Official Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Official Religions.
GET /api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 441, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"In his religious policy, Kaleb likewise struck an independent course in his fervent promotion of Christianity, not simply as a way to ape the Roman emperor, but rather to enhance his own kingly status as a divinely-appointed ruler, with as much access to divine favor as any other monarch, for as negusa nagast, Kaleb was portrayed as successor to a tradition of kingship regarded as descending from Solomon and David.\" §REF§(Haas 2008: 122-123) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQWD9I5I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IQWD9I5I </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 788, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_3", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom III", "start_year": 1769, "end_year": 1854 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 789, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_2", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom II", "start_year": 1621, "end_year": 1768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 790, "name": "et_habesha", "long_name": "Habesha", "start_year": 801, "end_year": 1136 }, "year_from": 801, "year_to": 849, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The decline of Aksum did not immediately result in either the disappearance of its kings or the waning of Christian influence in the highlands of Ethiopia. Numerous traditions appear to indicate that from the seventh century onward the center of gravity of the Christian kingdom moved southward. Although it is impossible to follow this expansion of the kingdom and church in any detail, both Arabic and Ethiopian sources portray the ninth century as a time of military campaigns, church building, and evangelization as far south as the Amhara region. Thus, Aksumite culture survived and even spread into regions not under its influence during its heyday.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 42) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 227, "name": "et_zagwe", "long_name": "Zagwe", "start_year": 1137, "end_year": 1269 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ever since the introduction of Christianity in the fourth century, the church has been closely related to the state. The former was dependent on the kings for its material needs, while the ruling elite needed the church to legitimate its rule. […] Aware of their precarious ideological position, the Zagwe rulers had made it known that they were, as well, descendants from Israel but from the house of Moses (Hable-Selassie 1972). It is rather tempting to argue that the commitment of the Zagwe rulers to the construction of churches and their strict adherence to the Orthodox faith were a response to those contesting their legitimacy to rule. Three of the four kingly saints canonized by the Ethiopian Church were from the Zagwe Dynasty. It is probable that the Zagwe were challenged not so much by the Ethiopian Church, but more by the Tigrean ruling elite, who evolved and developed the myth of the Solomonic Dynasty.” §REF§(Negash, 2006 no page number) Negash, T. 2006. The Zagwe period re-interpreted: post-Aksumite Ethiopian urban culture. Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazioni 61(1): 120-137. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/enricocioni/items/WGTE6WKE/library §REF§\r\n\r\n\"Although the Zagwe rulers were apparently devout Christians and presided over a major revival of the church, their enemies, including the nobility of Tigre province and the clergy of the Aksumite region, dismissed them as usurpers who had seized the throne of the legitimate Aksumite \"Solomonic\" rulers. The Zagwe sought to counter such claims by wooing the clergy of other regions and engaging in a massive program of church building in their home province of Lasta.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 53) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The difference between the basic types of Shi’ism is clearly indicated by the distinct histories of tow Shi’i groups that held some power in Abbasid Iran after its tenth-century breakdown into autonomous states – the Twelver Buyid dynasty and the Ismaili Assassins. The Buyids, who ruled western Iran and Iraq (including for a time the Abbasid capital of Baghdad) from 945 to 1055, never tried to set up a Twelver Shi’a state or impose Shi’i but supported the religious claims of the Abbasid Caliph, whom they could have deposed.” §REF§ (Keddie 2011, 205-206) Keddie, Nikki R. 2011. ‘Iran: Religious Orthodoxy and Heresyin Political Culture.’ In Religion and Societies. Edited by Carlo Caldarola. Berlin: de Gruyter. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3D88ZJFZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3D88ZJFZ </b></a> §REF§ “The Buyid solution seems markedly cynical and opportunist, but also tolerant and pacific in its chose compromise. The Shi’ite, Buyid military rulers were to coexist with the Sunni, Abbasid caliphs, who continued to command the loyalty of most Muslims. Each side would recognise the other and give it legitimacy. Thus the Buyids adopted and largely gave shape to the main ‘Twelver’ subdivision of Shi’ism, in which the twelfth ‘leader’ is held to have disappeared.” §REF§ (Baldick 2004, 357-358) Baldick, Julian. 2004. ‘Islam in Iran.’ In The World’s Religions. Edited by Peter Clarke et al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GE3635QM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GE3635QM </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 209, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Religiously, there is no substantial evidence to suggest that the Samanids were anything but orthodox Hanafi Sunnis; it should be noted that there was a brief flirtation by certain elements of the Samanid military (particularly a general named al-Husain al-Marwazi) with Isma’ili Shi‘i preachers in the 920s, but by and large Shi‘is and heterodox groups were considered anathema by the authorities.\" §REF§Mitchell, C.P. 2006. Samanids. In Meri, J.W. and Bacharach (eds) Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia pp. 691-693. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEU4G64K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DEU4G64K </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 181, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Khwarazm Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest a link between Ancient Khwarazm religion and the fiscal administration of this quasipolity, not to mention the existence of a royal cult. \"It may be assumed that the ritual center of Kalali-gir 2, which could communicate with almost all of the southern portion of the near side of the Sarykamysh delta along the bed of the Daudan, played a major role in the religious life of the area. The majority of the religious objects and finds from the site are associated with the cult of fertility, but the economic documents recovered there indicate that religious and fiscal functions were combined. Three types of ritual structures in Khwarazm of this period are known: at Koi-Krylgan-qala, a freestanding temple evidently of a royal cult but probably of fertility in general, situated within the boundaries of an oasis; the ritual center at Kalali-gir 2, at which several temples functioned in a common system; and the round temple at Giaur 3, located in a settled community of herders on the periphery of left-bank Khwarazm and identical in plan to the round temple at Kalali-gir 2.” §REF§(VAINBERG 1994: 77) VAINBERG, B. I. “The Kalali-Gir 2 Ritual Center in Ancient Khwarazm.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute, vol. 8, 1994, pp. 67–80. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F7EUK93R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F7EUK93R </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 182, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Andronovan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The horse was the main cult animal among the Andronovans, which is indicated by sculptures and representations of horses on Kazakhstan petroglyphs, and also horse burials or skins with the head and legs that substituted for them in rituals and Andronovo status burials of the Sintashta, Petrovka and Alakul’ types. […] On the basis of horse bone measurements made by V. I. Gromova (Sal’nikov 1951b: 124) and V. I. Tsalkin (1972b: 74-77) it has been established that the Andronovans bred three breeds of horses: small, up to 128-136cm at the withers; average and tall, up to 136-152cm high, weighing 350kg, thin-legged and semithin-legged. In addition, for the first time in Eurasia we have very large horses (152-160cm), thin and semi-thin legged and distinctly graceful: these were the horses that were placed in elite burials (Sal’nikov 1951b: 123). […] There are graves in such kurgans that measure 3.2x2.5m, 2.3m deep; their walls were covered with a frame-work of large logs, covered by a layer of logs which is sometimes double. These graves were unfortunately robbed in antiquity but there we still find numerous bones of animals, gold ornaments dropped by robbers, bronze knives, maces, horse cheek- pieces, sets of arrows, all of which prove the former richness of the burial. (The same differences in the sizes of the kurgans and graves are found in early Fedorovo burials, but the absence here of corresponding grave goods diminishes our results). One conclusion must be evident: Andronovo society was not uniform; there was a group of people who occupied a privileged position.” §REF§ (Kuz’mina 2007: 149, 197) Kuz’mina, Elena Efimovna, 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians (Leiden: Brill). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S3E76VIZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: S3E76VIZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Bukharan Khans became patrons of the arts, builders of great monuments, supporters of seminaries and mosques, and Sunni orthodox promoters.” §REF§ (Stanley 2007, 97) Stanley, Bruce. 2007. ‘Bukhara’. In Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. Edited by Michael Dumper and Bruce Stanley. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBHZ2R49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DBHZ2R49 </b></a> §REF§ “[t]he Ashtarkhanid Uzbeks were a Sunni dynasty, among the last descendants of Genghis Khan in Transoxiana;” §REF§ (Ziad 2021, 33) Ziad, Waleed. 2021. Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5VSH96D6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5VSH96D6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Officially, the Timurid rulers of Iran, like other Turkic and Turko-Mongolian dynasties that dominated its political life, professed adherence to the Sunnism of the Hanafite school of jurisprudence.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 210) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ When the Safavids took over much of the Timurid’s former territories in 1501, the Timurid Dynasty fled south and mostly fought to keep hold of a small area around Kabul. Babur, the Timurid and Sunni ruler was tolerant. “Babur comes across as genuinely humane—more humane, indeed, than his ancestor and precursor, Timur. Like so many earlier Muslim conquerors of India, he might refer to Hindus dismissively as infidels, kafīrs; but […]there is no evidence that he demolished Hindu temples.” §REF§ (Jackson 2020, 410) Jackson, Peter. 2020. ‘Babur: Timurid Prince and Mughal Emperor, 1483-1530 (Book review)’. Journal of Islamic Studies. Vol. 31.3. Pp. 408-410. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VRPUIDZB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VRPUIDZB </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“There seem to have been shamans among the Türks. Byzantine sources say that the Türks had priests who foretold the future, and these priests intervened when a Byzantine envoy and his attendants pass between two fires, in order to purify them. […] The Byzantine sources also tell us that the Türks had a holy mountain, noted for its abundance of fruits and pastures and immunity to epidemics and earthquakes. […] We are futher informed by the Byzantine historians that the Türks hold fire in the most extraordinary respect, and also venerate air, water and earth, but do not worship and call ‘god’ anyone except the creator of heaven and earth: to him they sacrifice horses, oxen and sheep.” §REF§ (Baldick 2012: 39) Baldick, Julian. Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia. (New York: NYU Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J53ZA45U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J53ZA45U </b></a> §REF§ “From the ancient TÜRK EMPIRES through the Mongol Empire, the peoples of Mongolia worshiped “Eternal Heaven” (möngke tenggeri) and “Mother Earth,” named in ancient Mongolian prayers Mother Etüken. In later centuries Eternal Heaven had a varying relation with the “99 gods/heavens” divided into two camps, white to the west and red to the east, sometimes being one of the 99, sometimes the head of all of them, and sometimes a sort of summation of them.” §REF§ (Atwood 2004: 173) Atwood Christopher (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire (New York: Facts on File, Inc.). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CRA5UBH9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CRA5UBH9 </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 191, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Kushan king cult", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“My contrasting model does not assign disparate religions to individual kings, but in a way proposes a royal cult that regards the royal lineage as part of the world of the gods. This world of the gods looks multifold, but the many gods underline one supreme force of which is the Kushan king is the representative ‘on earth’. This implies that the kings not an ‘adherent’, ‘follower’ or ‘devotee’ of one particular god among many, but a representative pf the heavenly sphere, sort of ambassador, with liabilities, but also with a right to receive the honours due to those above him. In short, he ‘has’ no religion, he ‘is’ religion for others to have.” […] “The is only one text formulated by Vema himself found on the alter stone of Dasht-e- Nawar. Here, Vema calls himself ‘The King of Kings, the great salvation, Vima Takhtu the Kushan, the righteous, the just, the god worthy or worship gained (?)’ the kingship by his own will.’ Much of the further lines cannot be read, but the terms ‘the god worthy or worship/ makes it abundabtly clear that Vema regarded himself as a sort of god on earth. What Pamanio said about Kaniska, who used the same phrase, also holds true for the time of his grandfather, that it is likely that in the Kushan court the dynastic cult […] assumed the form of a worship to be offered to the living king.” §REF§ (Falk 2019:1; 11) Falk, Harry. 2019. ‘Kushan Religion and Politics.’ Bulletin of the Asia Institute. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4HJ4V4A5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4HJ4V4A5 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The coinage of the Greco-Bactrian kings displays a range of Greek deities (see, concisely, the discussion of Martinez-Sève 2010: 2–6; a browse through the catalogues Bopearachchi 1991, 1993, or 1998 will give an idea of the range of deities depicted on both Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins). Zeus was favoured by the Diodotids on their silver coinage (the eponymous ‘thundering Zeus’ of Holt 1999), with the pairs of Hermes and Athena, and Zeus and Artemis on the bronze coinage of Diodotos II. Euthydemos introduced a type of Herakles, used also by his son Demetrios I, and Eukratides employed the Dioskouroi. As I have already noted, the creators of paintings and statues in later temples (such as the ‘Temple of the Dioskouroi’ at Diberjin) could have drawn inspiration from such images on coins. As Martinez-Sève notes, all such depictions of apparently ‘Greek’ gods could have carried a double meaning, intentional or unintentional. Artemis, for example, could have been understood as the Near Eastern goddesses Anahita or Nana, or a local Bactrian equivalent (Martinez-Sève 2010: 5–7) §REF§ (Mairs 2015: 644-645) Mairs, Rachel, 2015. “Bactria and India”, in Eidinov, Esther and Julia Kindt (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.637-645. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QE37R7HS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QE37R7HS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Islam and its civilization flourished under this dynasty, a fact attested by the devoutness of the rulers, their deference to men of religion, the endowments they made to pious foundations, and the monuments of religious as well as utilitarian architecture with which they embellished their realms.\" §REF§ (Soucek, S. 2000). \"A History of Inner Asia\" p. 85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GNQIHZ4T </b></a> §REF§ “In the mid-tenth century, the Karakhanids themselves adopted Islam and declared it to be the religion of their tribal society. They began to take Muslim names and , later, Muslim honorfics (alqab; pl of laqab).“ §REF§ (Davidovich 1998: 121) Davidovich, E.A. 1998. “The Karakhanids.“ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Paris: UNESCO Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/845KKZ4R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 845KKZ4R </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 195, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"As with all later Polynesians, the concepts of *\"mana\" (supernatural power) and *\"tapu\" (sanctity) were essential to the people of Hawaiki. *\"Mana\", the life-giving power that emanates from gods and ancestors, had to be carefully protected and channeled, which was one of the roles of the *\"ariki\", the leader of the major social group. The protection of *mana required *\"tapu\", various kinds of prohibitions, for example against touching the head of the *\"ariki\" and thus polluting him. §REF§Kirch, P.V. 2012. \"A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief : The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawaii\" p. 45. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NIIVVPB6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NIIVVPB6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"As with all later Polynesians, the concepts of *\"mana\" (supernatural power) and *\"tapu\" (sanctity) were essential to the people of Hawaiki. *\"Mana\", the life-giving power that emanates from gods and ancestors, had to be carefully protected and channeled, which was one of the roles of the *\"ariki\", the leader of the major social group. The protection of *mana required *\"tapu\", various kinds of prohibitions, for example against touching the head of the *\"ariki\" and thus polluting him. §REF§Kirch, P.V. 2012. \"A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief : The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawaii\" p. 45. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NIIVVPB6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NIIVVPB6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"6. So also with the kings and chiefs, they addressed their worship to the gods who were active in the affairs that concerned them for they firmly believed that their god could destroy the king's enemies, safeguard him and prosper him with land and all sorts of blessings. 7. The manner of worship of the kings and chiefs was different from that of the common people. When the commoners performed religious services they uttered their prayers themselves, without the assistance of a priest or of a kahuakua. But when the king or an alii worshipped, the priest or the keeper of the idol uttered the prayers, while the alii only moved his lips and did not say a word. The same was true of the female chiefs; they did not utter the prayers to their gods.\" §REF§ (Malo 1951:81-84) Malo, David. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFSD4BUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFSD4BUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"6. So also with the kings and chiefs, they addressed their worship to the gods who were active in the affairs that concerned them for they firmly believed that their god could destroy the king's enemies, safeguard him and prosper him with land and all sorts of blessings. 7. The manner of worship of the kings and chiefs was different from that of the common people. When the commoners performed religious services they uttered their prayers themselves, without the assistance of a priest or of a kahuakua. But when the king or an alii worshipped, the priest or the keeper of the idol uttered the prayers, while the alii only moved his lips and did not say a word. The same was true of the female chiefs; they did not utter the prayers to their gods.\" §REF§ (Malo 1951:81-84) Malo, David. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFSD4BUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFSD4BUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 38, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Calvinist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1819, the \"kapu\" system on which the old Hawaiian religion had been based was abolished. It was made clear that \"kapu\" would not be reinstated (after the period of 'defilement' and free-eating following the death of Kamehameha I) when the regent queen Ka'ahūmanu ate with the young king, Liholiho, breaking the 'eating taboo' that forbade men and women to dine together.§REF§(Seaton 1974, 197) S. Lee Seaton. 1974. 'The Hawaiian \"Kapu\" Abolition of 1819'. \"American Ethnologist\" 1 (1): 193-206.§REF§ The high priest of the war god Kū, Hewahewa, then set fire to the god images and their sanctuaries,§REF§(Seaton 1974, 197) S. Lee Seaton. 1974. 'The Hawaiian Kapu Abolition of 1819'. \"American Ethnologist\" 1 (1): 193-206. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6XJ6HTI6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6XJ6HTI6 </b></a>§REF§ so we cannot consider Native Hawaiian religion to be the 'state cult' for this polity. The period from 1819 to the mid-1820s was a period of religious transition. American Protestant missionaries had arrived in 1820, and their influence was felt in edicts issued by various chiefs, but we can date the adoption of Calvinist Christianity as the state religion to 1825 with the beginning of the reign of Kamehameha III.§REF§(Fish Kashay 2008, 18, 33-35) Jennifer Fish Kashay. 2008. 'From Kapus to Christianity: The Disestablishment of the Hawaiian Religion and Chiefly Appropriation of Calvinist Christianity'. \"Western Historical Quarterly\" 39 (1): 17-39. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3UMVGD9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3UMVGD9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Some of the conformity of Crete with the wider Greek world is, for example, the pantheon does not really become explicit until at least the Archaic period.” §REF§ (Haysom 2011, 102, 103) Haysom, Matthew. 2011. ‘The strangeness of Crete. Problems for the protohistory of Greek religion’. In Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 17-19 April 2008 (Stockholm, 2011). Edited by Matthew Haysom and Jenny Wallensten. Stockholm: Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GHM2GRFX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GHM2GRFX </b></a> §REF§ “The presence at these suburban sanctuaries of consistently recurring anthropomorphic terracottas of similar iconographic types has further allowed interpretation of them as places where cult was aimed at the social integration of different constituent parts of the community. Particularly striking is the appearance, in the 7th century BC, of series of Orientalizing mouldmade plaques and figurines depicting young men and particularly young women in standardised and idealised form. Representations of both nude and elaborately dressed young females, sometimes also wearing a polos, are ubiquitous (e.g. Plates 20f-g, 21, 33, 54c). Representations of males usually consist of nude and/or arms-bearing youths (Plates 34a-b, 54a). Elaborating on the suggestions made by Cassimatis and Böhm, these may be seen to emphasise feminine beauty and sexuality on the one hand, and male athletic and martial qualities on the other. For the associated sanctuaries this implies––at least by the 7th-century BC––a well-established function in the definition and reproduction of ideal social roles, with rituals aimed at the initiation and social integration of young members of society.” §REF§ (Prent 2005, 633-634) Prent, Miekel. 2005. Cretan sanctuaries and cults: Continuity and change from Late Minoan IIIC to the Archaic period. Brill: Leiden. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2QJEQWCZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2QJEQWCZ </b></a> §REF§ “Archaic Cretan cities became increasingly interested in cult and started to actively regulate public, perhaps even private, dedications and other ritual practices. This is evident in public inscriptions from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, that record offerings of weapons by corporate bodies of citizens and state officials rather than by individuals (Perlman 2010: 95–96; Brisart 2011: 269–271). At roughly the same time, in particular from the end of the 7th century BC, extraurban sanctuaries, such as Syme, were largely affected by a decrease of prestigious votive offerings (Lebessi 2002b: 294–296; Muhly 2008: 163). This disinterest in extra-urban sanctuaries was partially reversed only in the Hellenistic period (Lebessi 1985b: 197). […] Thus, unlike the situation in Mainland Greece, it was the decline of the major, extra-urban sanctuaries on Crete, rather than their expansion and affluence that can be associated with state formation on the island. Cult did play a major role in the emergence of the polis on the island, but in a different way than in other areas of the Greek world (cf. Sourvinou-Inwood 1990).” §REF§ (Papasavvas 2019, 250-252) Papasavvas, George. 2019. ‘Sacred space and ritual behaviour in Early Iron Age Crete: the case of the sanctuary of Hermes and Aphrodite at Syme’. In Unlocking Sacred Landscapes: Spatial Analysis of Ritual and Cult in the Mediterranean. Edited by Giorgos Papantoniou, Christine E. Morris and Athanasios K. Vionis. Nicosia: Astrom Editions. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZTMDA8B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TZTMDA8B </b></a> §REF§ “Nevertheless, the reference in the Spensiihios decree to […], making the public or state domain up of a combination of those things that are for the gods and those things that are for men sounds like a pretty good formula for something typical Greek polis religion on the island by the end of the sixth-century. Moreover, a fragmentary late-sixth-century decree from Eleutherna dealing with cult at a place called Dion Akron, which seemingly requires the priest there to remain sober, might nicely show the polis exercising control over priests in a typically Greek manner.” §REF§ (Haysom 2011, 99-100) Haysom, Matthew. 2011. ‘The strangeness of Crete. Problems for the protohistory of Greek religion’. In Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 17-19 April 2008 (Stockholm, 2011). Edited by Matthew Haysom and Jenny Wallensten. Stockholm: Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GHM2GRFX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GHM2GRFX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"At the turn of the 9th century, Crete was abruptly changed from a Byzantine island into a small Islamic Sunni emirate, loosely connected with the Abbasid state (Christides, 1984; 2016). [...] Undoubtedly, as it happened in other Christian countries conquered by the Muslim Arabs, the Muslim community of the Andalusian conquerors of Crete, which was augmented by a great number of Muslim newcomers from other countries, established a legal system based on Muslim legislation.\" §REF§(Christides 2018: 1-5) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WIJU6JC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WIJU6JC </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 126, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hellenistic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The attitude of such youthful novices to their patron deity is revealed in the famous Hymn of the Kouretes in honour of Diktaian Zeus, discovered at the site of his temple at Palaikastro in eastern Crete. The inscription was probably made as late as the third century A.D., but the original was much older. For it was inscribed twice on the same stone, first badly and then more correctly. We assume therefore that it must have been copied either from some existing written record or from oral tradition. […] The annual return of the young god coincides with the replenishment of the human resources of the city and is celebrated as the youthful force which brings this about. But these human resources are part of nature and the life of the city is equally dependent on natural resources which must also be renewed and made to flourish through the same regenerative force. So, in the later part of the hymn, there are old, sacred formulae of the magic of fertility. The young Zeus is invoked to bring about the increase of cattle, flocks, corn, cities, seafaring ships, the youth of the cities and the lawful order of those cities.“ §REF§ (Willet 1965, 122-123) Willet, Ronald F. 1965. Ancient Crete; a social history from early times until the Roman occupation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9PD67WKG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9PD67WKG </b></a> §REF§ “These examples show that in Crete, as elsewhere, sanctuaries not only fulfilled a cultic function in the communication between mortals and gods and in the construction of an identity, but that they were also exploited by the communities which administered them in their effort to demonstrate territorial claims, subordination, and hierarchical structures. The choice of extra-urban sanctuaries for these purposes can be explained by a variety of factors and specific historical developments which cannot and should not lead to any generalisations. here is, however, a common feature of extraurban sanctuaries, not only in Crete and not only in antiquity, which possibly explains a more general pattern: extra-urban sanctuaries are often located on or near the frontier. This makes them meeting places, places of a complex exchange and interaction with the “others”, and this sometimes makes them places where a regional identity is shaped, and sometimes places of competition, conflict, or separation.” §REF§ (Chaniotis 2009, 61) Chaniotis, Angelos. 2009. ‘Extra-urban Sanctuaries in Classical and Hellenistic Crete’. In The Aegean and its Cultures. Proceedings of the first Oxford-Athens graduate student workshop organized by the Greek Society and the University of Oxford Taylor Institution, 22-23 April 2005. Edited by Georgios Deligiannakis and Yannis Galanakis. Oxford: Archeopress. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3K4MBHRH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3K4MBHRH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The church within Venetian borders was essentially a state church to be managed for the benefit of the Republic and the profit of the nobility.” §REF§ (Grendler, 29) Grendler, Paul. 1977. The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press, 1540-1605. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZAZPNF9C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZAZPNF9C </b></a>§REF§“Like other Renaissance rulers, the Venetian nobility held that political and military disasters were God’s punishment for sin and corruption, and they legislated against sin to save the state.” §REF§ (Grendler, 25) Grendler, Paul. 1977. The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press, 1540-1605. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZAZPNF9C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZAZPNF9C </b></a>§REF§“The Venetian government did not proclaim the freedom and equality of religions. Rather, it gave tacit consent for foreigners to practice their own religion privately, without harming Catholicism.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§ The following is regarding Venetian Crete. ”Although it simultaneously limited Greek and Jewish settlement and power in favour of Venetian colonisers and the Latin Church, the Venetian colonial government chose to accommodate the colonial subject populations’ pre-Venetian ‘local customs’. Venice accommodated a wide variety of legal behaviours for its Greek Orthodox subjects.” §REF§ (Lauer, 573) Lauer, Rena. 2017. ‘In Defence of Bigamy: Colonial Policy, Jewish Law and Gender in Venetian Crete’. Gender and History. Vol. 29. No. 3. Pp. 570-588. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FEQACWD5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FEQACWD5 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Venetian government did not proclaim the freedom and equality of religions. Rather, it gave tacit consent for foreigners to practice their own religion privately, without harming Catholicism.” §REF§ (Ravid) Ravid, Benjamin. 2017. ‘Venice and its Minorities’. Primolevicenter.org. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2UEWCXW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2UEWCXW4 </b></a>§REF§“Venice was quite different than any of the city-states surrounding it because it did not use ius commune, the combination of Roman and canon law that formed the basis of legal principles in Italy, and to some extent all of Europe, from 1100 to 1800. In fact, Venice banned ius commune from its hierarchy of sources, […] However, some Venetian jurists of every age knew some Roman law. §REF§ (Stern, 209) Stern, Laura. 2004. ‘Politics and Law in Renaissance Florence and Venice’. The American Journal of Legal History. Vol. 46. No. 2. Pp. 209-234. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4N567TW4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4N567TW4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 204, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although there is evidence for the Minoan snake goddess in earlier times, it is clear that the cult thrived with the move from the palace to the town sanctuary. The goddess fits in with the change from elite to popular cult. Her representation was easily adapted to the large clay figures of the LM IIIB and IIIC periods and her ritual equipment to the change from elite materials to the large, simple, wheel thrown and slab made clay objects, available to all and easily visible to large groups.” §REF§ (Gesell 2010, 138) Gesell, Geraldine C. 2010. ‘The snake goddesses of the LM IIIB and LM IIIC periods’. In British School at Athens Studies: CRETAN OFFERINGS: Studies in honour of Peter Warren. Vol. 18. Pp. 131-139. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UMSJTJI2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UMSJTJI2 </b></a> §REF§ “The complex variety in place, nature, and function of Cretan convivial ceremonies seems detectable even in Postpalatial and Dark Age Crete. As emerges from the framework proposed by Alexander Mazarakis Ainian, the layout of several Subminoan and Protogeometric settlements points to a complex variety of independent religious and secular buildings, as at Kavousi, Karphi, and possibly Kephala Vasilikis and Chalasmenos, where these changes are already apparent in LM IIIC. Ritual equipment, including artifacts connected with feasting, appears to differ according to cultic or political and social functions, thus demonstrating that ceremonial performances and display were encoded in a structured and shared ideology. Furthermore, within some settlements ceremonial evidence derives from several houses, possibly belonging to different, albeit equal, emerging social groups.” §REF§ (Borgna 2004, 270) Borgna, Elisabetta. 2004. ‘Aegean Feasting: A Minoan Perspective’. In Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. 73:2. Pp. 247-279. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZCCJ43VC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZCCJ43VC </b></a> §REF§ “Significantly, the two latest Goddess-with-Upraised-Arms sanctuaries, the LM IIIC sites of Karphi and Kavousi, are regional centres in the refuge site period. These shrines are therefore strongly associated with secular sites; they are not independent sanctuaries, whose presence provides the raison d'etre for any given site. In contrast there is very little evidence for other rural shrines in the Postpalatial period. If my reading of the evidence is correct, then already by the end of the Neopalatial period (if not earlier) Jouktas was the only peak sanctuary still in use. Peak sanctuaries seem not to have been replaced by another form of sanctuary. Apart from the Syme sanctuary, the evidence of sacred enclosures in the Postpalatial period is apparently non-existent. These two sites, Jouktas and Syme, might seem to contradict the idea of no Postpalatial rural sanctuaries, but by the end of the Palatial period they had developed an individual panCretan importance, independent of any association with a more general cult. Therefore their Postpalatial survival is expressed by incorporation into the main redefined cult of that era, i.e. that of the Goddesses-with-Upraised-Arms. Though they apparently have no material to link them directly with the Goddess-with-Upraised-Arms cult, the same is true of the two main sacred caves which survived in the Postpalatial period, Psychro and Ida. Significantly, too, Tyree suggests a diminution in the overall number of Postpalatial sacred caves, from eleven Neopalatial to nine Postpalatial, only eight of which are the same. This strongly indicates that the centralized Neopalatial structure of integrated palatial and rural cults had simply ceased to exist” §REF§ (Peatfield 1994, 32) Peatfield, Alan. 1994. ‘After the 'Big Bang'-What? or Minoan Symbols and Shrines beyond Palatial Collapse’. In Placing the Gods: Sanctuarie sand Sacred Space in Ancient Greece. Edited by Susan E. Alcock and Robin Osborne. Oxford: Claredon Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKQD3HSS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TKQD3HSS </b></a> §REF§ The following quotes refer to the archaeological fundings at Karphi, a LM IIIC Cretan site. “The widespread and differing types of rituals noted suggest that the practice of religion at LM IIIC Karphi differed in profound ways from practices at Kavousi Vronda, Halasmenos, or Kephala, where religious rituals were more centralized in a single building or location. The inhabitants of Karphi seem to have separated into different areas the rituals of display, offering, and libation found together in the other shrines of the period, and these separations may reflect differing social and political structures as well.” §REF§ (Preston Day 2009, 151) Preston Day, Leslie. 2009. ‘Ritual Activity at Karphi: A Reappraisal’. In Hesperia Supplements: Essays on Ritual and Cult in Crete in Honor of Geraldine C. Gesell. Athens: The American School of Classical Studies. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APSF8BRI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APSF8BRI </b></a> §REF§ “However, Room 58 in the LM IIIC Priest’s House at Karphi seems to illustrate an interesting case in the suggested evolution of communal incorporated shrines into independent public sanctuaries (see fig. 18, middle). It is noteworthy that there are many shrines related to various cults at Karphi. […] The number of sanctuaries and the variety of contemporaneous cults recorded at Karphi seem to indicate that there was no centralized cult and therefore perhaps no central ruling organization.” §REF§ (Gaignerot-Driessen 2014, 515-516) Gaignerot-Driessen, Florence. 2014. ‘Goddesses Refusing to Appear? Reconsidering the Late Minoan III Figures with Upraised Arms’. In American Journal of Archaeology. Vol 118:3. Pp. 489–520. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQ5WEFUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQ5WEFUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 205, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Minoan religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In this paper I have highlighted what seem to be the two most important aspects of Postpalatial Minoan religion: 1) the wide distribution of the Goddess-with Upraised-Arms cult over Crete, and 2) the individualization of the Goddess with-Upraised-Arms figures into separate personifications. The first can only be a response to the social and political fragmentation evident in the period, whereby the former local regional centres of the Neopalatial economic network evolved into independent political units. In other words, the Goddess-with Upraised-Arms sanctuaries were a religious component to Postpalatial political and economic territorial definition. The second point is also a fragmentation, but of a more conceptual kind, a popular spiritual alienation against the centralizing religious impulses of the preceding political order.” §REF§ (Peatfield 1994, 35) Peatfield, Alan. 1994. ‘After the 'Big Bang'-What? or Minoan Symbols and Shrines beyond Palatial Collapse’. In Placing the Gods: Sanctuarie sand Sacred Space in Ancient Greece. Edited by Susan E. Alcock and Robin Osborne. Oxford: Claredon Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKQD3HSS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TKQD3HSS </b></a> §REF§ “Although there is evidence for the Minoan snake goddess in earlier times, it is clear that the cult thrived with the move from the palace to the town sanctuary. The goddess fits in with the change from elite to popular cult. Her representation was easily adapted to the large clay figures of the LM IIIB and IIIC periods and her ritual equipment to the change from elite materials to the large, simple, wheel thrown and slab made clay objects, available to all and easily visible to large groups.” §REF§ (Gesell 2010, 138) Gesell, Geraldine C. 2010. ‘The snake goddesses of the LM IIIB and LM IIIC periods’. In British School at Athens Studies: CRETAN OFFERINGS: Studies in honour of Peter Warren. Vol. 18. Pp. 131-139. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UMSJTJI2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UMSJTJI2 </b></a> §REF§ “Significantly, the two latest Goddess-with-Upraised-Arms sanctuaries, the LM IIIC sites of Karphi and Kavousi, are regional centres in the refuge site period. These shrines are therefore strongly associated with secular sites; they are not independent sanctuaries, whose presence provides the raisond'etrefor any given site. In contrast there is very little evidence for other rural shrines in the Postpalatial period. If my reading of the evidence is correct, then already by the end of the Neopalatial period (if not earlier) Jouktas was the only peak sanctuary still in use.35 Peak sanctuaries seem not to have been replaced by another form of sanctuary. Apart from the Syme sanctuary, the evidence of sacred enclosures in the Postpalatial period is apparently non-existent. These two sites, Jouktas and Syme, might seem to contradict the idea of no Postpalatial rural sanctuaries, but by the end of the Palatial period they had developed an individual panCretan importance, independent of any association with a more general cult. Therefore their Postpalatial survival is expressed by incorporation into the main redefined cult of that era, i.e. that of the Goddesses-with-Upraised-Arms. Though they apparently have no material to link them directly with the Goddess-with-Upraised-Arms cult, the same is true of the two main sacred caves which survived in the Postpalatial period, Psychro and Ida. Significantly, too, Tyree suggests a diminution in the overall number of Postpalatial sacred caves, from eleven N eopalatial to nine Postpalatial, only eight of which are the same.36 This strongly indicates that the centralized N eopalatial structure of integrated palatial and rural cults had simply ceased to exist” §REF§ (Peatfield 1994, 32) Peatfield, Alan. 1994. ‘After the 'Big Bang'-What? or Minoan Symbols and Shrines beyond Palatial Collapse’. In Placing the Gods: Sanctuarie sand Sacred Space in Ancient Greece. Edited by Susan E. Alcock and Robin Osborne. Oxford: Claredon Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKQD3HSS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TKQD3HSS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 207, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Yahwism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The monarchy was equally a political and religious institution, and under royal influence, religion combined powerful expressions of state and religious ideology. When the prestige of the national deity was increased, the prestige of the dynasty in turn was enhanced. The special relationship between Yahweh and the Davidic dynasty assumed the form of a formal covenantal relationship, called in 2 Samuel 23:5 an ‘eternal covenant’ (bĕrît ‘ôlām).” §REF§(Smith 189) Smith, Mark S. 2002. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel. 2nd ed. The Biblical Resource Series. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I88WJP4W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I88WJP4W </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 206, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Canaanite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Religious ideas were part of the royal ideology. A king may be described as legitimate “before the holy gods” (KAI 4). The gods make the kings rulers (10). Some kings were also priests (13), and some queens were also priestesses (14). Kings were responsible for building or rebuilding temples (14).” §REF§ (Wright 177) Wright, David. 2004. Syria and Canaan. In Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, edited by Sarach Iles Johnston, 173–80. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DYW2LWKS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DYW2LWKS </b></a> §REF§ “This [monarchical] political system was also the common religion of the ancient world. The gods chose the kings, marched to war with the armies, provided the laws that the kings enforced, and demanded that the kings rule righteously. The ritual offerings demanded by the gods were the taxes that fed royal bureaucracies, the priests, and armies..” §REF§(Noll 2007) Noll, K. L. ‘Canaanite Religion’. Religion Compass 1, no. 1 (January 2007): 61–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2006.00010.x. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPA9AA4T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WPA9AA4T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Hasmoneans were a Jewish family that fought the Seleucid rulers during the mid-second century B.C.E. to create an independent Jewish state, which they at first governed as its political leaders and high priests and then as its kings.” §REF§(Atkinson 23) Atkinson, Kenneth. 2016. A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond. T & T Clark Jewish and Christian Texts Series, volume 23. London ; New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LH9TVCJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LH9TVCJQ </b></a> §REF§ “In the case of Second Temple Judaism, the “official religion” was that perpetuated by the Jerusalem temple and its priesthood.” §REF§(Grabbe 176) Grabbe, Lester L. 2000. Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NKFIXZHF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NKFIXZHF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 206, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Canaanite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Phoenicians shared the same religious beliefs and worshiped the same gods in all their kingdoms. They also built places of worship to honor their divinities in almost all their settlements.” §REF§(Sader 188) Sader, Hélène S. 2019. The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia. Archaeology and Biblical Studies, Number 25. Atlanta: SBL Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9LYVUJ7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9LYVUJ7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“This state still produced coinage with Greek legends and Greek portraiture and religious imagery, although bilingual Greek-Prākrit legends and syncretic religious imagery were becoming more common.” §REF§ Mairs, R. (2014). The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia. University of California Press, 112–113. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FE8CZXAU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FE8CZXAU </b></a> §REF§ “The adoption of Buddhism among the Indo-Greek elite classes is attested by the celebrated conversion of Menander (c. 155-130 B.C.E.), the greatest of all the Indo-Greek kings of the Euthydemid dynasty who ruled over much of Afghanistan and Pakistan and whose conquests extended in the east as far as the river Ganges and Palibothra (Pataliputra).” […] “In the first centuries of the millennium the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra integrated Indian and Hellenistic styles. This is discerned in statues of bodhisattvas adorned with royal jewellery (bracelets and torques) and amulet boxes, the contrapposto stance of the upright, an emphasis on draperies, and a plethora of Dionysian themes. However, we should bear in mind that Greco-Buddhist art did not come all at once or in a single act of creation, but emerged as the by-product of a continuous exchange of material, linguistic and cultural expertise among Indo-Greeks, Indians and Persian populations. While Yona missionaries may have seduced many to Buddhism there would have been among them a good number of Greeks. This would mean that the entire event also involved a Greek-to-Greek conversion to Buddhism where the Indo-Greeks had been active supporters of their new faith.” §REF§ Halkias, G. T. (2013). When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfer of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. In P. Wick & V. Rabens (Eds.), Religion and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West (Vol. 5, pp. 65–115). Leiden, 90–91 & 104. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGDBID5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGDBID5Q </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“This state still produced coinage with Greek legends and Greek portraiture and religious imagery, although bilingual Greek-Prākrit legends and syncretic religious imagery were becoming more common.” §REF§ Mairs, R. (2014). The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia. University of California Press, 112–113. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FE8CZXAU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FE8CZXAU </b></a> §REF§ “The adoption of Buddhism among the Indo-Greek elite classes is attested by the celebrated conversion of Menander (c. 155-130 B.C.E.), the greatest of all the Indo-Greek kings of the Euthydemid dynasty who ruled over much of Afghanistan and Pakistan and whose conquests extended in the east as far as the river Ganges and Palibothra (Pataliputra).” […] “In the first centuries of the millennium the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra integrated Indian and Hellenistic styles. This is discerned in statues of bodhisattvas adorned with royal jewellery (bracelets and torques) and amulet boxes, the contrapposto stance of the upright, an emphasis on draperies, and a plethora of Dionysian themes. However, we should bear in mind that Greco-Buddhist art did not come all at once or in a single act of creation, but emerged as the by-product of a continuous exchange of material, linguistic and cultural expertise among Indo-Greeks, Indians and Persian populations. While Yona missionaries may have seduced many to Buddhism there would have been among them a good number of Greeks. This would mean that the entire event also involved a Greek-to-Greek conversion to Buddhism where the Indo-Greeks had been active supporters of their new faith.” §REF§ Halkias, G. T. (2013). When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfer of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. In P. Wick & V. Rabens (Eds.), Religion and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West (Vol. 5, pp. 65–115). Leiden, 90–91 & 104. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGDBID5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGDBID5Q </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“During their rise, the Ghurids patronized the Karramis, a Sunni pietistic sect whose founder, Muhammad b. Karram (d. 869), helped convert the recalcitrant Ghur from paganism to Islam. [...] In 1199, at the zenith of their political power, the Ghurid sultans broke with the Karramis, aligning themselves with the more transregional Hanafi and Shafi‘i law schools of Islam instead. The realignment can be correlated with increased cultural and diplomatic contacts with the Baghdad caliphate, especially during the lengthy reign of the Abbasid caliph Nasir (r. 1180–1225). This “international turn” was also reflected in the introduction of new coin types in the Ghazni mint in 1200, which linked the Ghurids more directly with their Sunni contemporaries in the wider Islamic world.” §REF§ Flood, F. B. (2013). Ghurids 1009–1215. In G. Böwering (Ed.), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought (pp. 193–194). Princeton University Press, 193–194. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZ942HQB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SZ942HQB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“When the Ghaznavid hold in Sind weakened because of Mas'ud's difficulties, the local dynasty of Sūmrās who were Isma'ilis by faith established themselves in Sind. They were succeeded by the Sammās, a Sunnī dynasty, about 736/1335.” §REF§ Qureshi, I. H. (1977). Muslim India Before the Mughals. In A. K. S. Lambton, B. Lewis, & P. M. Holt (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West (pp. 1–34). Cambridge University Press, 26. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZUICWJZW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZUICWJZW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Nor were such appointments always conditional on the aspirant changing his religion. Very senior ones normally were and of course sultans had to be Muslim by definition […]” §REF§ (Copland et.al., 2013) Copeland, Ian et. al. 2013. A History of State and Religion in India. Milton Park: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Sect inferred from neighbouring polities. “Under pressure from the strongly orthodox Sunni new powers of the Ghaznavids and then the Ghurids in what is now Afghanistan (see above, Chapters 5 and 8), neither the Khari-jite rulers of Makran and Qusdar (who recognized no sovereign but God) nor the Multan rulers (who came to recognize the Fatimids of Egypt) were able to continue their sectarian independence much longer; they compromised by submitting when vanquished, but then reasserted their independence when left to themselves.” §REF§ Baloch, N. A. & Rafiqi, A. Q. (1998). The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting. In M. S. Asimov & C. E. Bosworth (Eds.), History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century; Pt. I: the Historical, Social and Economic Setting (Vol. 4) (pp.297–322). UNESCO Publishing, 301. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C7WCDV67\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: C7WCDV67 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "long_name": "Hephthalite Empire", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 212, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hephthalite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Information about the religion of the Hephthalites is provided by the Chinese sources. Sung Yun reports that in Tokharistan ‘the majority of them do not believe in Buddhism. Most of them worship wai-shen or ‘foreign gods’. He makes almost identical remarks about the Hephthalites of Gandhara, saying that they honour kui-shen (demons). The manuscript of the Liang Shu (Book 54) contain important evidence: ‘[the Hephthalites] worship T’ien-shen or [the] heaven god and Huo-shen or [the] fire god. Every morning they first go outside [of their tents] and pray to [the] gods and then take breakfast.’ For the Chinese observer, the heaven god and fire god were evidently foreign gods. We have no evidence of the specific content of these religious beliefs but it is quite possible that they belonged to the Iranian (or Indo-Iranian) group.” §REF§ (Litvinsky 1992, 147) Litvinsky, B.A. 1992. ‘The Hephthalite Empire’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 3. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7MTFU42T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7MTFU42T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that \"unknown\" is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era." }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"If matters of genealogy have left a number of loose ends, the Pashtuns are emphatic that their Muslim identity cannot be challenged. It is a core belief among all Pashtuns that their founding ancestor, Qais, adopted Islam in the lifetime of the Prophet in Arabia and that Pashtuns became the strongest defenders of the faith from that time forward.\" §REF§(Barfield 2010, 105). Barfield, T.J. 2010. Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: Zotero Link §REF§ Note the following, as well: \"Pashtunwali is the name of the Pashtun traditional code of behavior, which can be summarized under the terms of nanawati, mediation or protection; badal, retaliation; and melmastia, hospitality. \"Nanawati is the obligation to give protection to anyone seeking asylum, even at the risk of the protector’s life, and to mediate for the weaker party seeking peace with someone he has injured. It is, therefore, a means of ending a feud. \"Badal must be exacted for personal insults, damage to property, or blood feuds. Badal is exacted for the murder of a member of one’s family or hamsaya (client) and for violation of safe conduct (badragga). Feuds may involve entire tribes and last for years until a jirga of elders, or mullas , succeeds in mediating a solution. \"Khunbaha, blood money, has to be paid for murder, except in the case when an even number of feuding individuals were killed. Each injury has a price: at the turn of the century, 180 to 300 rupees had to be paid for a life, and the loss of an eye, ear, arm, or leg carried a certain value (the British government in India codified tribal law, including the amounts of money to be paid). Anthropologists disagree as to the major cause of feuding, whether it is in defense of female honor, competition for land, or retaliation for personal insult. \"Melmastia is considered a sacred duty, and every village has a guesthouse or uses its mosque as a shelter for visitors. A guest’s person and property are protected, and a Pashtun is proud to offer the guest or stranger what he cannot even afford for himself. In a sense, each Afghan tribe constitutes a nation, and no one may enter a tribe’s territory without the permission of the tribe and the assurance of safe conduct, badragga. A traveler pays for an armed escort who will convey him through the territory of the tribe and hand him over to a badragga of a neighboring tribe. \"Violation of the Pashtun code brings dishonor and shame not just to an individual but to the entire tribe or community. The process of “detribalization,” sedentarization, and Islamization has led to a weaking of the practice of Pashtunwali.\" §REF§ (Adamec 2012, 360-361) Adamec, L.W. 2012. Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: Zotero Link §REF§“Ahmad Shah Durrani […] was, by all available accounts, a pious Muslim, a Sufi disciple of the saint of Chamkani, and a man with deep respect for the ulama and holy men, both as a a matter of personal inclination and of public policy.” §REF§ (Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner1988,31) Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (Eds.) 1988. The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Pakistan: Syracuse University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G8VG3TB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G8VG3TB9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Since, moreover, it is politically expedient for ruler and ruled to be of one faith, it may reasonably be assumed that, at least from the time they seized power, the Arsacids were professed Zoroastrians.” §REF§ (Boyce 2012, online) Mary, Boyce, “ARSACIDS iv. Arsacid religion,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/5, pp. 540-541, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arsacids-iv (accessed on 30 December 2012). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DGMIWEDZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DGMIWEDZ </b></a>§REF§“There is neither proof of the Arsacid rulers ’ religious orientation nor any indication that the kings of kings interfered with the various cults. The simultaneousreverence of such a diversity of traditional Mesopotamian, Greek, Arab, and Iranian, as well as monotheistic gods which is mirrored in the diversity of local temple architecture (Downey 1988 ), makes the Arsacid period a most interesting field for research.” §REF§ (Hauser 2012, 1016) Stefan R Hauser, 2012. “The Arsacid (Parthian) Empire”, in Daniel T. Potts (ed.), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Oxford/New York: Wiley-Blackwell 2012, 1001–1020. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GEH35732\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GEH35732 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 213, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shinto-Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB The term \"Shinto-Buddhism\" is an attempt at reflecting the complementarity of Buddhism and Kami worship in Japanese religious beliefs and practices at this time. We are open to alternative suggestions from experts.\r\n\r\nNBB It may not be appropriate to use the name “Shinto” to label indigenous Japanese religious beliefs and practices in this era. “That being said, however, it remains extremely difficult to discuss Shinto in the ages before the term itself is widely used, that is, from the fifteenth century on. Up to that point, Shinto is a collective designation for jingi, state-sponsored Kami rites, and miscellaneous Kami cults. This usage is inevitably imprecise and unsatisfactory in various ways. To uphold the significance of institutional, social, and ritual continuities forces one to struggle for clarity where little is to be found, but others have also accepted this challenge.” §REF§(Hardacre 2017: 44) Hardacre, H. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/hardacre/titleCreatorYear/items/7RP3IRVR/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n“Certain Shinto ceremonies were even still performed at the imperial court. The Daijoe, a ceremony performed when a new emperor is installed , and the Jinkonjiki, a biannual offering to the kami by the emperor in return for peace and prosperity, were only two such rituals still observed.\"§REF§ (Symonds, 28) Symonds, Shannon. 2005. A History of Japanese Religion: From Ancient Times to Present. New York: State University of New York Repository. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2RAFS9A4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2RAFS9A4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 143, "name": "jp_jomon_6", "long_name": "Japan - Final Jomon", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 214, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jomon Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ritual specialists, if they existed, are thought to have been part-time, although some scholars, notably Watanabe Hitoshi (1998) consider that they may have represented a class of person in whom a certain stratification of authority and power may have been embodied. Certain burials, for example one from Yamaga in Kyushu, with shell armlets and jadeite axes, are cited as evidence for this (Kobayashi 2004). The ceramic figures and pottery masks, and the intriguing emerging representative designs embedded in many of the Jomon cooking vessels, suggest a concern with transformation and the awareness of the potential to take on different personalities.” §REF§ (Kaner 2011, 461) Kaner, Simon. 2011. ‘The Archaeology of religion and Ritual in the Prehistoric Japanese Archipelago’. In Oxford handbook of Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Edited by Timothy Insoll. Oxford: Oxford University press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UGIIIFKQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UGIIIFKQ </b></a> §REF§ “The second theme is that various ritual practices, from burial with grave goods to the construction of stone-built monuments, were expressions of social power rather than ritual power or religious authority. This theme is at the forefront of discussions by scholars such as Junko Habu and Oki Nakamura who have argued that there was a degree of inherited, or ascribed, social status in the Jomon period, and that the primary function of ritual practice was to express and legitimate this ascribed status. There remains considerable disagreement about this (Habu 2004).” §REF§ (Kaner 2011, 461) Kaner, Simon. 2011. ‘The Archaeology of religion and Ritual in the Prehistoric Japanese Archipelago’. In Oxford Handbook of Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Edited by Timothy Insoll. Oxford: Oxford University press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UGIIIFKQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UGIIIFKQ </b></a> §REF§" } ] }