the indigenous inhabitants of the 20th century in these lands. All these sources show the same thing: a strong religious orientation that dominates the life of the society, which has been maintained for centuries despite the strong changes in the economy, social organisation and technology of these peoples and which is manifested in the spatial and urban organisation of the populations (2, 6b) and in the material expression of their culture.” §REF§ (Cardoso 1987, 54-55) Cardoso, Patricia. 1987. ‘Religión y arqueología en la Sierra Nevada De Santa Marta’. In Universitas Humanística: Antropología de la Religion. Vol 27:27. Pp. 53-57. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A7QQMI8E\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: A7QQMI8E </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 290,
            "polity": {
                "id": 435,
                "name": "co_neguanje",
                "long_name": "Neguanje",
                "start_year": 250,
                "end_year": 1050
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 236,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Tairona Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The rise of the Tairona Religious Complex seems to be related to an environmental crisis, caused by dry climate, desertification, change of sea level and changes in estuarine production. It is clear that the settlement pattern of Gaira changed after this time. There is a growth in the number of sites located on the floodplain. For the first time, occupation of the hillsides occurs, as well as the development of the technology of terracing and road system building. The rise of cultic centers appears very clearly in the cases of Mamoron and the mound from Nahuange. We start to see that, beside the strong variation of styles of ceramics that characterize places like Cinto and Gaira before AD 600, there are the common ‘imported’ vessels for ritual purpose and ‘imported’ artifacts of greenish volcanic glass used as plaques or female figures (the Mother Goddess). Metallurgy for the first time begins to appear as sheets of gold, all with a similar pattern of a ‘Father Sun‘. lt is my opinion that these artifacts were used in a worship that demanded offerings of exotic materials such as beads, bichrome vessels and ‘jade’ pendants, as well as scarce artifacts of laminated gold. These are the elements of a cult and the first evidence of worship in a broad area where the autonomy of the village continues be the norm, but religious beliefs unite farther and farther reaching areas. The only common attributes between the regions are the ceremonial artifacts such as the vessels for toasting (imported), the gold (imported), and the plaques (imported), and the existence of cultic places that are related to the worship that a priestly elite demands. The mass production of icons, such as the ‘Father Sun’ in tumbaga artifacts, indicates a process of routinization. However, this figure in gold or tumbaga became three dimensional probably between the seventh and ninth centuries, and was saturated with symbols associated with it such as bats, birds, snakes, caimans. Sometimes the figure wears a mask. In the case of the representation of females. this continues in the ceramics (for example the urns from Gairaca), but is not as far-spread as the ‘male’ ceremonial paraphernalia. To this ceremonial assemblage of the priestly elite is added sophisticated batons of rack, and plaques and wing pendants. Places that function as shrines are recognized for the first time in caves around the archaeological site of Pueblito, after the tenth century. Sculptures of snakes are manufactured, associated with temples.” §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2001, 14) Oyuela-Caycedo, Augusto. 2001. ‘The rise of religious routinization: The study of changes from Shaman to Priestly Elite’. In Mortuary Practices and Ritual Associations: Shamanic Elements in Prehistoric Funerary Context in South America. Edited by John E. Staller and Elizabeth J. Currie. Oxford: Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XBAR6MAV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XBAR6MAV </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 291,
            "polity": {
                "id": 304,
                "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1",
                "long_name": "Early Merovingian",
                "start_year": 481,
                "end_year": 543
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The following quote suggests that Clovis was pagan before 508, and that Catholicism only became the official religion after his conversion that year. “A reasonable interpretation of the religious history of Clovis's reign could thus run as follows: from the moment of his father's death, Clovis had to deal with the catholic hierarchy; nevertheless he remained a pagan, even after his marriage to a catholic wife. Drawn into the complex political world of the 490s he showed an interest in the arianism of his fellow monarchs, as well as in the Catholicism of Chlothild, and some members of his court were actually baptized as arians; he himself, although he may have already been converted to Christianity, did not commit himself firmly either to Catholicism or arianism, although he certainly showed an interest in the views of the heretics. His final decision was possibly taken at the time of the war with Alaric, when he may have thought that there was propaganda value to be gained by standing as the defender of the catholic Church; he was subsequently baptised, probably in 508.”§REF§Wood, I. (2014) The Merovingian Kingdoms 450 - 751. 1st edn. Taylor and Francis. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/1556530/the-merovingian-kingdoms-450-751-pdf (Accessed: 8 November 2022)  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARUIRN35\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARUIRN35 </b></a> §REF§\r\n\r\n\"If we assume that he was indeed a pagan before 508, which is doubtful, it would have been some form of Germanic paganism, or an assortment of cults picked up during his military career, but not something that could be neatly characterized as Gallo-Roman. Gregory’s descriptions in Book 2 of the Histories verge on caricature, with Jupiter and the rest of the Roman pantheon.\" §REF§(Yaniv Fox, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 292,
            "polity": {
                "id": 456,
                "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3",
                "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian",
                "start_year": 687,
                "end_year": 751
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Well before the end of the eighth century,where we left Charlemagne demanding comprehensive oaths of loyalty from his elite male subjects, and indeed before the anointing of 753–4, kingship itself was conceived as an office with religious responsibilities. Christianity was part of the very identity of elite Franks, who increasingly came to see themselves as a people chosen by God, and thus to define themselves in distinction to the non and imperfectly Christian peoples that surrounded them. These ideologies played a part in the Franks’ justifications to each other and to themselves of their conquests. As victorious Carolingian armies withdrew they were often – as we have seen – replaced by missionaries, charged with winning the hearts and souls of the conquered, and with establishing their obedience to the Frankish Church (and, therefore, empire).” §REF§ Costambeys, M., Innes, M., &amp; MacLean, S. (2011). The Carolingian World Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pg 80. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5FJNATV3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5FJNATV3 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 293,
            "polity": {
                "id": 306,
                "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Middle Merovingian",
                "start_year": 543,
                "end_year": 687
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "\"Inevitably this commitment to monasticism, shown both by the Merovingians themselves and by their aristocracy, had its political implications. At the most fundamental level the investment was expected to be repaid by prayers for the benefactor and for the State, ensuring peace on earth and after death. Naturally enough the fates of benefactors, their kin and their foundations all became entangled, and it is not surprising to find monasteries being affected by politics.\" §REF§ Wood, I. (2014) The Merovingian Kingdoms 450 - 751. 1st edn. Taylor and Francis. Available at: https://www.perlego.com/book/1556530/the-merovingian-kingdoms-450-751-pdf (Accessed: 24 November 2022). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ARUIRN35\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ARUIRN35 </b></a> §REF§ \"Columbanian monasticism offered a window of opportunity for each of the two dominant political forces in the Merovingian kingdoms: the king and the aristocracy. Often these forces can be seen working in unison and at other times engulfed in conflict, but it is certain that both regarded monasteries as important loci for the exercise of political power.\" §REF§(Fox 2014: 26) Fox, Y. 2014. Power and Religion in Merovingian Gaul: Columbanian Monasticism and the Frankish Elites. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZU6MGRQX/library§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 294,
            "polity": {
                "id": 459,
                "name": "fr_valois_k_2",
                "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois",
                "start_year": 1450,
                "end_year": 1589
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Probably the gravest challenge facing the Valois monarchs in the sixteenth century was the rise of Protestantism which threatened to destroy the kingdom’s unity. Religious toleration was unknown in sixteenth century France. ‘One law, one faith, one king’ was the rule that prevailed. The king was seen as God’s earthly lieutenant, and his coronation endowed him with semi-priestly character: it was not only a crowning, but a consecration performed by the archbishop. [...] At his coronation, he solemnly swore to defend the church and rid his kingdom of heresy. This duty had not been seriously tested for three centuries, but in the sixteenth century heresy in the form of Protestantism threatened to tear the kingdom apart. But heresy needed to be recognised.” §REF§ Knecht, R.J. 2004. The Valois - Kings of France1328 - 1589. London: Hambledon and London. pg 177. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WK3ZW5C3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WK3ZW5C3 </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 295,
            "polity": {
                "id": 333,
                "name": "fr_valois_k_1",
                "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois",
                "start_year": 1328,
                "end_year": 1450
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The spread of the notion of theMost Christian King in the first half of the fourteenth century is apparent in works such as the Chronique des Quatre Premiers Valois, but the strongest expressions of the idea emerged later, towards the end of the papacy’s first residence at Avignon (1309 - 77) and during the Great Schism which followed (1378 - 1417). Even before the Schism began, Nicolas Oresme, highly respected theologian at the University of Paris and royal secretary, was arguing that it was the duty of the King of France - ‘the most catholic and true son and champion of the Holy Church and the most excellent of all the princes on earth’ - to call for a council of the church to address the perceived abuses of the Avignon papacy. In 1391 as solutions to the Schism were sought, the chancellor of the University of Paris, Jean Gerson, urged the Most Christian King to use his spiritual standing to help end the division of the church between Rome and Avignon. First conflict with the papacy, now division within the church itself greatly contributed to the moral authority of the Most Christian King.”§REF§ Small, G. 2009. Late Medieval France. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Pg 10,11. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J8FTT66Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J8FTT66Z </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 296,
            "polity": {
                "id": 457,
                "name": "fr_capetian_k_1",
                "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom",
                "start_year": 987,
                "end_year": 1150
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The sacral nature of Carolingiankingship had been in large part constructed in collaboration with Frankish bishops. It was in further continuity with these ideas that Fulbert of Chartres emphasised in the early eleventh century that the king was the fountain-head of justice, with the power to punish wrongdoers for the good of the state, even though he was not always able effectively to fulfil this charge. The traditions of sacred kingship, the creation of the Carolingian episcopacy, were thus transferred by the bishops of northern France to the new ruling house in 987, along with their political loyalty.” §REF§ (Hallam and West 2020: 81) Hallam, Elizabeth and West, Charles. 2020. Capetian France: 987-1328. Third Edition. London: Routledge.  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/66GFGV49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 66GFGV49 </b></a> §REF§ \"The Capetian kings continued to rely on the Church to support and legitimise their rule. They were all consecrated at Reims, and they persisted in claiming the right to appoint bishops in diceses both within and outside the royal principality.\" §REF§ (Huscroft: 2023) Huscroft, Richard. 2023. Power and Faith: Politics and Religion in Western Europe from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Century. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7TGUN39S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7TGUN39S </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 297,
            "polity": {
                "id": 458,
                "name": "fr_capetian_k_2",
                "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian",
                "start_year": 1150,
                "end_year": 1328
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Given the broad agreements about basic overarching trends, the driving questions that animate the field of later Capetian political history center on how to account for the startling growth of royal authority during in the long century between 1180 and 1328. Joseph R. Strayer framedthe issue four decades ago by asking how the loyalty of people ruled by the French king was made tangible in the real world. Strayer recognized that brute force, efficient administration, and a growing royal court system were necessary parts of the answer, and so more detailed studies of bureaucratic and judicial organization, record keeping and tax gathering, and military organization and methods of repressing dissent were crucial to the story. But Strayer also argued that “real loyalty is based neither on fear nor on self-interest. There must be genuine respect, admiration, and, if possible, love for the object of loyalty.” In other words, the governmental machinery in place by the time of Philip IV could not have done its work without the development, dissemination, and popular embrace of a royal ideology that linked Capetian kings and their subjects in the belief that France was a new “Holy Land,” inhabited by a “Chosen People,” and ruled over by God’s “Most Christian” king.” §REF§ Field, S.L. &amp; Gaposchkin, C.M. 2014. Questioning the Capetians, 1180 - 1328. Pg 568. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/A9M84BNF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: A9M84BNF </b></a>§REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 298,
            "polity": {
                "id": 453,
                "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1",
                "long_name": "La Tene A-B1",
                "start_year": -475,
                "end_year": -325
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 238,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Celtic Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Comparisons within the framework of Indo-European studies are often illuminating. Celtic practices have especially been compared with those in India, using a theoretical approach which assumed that archaic beliefs and practices, as well as archaic linguistic forms, which had elsewhere been replaced by innovations spreading out from the centre, survived in the eastern and western marginal areas of Indo-European settlement. This probably applies to the practice of sacrificing a white mare (to Macha?) following an implied sacred marriage (hieros gamos) including sex with the prince about to be initiated as king. According to Giraldus Cambrensis, the ritual is said to have survived in Donegal (Tír Chonaill) until the 12th century ad and may be compared to the horse sacrifice of the Old Indian As ́vamedha. Evidence for such initiation rites is corroborated by various Irish written traditions in which the king could only rule after having been empowered by his sacred marriage to the goddess of the land” §REF§ (Koch 1489) Koch, John T., ed. 2006. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KSYFU5IK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KSYFU5IK </b></a> §REF§ “One of the most important figures in the various Celtic pantheons was the SovereigntyGoddess. She was a powerful figure associated with the land and its abundance, sovereigntyand authority, prophecy and skill, shape shifting and magic, warfare and destruction, andfertility and creation — in short, the many powers of life and death. Her symbols oftenincluded the horse and the bird (and in some cases, the raven). She could manifest in bothhuman and animal form, and might appear as a beautiful woman, a warrior or an old hag. 4In these forms, she often appeared before a potential king or hero to test him and seeif he was worthy of her support. A king could not rule successfully without the blessingsof this powerful goddess, and only with her power and cooperation could the king, the landand the people prosper.” §REF§(MacLeod 10) MacLeod, Sharon Paice. 2012. Celtic Myth and Religion: A Study of Traditional Belief, with Newly Translated Prayers, Poems, and Songs. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RHU6KBPG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RHU6KBPG </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 299,
            "polity": {
                "id": 454,
                "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1",
                "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1",
                "start_year": -325,
                "end_year": -175
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 238,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Celtic Religion",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Such practitioners of the sacred played a leading part in political matters, and the appointment of a king would depend in no small degree on the support of a druid. The ancient idea was that a king functioned as a substitute for the ancestral deity as director of his people, in effect becoming the ‘husband’ of the earth-goddess.” §REF§ (Ó hÓgáin 27) Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. 2006. The Celts: A History. Repr. Cork: The Collins Pr. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CGY76AEC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CGY76AEC </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 300,
            "polity": {
                "id": 461,
                "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2",
                "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon",
                "start_year": 1660,
                "end_year": 1815
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "The Wars of Religion had culminated with the Edict of Nantes which entrenched Catholicism as the official state religion but provided a degree of protections for the Protestant Huguenot minority based on a confessional structure. Calvinist public worship was allowed in some parts of the country but not Paris. “Despite the myth that the Edict of Nantes granted Huguenots religious toleration, in reality it established only confessional coexistence. Given the negative connotations of ‘tolerance’ and ‘toleration,’ it is not surprising that these words appear nowhere in the document. Ironically, the Edict reintroduced many barriers – religious, social, and political – that had long divided the Catholic majority from the Protestant minority… Calvinists found themselves quarantined in ‘safe zones’ (the places of refuge) within Catholic France like Jews isolated in urban ghettos, unable for worship or proselytize freely.” §REF§ (Strayer, 2001, 37) Strayer, Brian, 2001. Huguenots and Camisards as Aliens in France, 1598-1789: The Struggle for Religious Toleration. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CB6UC45W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CB6UC45W </b></a> §REF§ By the 1660s we see significant erosion of Protestant rights by the French government. “The General Assembly in 1660 sent a Mémoire to the King attacking the Edict of Nantes as “contrary to Divine laws, Civil law, &amp; Canonical law.”… The Bishop of Lavour called for “delivering their flesh to pestilence and their synagogues to Satan.” The General Assembly drew up a list of complaints against the RPR which they expected Louis XIV to enact into law: they must be excluded from public offices; their schools, hospitals, and temples closed; itinerant preaching stopped; and burials near Catholic cemeteries halted. Mixed marriages bequeathing property to Calvinist hiers, and publishing books against the Church should be stopped… All remaining Huguenot fortification should be demolished.” §REF§ (Strayer, 2001, 105-106) Strayer, Brian, 2001. Huguenots and Camisards as Aliens in France, 1598-1789: The Struggle for Religious Toleration. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CB6UC45W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CB6UC45W </b></a> §REF§ The tolerance of the Huguenots was officially revoked in 1685 with the Edict of Fontainebleau. “But no such minority existed on paper after 1685, and Louis XIV was adamant that he would neither repeal nor suspend the Edict of Fontainebleau; it was an irreplaceable element of his ambition to be seen as the champion of Catholic Europe.” §REF§ (Bergin, 2014, 263) Bergin, Joseph. (2014) The Politics of Religion in Early Modern France. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2WQJQNR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2WQJQNR </b></a> §REF§ “Converting the Huguenots was one of the few unequivocally popular policies of Louis XIV’s reign, and the king’s personal commitment to the task was matched or surpassed by the enthusiasm of the Church, the provincial authorities and the majority Catholic population.” §REF§ (Gratton, 2011, 167) Gratton, J. 2011. ‘The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the Role of the Intendants in the Dragonnades.’ French History, 25(2), 164-187. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DWUH5V3V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DWUH5V3V </b></a> §REF§ Louis XIV used his conflict with the Jansenists, (a Catholic sect described in more detail under the variable fragmentation) as a basis to establish himself as a Catholic authority independent from the Pope. The following quote refers to the anti-Jansenist edict published in April 29, 1664. “In the first lines, the edict asserted that the divine sanction underlying Louis XIV’s identity as the “Most Christian King” and “Eldest Son of the Church” was the source of his commission to suppress religious turmoil in his realm.3 By stressing Louis XIV’s own god-given authority to deal with matters of conscience, the edict rejected the claim that the king acted in the service of ecclesiastical authorities, especially the pope, in matters regarding Jansenism.4” §REF§ (Kostroun, 2011, 143) Kostroun, Daniella. (2011) Feminism, Absolutism, and Jansenism: Louis XIV and the Port-Royal Nuns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4F97NHJ6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4F97NHJ6 </b></a> §REF§ Despite Louis XIV’s desire to be the most Catholic country, he was frequently in conflict with the papacy. “For much of the ‘long’ 1680s, which coincided roughly with the reign of Pope Innocent XI (1676-89), the French monarchy and papacy were in open conflict.” §REF§ (Bergin, 2014, 1) Bergin, Joseph. (2014) The Politics of Religion in Early Modern France. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2WQJQNR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2WQJQNR </b></a> §REF§ Furthermore, Louis XIV kept “senior clerical figures on the margins of influence where religious issues – especially concerning the Jansenists and the Protestants – were concerned…” §REF§ (Bergin, 2014, 15) Bergin, Joseph. (2014) The Politics of Religion in Early Modern France. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2WQJQNR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2WQJQNR </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 301,
            "polity": {
                "id": 460,
                "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1",
                "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon",
                "start_year": 1589,
                "end_year": 1660
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“The kingdom of France was perhaps the most important region in northern Catholicism. Equipped with the oldest and most respected theological faculty in Christendom, with the strongest national-church movement within Catholicism, and with a thaumaturgical king who was ‘touching’thousands of his subjects at a time as late as the 1690s, France obviously offers some interesting features. It was also the largest country to experience almost ninety years of official coexistence between Catholic and Reformed Churches, and the last major country to end such coexistence.”§REF§ Monter, W. 1983. Ritual, Myth and Magic in Early Modern Europe. Brighton: The Harvester Press Ltd. Pgs 86, 87. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IDZHJRP4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IDZHJRP4 </b></a> §REF§"
        },
        {
            "id": 302,
            "polity": {
                "id": 311,
                "name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2",
                "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II",
                "start_year": 840,
                "end_year": 987
            },
            "year_from": null,
            "year_to": null,
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": false,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "name": "Official_religion",
            "coded_value": {
                "id": 20,
                "name": "Religion",
                "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity",
                "religion_family": null,
                "religion_genus": null
            },
            "comment": null,
            "description": "“Such were the fundamental rhythms of politics after 843. Carolingian kings, however, were more than lords of lands and men. They held special office; they were Christian kings. By the ninth century, churchmen had constructed an imposing edifice of Christian kingship. The great intellectual movement known as the Carolingian Renaissance saw the development of the idea that the king ruled by the grace of God. This strengthened royal authority but it also increased the burden of royal responsibility. The king held his office from God; his ‘job was contained within the church’. This means that much of the political language of the period was expressed in terms of obedience to, or falling away from, God’s commandments.” §REF§ Arlie, S. 1998. Private Bodies and the Body Politic in the Divorce Case of Lothar II. Past &amp; Present 161: 3-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IDMXW849\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IDMXW849 </b></a> §REF§"
        }
    ]
}