Official Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Official Religions.
GET /api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 441, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/official-religions/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 113, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hittite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Reverence for forebears in Hittite society normally focused on the gods and the kings, with close association with the Underworld, presided over especially by the goddess Lelwani. The center of attention in the Underworld was the sacred cultic ditch, references to which indicate a feature varying between a deep hole resembling a well and a shallows, narrow incision with a cuplike depression, such as occurs widely carved into rock-cut shrines. The cultic ditch was the abode of gods and dead kings alike.” […] “The development of the ancestor cult among the Hittites, most evident in the royal family, had its roots in several ethnic backgrounds, initially Hattian from the central lands in and around the Halys basin and then also Palaic, from Paphlagonia adjoining the Black Sea, Luwain from the Taurus region, and eventually Hurrian from Kizzuwadna. Thus it reflected the heterogenous character of the religion of the Hittite state, in due course codified as the official pantheon, the ‘thousand gods.’” §REF§ (Burney 2018, 32-33) Burney, Charles. 2018. Historical Dictionary of the Hittites. London: Rowman and Littlefield. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q43QX75C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q43QX75C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 164, "name": "tr_hatti_new_k", "long_name": "Hatti - New Kingdom", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1180 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 113, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hittite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\" With its emphasis on hierarchy, according to which every personage in the universe ideally remained in his or her proper place and fulfilled an allotted role, Hittite religion was also a force for the maintenance of stability within society. In all documented societies of ancient western Asia and northeast Africa the king stood atop both the social and cultic pyramids. The primary distinction between the role of the monarch in Egypt, on the one hand, and in Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and Hatti, on the other, is that in the former culture the ruler was himself one of the gods, whereas in the latter civilizations he was (merely) first among humans. In either instance resisting his will was ideologically illegitimate. The king had been selected by the gods to be their vicar among humans. Any challenge to the king's paramountcy from below was illegitimate from the outset.” §REF§ (Beckman 2013, 96-97) Beckman, Gary. 2013. ‘Hittite Religion’. In The Cambridge History of the Religions in the Ancient World: From the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Age. Edited by Michele Renee Salzman and Marvin A. Sweeney. Vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sehat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/35ZH8IHU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 35ZH8IHU </b></a> §REF§ “The Hittite kings were devoutly religious, even if, more often than not, politics played a key role in how their piety was articulated. Decisions regarding the cult were rarely made independently of political concerns. Tudhaliya II’s adoption of the cult of the goddess of the night in Samuha as relations with her home territory of Kizzuwatna were warming up, the promotion of the cult of the Storm-God of Aleppo as Hatti’s empire in Syria grew, Muwatalli II’s move of the capital to Tarhuntassa as part of a refocusing of the state religion on southern cults, and Tudhaliya IV’s introduction in Hurma, an ancient town in central Anatolia, of cults of deities connected with the kingship are just a few examples of the interconnectedness of politics and religion. Polytheism by definition precludes religious dogma and orthodoxy, and the religion promoted by and for the Hittite ruling elite reflects the expansiveness inherent in such a system even as it accommodated reforms initiated by individual kings to promote favored cults.” §REF§ (Collins 2007, 157-158) Collins, Billie Jean. 2007. The Hittites and their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ9J6WHG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ9J6WHG </b></a> §REF§ “The monarch occupied a central position in Hittite ideology (Guterbock 1954; Gurney 1958). He was the linchpin of the universe, the point at which the sphere of the gods met that of human beings. As chief priest of the Sun-Goddess of Arinna, the king was responsible for the proper service of the gods by humankind and, in turn, represented human society before the awesome power of the gods. […] Although to a certain extent the king was identified with the male Sun-God, as shown by his costume and his title “My Sun” (Kellerman 1978), he was not deified until after his death, at which time he was said “to become a god” and began to receive cultic observances (Otten 1958). Indeed, it is believed that a section of Yazilikaya served as the mortuary temple of king Tudhaliya IV (Bittel 1970: chapter 4). The queen, in turn, had a special relationship with the Sun-Goddess (Bin-Nun 1975: 197-202), and all defunct members of the royal family received occasional offerings (Otten 1951). All households were responsible for the service of their ancestors (Archi 1979b}, however, so the afterlife of Hittite royalty was probably just a grander version of that awaiting the ordinary person.” §REF§ (Beckman 1989, 101-102) Beckman, Gary. 1989. ‘The Religion of the Hittites’. In The Biblical Archaeologist. Vol. 52:2/3. Pp. 98-108. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4T4FHM3I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4T4FHM3I </b></a> §REF§ “Each of these state-sponsored festivals served for the participating towns and their representatives as an expression of allegiance to the king and for the king as a means of forging a collective religious identity and unity.” §REF§ (Collins 2007, 163) Collins, Billie Jean. 2007. The Hittites and their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QJ9J6WHG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QJ9J6WHG </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 102, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Traditionally, imperial authority had been justified by the divinely protected status of the emperor, expressed through an imperial cult. The Christianisation of the imperial cult tended rather to enhance its authority than to diminish it, since the representative of the only God was hardly reduced in status in comparison with a divine emperor holding a relatively lowly position in the divine pantheon.23 It seems to be demonstrable that this Christian imperial authority and that of the hierarchy of the Christian church, which was closely bound up with it, were reinforced by holy men and holy images claiming immediate access to supernatural power. It seems, too, that even traditional imperial authority was increasingly expressed through images that spoke of a more immediate sacred authority. This becomes evident at the beginning of the seventh century from the use of icons of Christian saints as military banners, especially of the Mother of God; from the way in which Christian armies are seen as fighting for the Virgin, with her protection and even her assistance; and from the role claimed for the Virgin as protector of the city of Constantinople. A sacralisation of authority is also manifest in the increasing significance attached to coronation by the patriarch in the making of an emperor; this was always conducted in a church from the beginning of the seventh century, and in the Great Church of St Sophia from 641.” §REF§ (Louth 2010, 242) Louth, Andrew. 2010. ‘Byzantium Transforming (600-700)’ In The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492. Edited by Jonathan Shepard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P92RUTWI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P92RUTWI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "ec_shuar_2", "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 144, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shuar Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘Jivaro religion is based on the idea of an impersonal supernatural power called TSARUTAMA, a concept similar to the Polynesians belief in MANA. Objects, persons, spirits, and especially the TSANTSAS are all infused with varying degrees of TSARUTAMA which can be used for either good or evil. The mountain Rain God, the Anaconda, the Sun, Moon, Earth, and the chonta palm, are all believed to possess great amounts of this power. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. https://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NDIQCQZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NDIQCQZP </b></a>§REF§ ‘The arutam soul belief system contains a number of significant supernatural traits organized together into one internally logical complex. In this system the central idea of immunity from death is combined with such anthropologically well-known concepts as: a vision quest; a guardian spirit; eternal and multiple souls; a variety of generalized ancestor worship; reincarnation; soul-loss; soul-capture; nonshamanistic spirit possession; and a concept of personally-acquired impersonal power, kakarma, which resembles, but is not precisely identical to, the Oceanian mana.’§REF§ (Harner 1962: 268) Harner, Michael J. “Jívaro Souls.” American Anthropologist, vol. 64, no. 2, 1962, pp. 258–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/666597. Seshat URL <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/43KC4WBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 43KC4WBV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The political consequences of the pagan worldview being replaced by the Christian one are obvious: there is a clear parallel between the change from pluralism and competition to power monopoly and hierarchy in the divine as well as the human world. The period from around 1150 to 1300, when these doctrines were developed and set down in writing, was also a period of expansion for the Church and themonarchy and of the development of royal and ecclesiastical jurisdiction and legislation. The introduction of royal unction and coronation, which became permanently established in 1247, the law of succession of 1163–1164 and the following ones of 1260 and 1273 are all clear expressions of the Christian concept of order, which is developed further by the Church in connection with the alliance with Magnus Erlingsson and by the monarchy in ‘A Speech against the Bishops’ (c. 1200), composed during the conflict between King Sverre and the Church, and ‘The King’s Mirror’ (c. 1255). In the latter work, the king’s government over the realm is compared to God’s over the universe, and not only the monarchy, but the social hierarchy, expressed in the four estates, is regarded as instituted by God. There is thus a clear difference between the idea of estates in this work and that of the Eddic poem ‘Rigs ula’. The estates of ‘The King’s Mirror’ work together to fulfil the aim of mankind, whereas those of ‘Rigs ula’ are simply the expression of the physical and social differences that can be observed by all. However, like in other matters, the change was a gradual process, and there was a considerable amount of compromise between old and new. An example of this is the assimilation between the traditional concept of luck and the idea of God’s providence. When the skald celebrates Harald Gille’s victory as the expression of God’s will and King Sverre in the saga constantly refers to God as the explanation of his victories, there is very little mention of the Christian concept of order. God is first and foremost a great patron who favours the king in question. This attitude changes in mid-13th century sources like ‘The King’s Mirror’ and ‘The Saga of Ha°kon Ha°konsson’, where God’s protection of the king becomes the expression of an idea of objective justice.” §REF§ (Bagge 2005, 126-127) Sverre, Bagge. 2005. ‘Christianization and State Formation in Early Medieval Norway’. In Scandinavian Journal of History. Vol. 30:2. Pp. 107-134. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G226764Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G226764Z </b></a> §REF§ “In spite of his conciliatory disposition, King Mag- nus' reign had its share of quarrels and disturbances. Chief among these was his controversy with the Church, which ended, on his part, with an abject surrender. The archbishop, at that time, was the haughty and ambitious Jon the Red (Rode), who, before consenting to a change in the law of succession, which the king had much at heart, extorted from him a series of humiHating concessions. At a meeting of notables in Tunsberg (1277), Magnus bound himself to abstain from all interference in the selection of bishops, and to surrender to the latter the right of filling, in accordance with their pleasure, all the clerical offices. He conceded, moreover, to the archbishop the privilege of coining money and to have a hundred men in his personal service, who should be exempt from feudal obligations to the king.” §REF§ (Boyesen 1886, 448-449) Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth. 1886. A history of Norway from the earliest times. London: Sampson, Low, Marston, Searle & Rovington. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M24GC5DJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M24GC5DJ </b></a> §REF§ The following quotes refer to Christianity in Iceland “The New Church Law replaced the older Christian Law section of Grágás, the Icelandic law code from the Commonwealth period. As discussed above, in the late thirteenth century, King Magnús lagabætir (1263–80) attempted to reform Norwegian and Icelandic law. During that project, he came into conflict with archbishop Jón rauði, who wanted to assert control over ecclesiastical law, which before had been included as a section of the regional law codes in Norway (and indeed, in Iceland). This conflict was ongoing in 1271, when Járnsíða was sent to Iceland; as a consequence, this law code did not contain a section on Christian law. In 1273, Jón rauði won the right to control ecclesiastical law in what is known as the Bergen Concordat. A year later, Bishop Árni came to Iceland with the text of the New Christian law, which was ratified by the Althing in 1275. Scholars once believed that Bishop Árni‘s New Church Law had been accepted in the diocese of Skálholt after being ratified by the Althing in 1275, but that it was not accepted within the diocese of Hólar before the year 1354, when a letter from the king of Norway brought it into law. Recent scholarship has corrected this understanding. Magnús Lyngdal Magnússon has demonstrated that the New Church Law was officially ratified at around the same time in both dioceses (around 1275), but that the Icelandic bishops struggled to see it upheld in practice without the support of the Norwegian crown. He argued that the king‘s letter from 1354 came at a time of renewed support for the Church in Norway. Guðrún Ása Grímsdóttir suggested that the conflicts between farmers and bishops in Hólar in the mid-fourteenth century might have arisen from different views on the law, with the bishops attempting to follow canon law, and the farmers working from Icelandic national laws. Building on this, Magnús Lyngdal made an interesting argument that the New Church Law was accepted only slowly within Iceland. He pointed to the manuscript transmission of the New Church Law as evidence that, as Guðrún suggested, there were two ecclesiastical laws at work in Iceland in the fourteenth century. In fourteenth-century manuscripts, Bishop Árni‘s New Church Law is often found together with the Christian Law section of Grágás, the old legal code of Iceland. In fifteenth-century manuscripts, by contrast, the New Church Law is more often found paired with Jónsbók, suggesting that by this time, the New Church Law had been accepted as the only valid Christian law code of Iceland.” §REF§ (Sigurdson 2011, 37-38) Sigurdson, Erika Ruth. 2011. The Church in Fourteenth-Century Iceland: Ecclesiastical Administration, Literacy, and the Formation of an Elite Clerical Identity. PhD Thesis. Leeds: The University of Leeds. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HICWDESD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HICWDESD </b></a> §REF§ “The history of the Icelandic Church, too, has been influenced by this conception of deep-seated changes to Icelandic society and government in the late thirteenth century. Bishop Árni‘s staðamál and New Church Law brought innovations to Iceland in canon law and ecclesiastical ownership of Church property. These innovations have also been coloured in modern scholarship by the changing relationship between Iceland and Norway. While an earlier generation of scholarship saw these developments negatively, as proof of Norwegian interference in Icelandic society and politics, a more recent generation of scholars has emphasised the canonical nature of these changes, and the desire in both Iceland and Norway to conform to canonical Church practices, and international ecclesiastical decrees. This interpretation too, is influenced by the dichotomy of native Icelandic customs and foreign influence, although not taking such a negative view of imported practices.” §REF§ (Sigurdson 2011, 42) Sigurdson, Erika Ruth. 2011. The Church in Fourteenth-Century Iceland: Ecclesiastical Administration, Literacy, and the Formation of an Elite Clerical Identity. PhD Thesis. Leeds: The University of Leeds. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HICWDESD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HICWDESD </b></a> §REF§ “Thus, by the middle of the 13th century there were many law texts in the country and no codex receptus, although the texts kept at Hólar and Skálholt were given preeminence. It is of course likely that the bishops recognised the importance of knowing the law, and could therefore be trusted to keep everything that was law in writing The arrangement also reveals the lack of structure in the Icelandic constitutional order and the strong position the church was in to influence matters.” §REF§ (Vésteinsson 1996, 33) Vésteinsson, Orri. 1996. The Christianisation of Iceland: Priests, Power and Social Change 1000-1300. PhD Thesis. London: University College London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TZ3CH4G3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TZ3CH4G3 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 146, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orokaiva Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "'The belief in ghosts and spirits is a predominant characteristic of the northern native. In almost every tribe I have observed the propitiation of family ghosts with individual offerings of food by ordinary persons to secure the vitality of their food supply, and by sorcerers to stimulate their charms. Ghosts are invoked during ceremonies by divination to reveal crimes and criminals. Food offerings to ghosts are made during death feasts and during certain initiation rites. The house of initiation and the paraphernalia of the dance are believed to have spiritual powers, and when the paraphernalia are thrown into the river at the completion of the rites, they are invoked to smite the enemies of the dancers.' (Chinnery and Haddon 1917:448) §REF§ Chinnery, Ernest William Pearson and Aldred Cort Haddon. 1917. Five new religious cults in British New Guinea. Hibbert Journal<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ACAXTI6G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ACAXTI6G </b></a> §REF§ 'The Orokaiva religious history is also particularly interesting here. Their traditional faith, Williams says, though in many respects vague and locally variable, concerned itself “primarily with the spirits of the dead” and their influence on the welfare of the living. Death was appraised with particular realism, although it was considered ultimately as the result of supernatural causes. Magic had a consistent place' (Keesing 1952:19) §REF§ Keesing, Felix. 1952. ‘The Papuan Orokaiva Vs Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock and Its Aftermath’. Human Organization 11:1, pp.16-22. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/99DBPAU4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 99DBPAU4 </b></a> §REF§ The spread of Christianity and the emergence of new supralocal religious movements did not predate colonization: 'The traditional beliefs of the Orokaiva, though in many respects vague and locally variable, focused primarily on the \"spirits of the dead\" and their influence on the living. The Orokaiva had no high god. Formerly, they were animists, believing in the existence of souls (ASISI) in humans, plants, and animals. The taro spirit was of particular importance and was the inspiration and foundation of the Taro Cult. The Orokaiva have been swept recently by a series of new cults, indicative of their religious adaptability in the face of fresh experience. Mission influence is strong in the Northern District. Religious training is provided almost exclusively by the Anglican church, although mission influence has not totally eradicated traditional beliefs, producing an air of mysticism about the resultant religious system.' Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva (2004) §REF§ Latham, Christopher and John Beierle. 2004. ‘Culture Summary: Orokaiva’. In: eHRAF World Cultures. Online: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V2AK2FR7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V2AK2FR7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 144, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shuar Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘Jivaro religion is based on the idea of an impersonal supernatural power called TSARUTAMA, a concept similar to the Polynesians belief in MANA. Objects, persons, spirits, and especially the TSANTSAS are all infused with varying degrees of TSARUTAMA which can be used for either good or evil. The mountain Rain God, the Anaconda, the Sun, Moon, Earth, and the chonta palm, are all believed to possess great amounts of this power. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. https://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NDIQCQZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NDIQCQZP </b></a>§REF§ ‘The arutam soul belief system contains a number of significant supernatural traits organized together into one internally logical complex. In this system the central idea of immunity from death is combined with such anthropologically well-known concepts as: a vision quest; a guardian spirit; eternal and multiple souls; a variety of generalized ancestor worship; reincarnation; soul-loss; soul-capture; nonshamanistic spirit possession; and a concept of personally-acquired impersonal power, kakarma, which resembles, but is not precisely identical to, the Oceanian mana.’§REF§ (Harner 1962: 268) Harner, Michael J. “Jívaro Souls.” American Anthropologist, vol. 64, no. 2, 1962, pp. 258–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/666597. Seshat URL <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/43KC4WBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 43KC4WBV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 147, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Akan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The tripartite spirit world of the Akan was predicated on the constant intermingling of the sacred and the temporal. The construction of two sets of intermediates was a means of expressing a distinction between power and social organization (the ancestors) and belief (the gods), who were all nevertheless sanctioned by the supreme being. This differentiation is crucial since, when properly manipulated, it could provide the basis for a rudimentary distinction between religion and state without affecting the essential spirituality of both.” §REF§ (Chazan 1988, 67) Chazan, Naomi. 1988. ‘The Early State in Africa: The Asante Case.’ In The Early State in African Perspective: Culture, Power and Division of Labour. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/854TD597\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 854TD597 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 100, "name": "us_proto_haudenosaunee", "long_name": "Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1565 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 148, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Iroquois Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "cn_hmong_2", "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 149, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hmong Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote points to the role of Hmong religion in upholding traditional social order. “However, in a situation of extreme political instability, and despite the occurrence of such violent anti-missionary movements as that described, above, Christianity has not succeeded in destroying the cultural imperatives of a traditional belief system in which ancestor worship, shamanism, and pantheism blend together in mutual support to uphold and substantiate a strongly patrilineal system of clan exogamy defined as ethnically Hmong.” §REF§ Tapp, N. (1989). The impact of missionary Christianity upon marginalized ethnic minorities: The case of the Hmong. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 20(1), 70-95. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BB3MHG9U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BB3MHG9U </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 148, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Iroquois Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Most Iroquois were non-Christian in 1820; however, by 1860 most had become Christian.'\"§REF§Foley, Denis 1994. “Ethnohistoric And Ethnographic Analysis Of The Iroquois From The Aboriginal Era To The Present Suburban Era”, 182§REF§ \"In the early decades of the nineteenth century, various ministers visited the Onondaga and other efforts were made to convert them, with only limited success. In 1816 Eleazar Williams, an adopted Mohawk catechist and layreader (see “Oneida,” this vol.), visited the Onondagas. In that and the following year, a few Onondagas were baptized by Episcopalian clergymen, and subsequently some attended the church at Onondaga Hill (Clark 1849,1:238-240). About the same time, a local Presbyterian minister also proselytized among the Onondagas, and in 1821 there were said to be 34 who professed Christianityin the Presbyterian form of worship. In 1820 a school taught by a Stockbridge woman opened, but the teacher died a few years later (J. Morse 1822:323-324, 394; Clark1849, 1:240-241). About 1828 a Quaker opened anindustrial school and stayed for six or seven years(Fletcher 1888:551). Nevertheless, there remained considerable opposition to Christian missionaries, and after a Methodist church was established at Oneida in 1829, Indian exhorters rather than ministers were appointed to visit Onondaga as the Onondagas remained hostile to Christianity (Clark 1849, 1:241).' §REF§Blau, Harold, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker 1978. “Onondaga”, 496§REF§" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 152, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Trukese Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 148, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Iroquois Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 152, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Trukese Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "RA’s note: From the following quotes, it becomes clear that the elites, in the case of the Indigenous people from Chuuk – the chiefs and the ritual specialists (itang), were believed to have ancestry from the gods, hence, the religion they practiced would have been the pre-colonial Chuukese religion. ‘The association of itang with chiefs was an intimate one. Ideally, chiefs themselves were also trained in itang lore. This training included learning what was considered to be good for people and the right things to do for people so as to keep them contented and living in harmony (Efot 1947). A chief who did not know these things was not likely to serve his people well. No one could properly qualify as a chief if he or members of his lineage were not versed in itang lore. Possession of this lore, moreover, was evidence of the descent of the chief and his matrilineal lineage from an ancestor who was a god in human form. The spirit power manaman, of chiefs derived from this ancestry and from the itang lore that descended from it as well’ (Goodenough 2002:297) §REF§ Goodenough, Ward Hunt. 2002. Under Heaven’s Brow: Pre-Christian Religious Tradition in Chuuk. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BAX6HMH7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BAX6HMH7 </b></a> §REF§ ‘The association of chief and itang with the heavenly gods was symbolically expressed in a number of ways. Except for a chief’s or itang’s wife, men of his lineage, his wife’s sister and brothers, his parents and his children, all other people were prohibited from standing in his presence if he was seated. They crouched (ópwpwóro, an apparent contraction of ó-pwpwóro-ro ‘make curved bend’, walked on their knees, or crawled on their hands and knees so as not to be physically higher than he was. Chiefs and itang were greeted when approaching or passing with a bowed head and the expression “Fááyiro”, meaning ‘Under Arc’ or ‘Under Bow’, an apparent synonym for Fachchamw (‘Under Brow’). This greeting acknowledged that the chief or itang was of the region under the arc of heaven that was the abode of the gods.’ (Goodenough 2002:298) §REF§ Goodenough, Ward Hunt. 2002. Under Heaven’s Brow: Pre-Christian Religious Tradition in Chuuk. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BAX6HMH7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BAX6HMH7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 102, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The clergy, in addition to building churches and performing Christian rites, had to baptize the pagan population - to baptize \"without obstacles\" (in case of desire or request). In the petition of Philotheus (Leshchinsky) in the name of Tsar Peter I (1702) there is evidence of the state policy for the Christianization of the local population.” (Rough translation of Russian text) §REF§ (Yurganova, 2014, 118) Yurganova, I. 2014 \"Missionary Activities of Russian Orthodox Church in Yakutia (Xvii - Early Xxth Centuries).\" RUDN Journal of Russian History no. 3 Pp.117-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HT89A2HW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HT89A2HW </b></a> §REF§ “The author concludes that the missionary in the Yakut region developed significantly, its most effective solutions were worked out during the practical activity and at the beginning of the XXth century there was developed a unified nation-wide integrated system. In the conditions of Yakutia the missionary activity of the spiritual department became one of the integrators of incorporation into the Russian state.” (Rough translation of Russian text) §REF§ (Yurganova, 2014, 117) Yurganova, I. 2014 \"Missionary Activities of Russian Orthodox Church in Yakutia (Xvii - Early Xxth Centuries).\" RUDN Journal of Russian History no. 3 Pp.117-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HT89A2HW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HT89A2HW </b></a> §REF§ “Men in most cases were baptized when they were enrolled \"in the service of the sovereign\" of which there has always been few of in remote regions. The newly baptized, knowing the region, replenished the detachments of service people and contributed to its rapid development.” (Rough translation of Russian text) §REF§ (Yurganova, 2014, 119) Yurganova, I. 2014 \"Missionary Activities of Russian Orthodox Church in Yakutia (Xvii - Early Xxth Centuries).\" RUDN Journal of Russian History no. 3 Pp.117-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HT89A2HW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HT89A2HW </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 147, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Akan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In Asante traditional religion the Odwira festival was celebrated as the most significant annual event among the people of Asante. According to Nana Baffour Akoto, the Odwira was an occasion where the kra (soul) of the Asante nation was ‘purified and baptised’. Nana Kyerefufuo describes the Odwira festival as a time when old and evil things are driven away, a new year is welcomed and the Golden Stool is purified to symbolise the purification of the Asante State.” §REF§ (Kwesi Adams 2010, 33) Kwesi Adams, Frank. 2010. Odwira and the Gospel: A Study of the Asante Odwira Festival and its Significance for Christianity in Ghana. Oxford: Regnum Books International. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R7548HEN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R7548HEN </b></a> §REF§ “While Islam could not displace traditional religion which had become the basis of the political structure in the Asante empire, it nevertheless kept Asante princes from embracing Christianity.” §REF§ (1998, 276) 1998. General History of Africa VI: Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s. Edited by J.F. Ade Ajayi. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EVN3CVE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EVN3CVE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 156, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Iban Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“One of the most remarkable aspects of Iban existence is the way in which religion is almost synonymous with an ordered life and ritual enters into most activities. As Freeman (1955a, 28, para.59) says, the Iban are ‘an extremely religious people’. However, Iban religion is neither solemn nor set apart from the routine activities of daily life and it finds its principal expression in agricultural practice and the social order.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 55) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§ Iban religious law, called adat, was central to their lifestyle and created a shared foundation for community life. “Each member part of the universe, be it spirit, human, animal, or vegetable, belongs to the universal order and has its normal and appropriate way of behaving according to its nature. When it follows the order, it follows the order, it follows its particular adat. And this is the basis for Iban adat law.” §REF§(Jensen, 1974, 111). Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§ “Adat is actually distinguished from religious law which among most Malays and Indonesians is Islamic; its meaning is restricted to that indigenous customary law, which has no direct connection with (Muslim) religion. The Iban, however, have not in the past been subject to Muslim law, which they do not recognize. Among them, adat retains the traditional sense, which is far wider than law as understood in the west and much deeper and more binding than mere custom or convention… the notion has a double meaning. Firstly, that of divine cosmic order and harmony, and secondly that of life and actions in agreement with this order… The adat as revealed to the Iban by Sengalang Burong is designed to ensure a mutually satisfactory relation between men and the other inhabitants of the universe… The adat of plants is to grow, of fruit trees to bear fruit. Animals also have their adat, their natural way of behaving within the total order. The adat of an Iban involved the observation of innumerable rules governing social behaviour and ritual acts… The complement to adat is mali, that which is forbidden, prohibited, or restricted. Adat is upheld and defended by a series of pemali (the noun derived from mali), penti - strictly the ‘compensation’ required for certain transgressions, or pantang, which literally means ‘what is driven in’ and established. An offence against adat disturbs the universal order, producing disorder and the undesirable ‘heated’ or ‘feverish’ state angat. The results of disorder range from minor sickness to epidemics and crop failure… The consequences are more the result of this disturbance than punishment inflicted on the guilty. Serious transgression of adat invariably touches the whole community. As already mentioned, incest provides the most important example, murder another.” §REF§ (Jensen, 1974, 112-113) Jensen, Erik. 1974. The Iban and Their Religion. London: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CVIQZD7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CVIQZD7C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 157, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Achik Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 157, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Achik Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 251, "name": "cn_western_han_dyn", "long_name": "Western Han Empire", "start_year": -202, "end_year": 9 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The conquest of the realm and establishment of the Han were legitimated by the ancient notion of the Mandate of Heaven (Tianming), which asserted that the ruling dynasty obtained its authority from heaven. The ruler was thus known as Child of Heaven (Tianzi) and was the only one allowed to offer sacrifice to Heaven. The sacrifice to Heaven was the peak of a ritual system that extended to encompass all ritual activities within a single ritual hierarchy. This idealized ritual order was advocated by the “ literati ” (Ru), who studied and transmitted the ancient classics associated with the Confucian tradition. This so-called Confucian literati tradition came to dominate the scholarly and administrative apparatus of the imperial state, from the Han to the early twentieth century.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 53) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§ “The Han period is important in religious history because during that time Confucianism became a state orthodoxy (some would say, the state religion), Taoism became an institutional religion, and Buddhism was introduced into the country. Han China represents an epoch when all under Heaven was unified under one emperor ruling by Heaven's mandate with the help of Confucian orthodoxy.” §REF§ (Ching, Julia 1993, 153-154) Ching, Julia. 1993. Chinese Religions. London: Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPXC7H29\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPXC7H29 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 243, "name": "cn_late_shang_dyn", "long_name": "Late Shang", "start_year": -1250, "end_year": -1045 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 161, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shang Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The religious ranking of the Shang ancestors must have reflected the social system, with its own hierarchical obligations and attitudes, by which living relatives were classified: generationalism, like ancestor worship, derived from authority patterns among the living.” [...] “Similarly, the bureaucratic features of Shang religion must have been related to contemporary administrative practices. For Chinese administration may be regarded as proto-bureaucratic in Shang times. Written documents certainly played a major role in the organization of the state. The king issued orders to officers by their titles; administration was conducted through group assignments; such groups formed part of a hierarchical administration which the king ordered individual officers, the officers ordered these groups, and the groups in turn directed the conscripts beneath them. And we can document, in some cases, a filiation between the titles of these Shang groups and the later bureaucratic titles of Shou times.” <ref> (Keightley 1978, 220-221) Keightley, David N. 1978. The Religious Commitment: Shang Theology and the Genesis of Chinese Political Culture. History of Religions. Vol 17:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FV7I9UC3/library </ref>" }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "long_name": "Western Jin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Since the ru posited themselves as the guardians of the sacred way of Heaven, embracing Confucianism was a way by which dynastic founders demonstrated not only that they deeply valued China’s longstanding and venerated imperial traditions, but also that their regimes were in accordance with Heaven’s will. As a way to gain favor with the ru, one of the initial moves of any regime was to quickly establish an imperial university in the capital and to staff it with Confucian scholars. Each of the Three Kingdoms’ founders rushed to erect a taixue, “imperial university”: in 221 Liu Bei (r. 221–223) established one in Chengdu; in 224 Emperor Wen of the Wei (Cao Pi, r. 220–226) rebuilt the taixue; and in 230 Sun Quan (r. 222–252) set up his own. At the start of his reign, Emperor Wu of the Western Jin (Sima Yan, r. 265–290), established a taixue and staffed it with nineteen erudites (boshi). [...] The three-year mourning rites became the ritual practice of China’s elite in the late first century ce; moreover, it was only during the Western Jin (265–317) that officials were required to perform them. During the Jin, officials were impeached not because they failed to perform the three-year rites, but because they performed them in what appeared to be a slightly defective manner.\" §REF§(Knapp 2019: 490, 498) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W49RBN2Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W49RBN2Z </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "long_name": "Great Yuan", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 163, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tibetan Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Tibetan Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of the Yuan state. As a consequence, Tibetan Buddhist art became the most important form of official and public art of the Yuan dynast, flourishing not only in Tibet but also in China and Mongolia.” §REF§ (Jing 2004, 213) Jing, Anning. 2004. ‘Financial and Material Aspects of Tibetan Art under the Yuan Dynasty.’ Artibus Asiae. Vol 64 (2): 213-241. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC9C68D3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC9C68D3 </b></a> §REF§ “In remaining consistently aware of the complex relationship of the Mongol government and Buddhist establishments to patronage networks and kinship organizations in the villages of north China, this article will demonstrate that the new Buddhist order created by and within the Yuan regime placed Buddhist monks in both imperial government and monastic offices and subsequently allowed monks to employ their heightened political power and social status to benefit their natal families.” §REF§ (Wang 2016, 199) Wang, Jinping. 2016. ‘Clergy, Kinship, And Clout In Yuan Dynasty Shani’. International Journal of Asian Studies. Vol 13: 2. Pp 197–228. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q63B6JAV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q63B6JAV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 269, "name": "cn_ming_dyn", "long_name": "Great Ming", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1644 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Of key importance is the imperial examination (keju 科举) system of the Ming Dynasty, which promoted the influence of Neo-Confucianism in all aspects of social life with an unprecedented depth and breadth. Since Buddhism and Daoism were already in decline, they had no choice but to attempt to ride the coattails of Confucianism in order to survive. Within Buddhism and Daoism themselves, the tendency towards a syncretic unification of the Three Teachings (sanjiao 三教 [i.e. Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism]) was very strong. All of these trends influenced the situation of philosophy in the Ming Dynasty, giving it a distinct quality different from that of earlier periods. The mainstream academic thought of the Ming Dynasty was Neo-Confucianism (lixue 理学 [lit. Learning of Principle]). A distinctive quality of Ming Dynasty Neo-Confucianism was the fading of interest in theories of principle (li 理) and qi 气 (material force), and the rise of theories of mind (xin 心) and inherent nature (xing 性) to become the central focus of thought. An important reason for this is that with the efforts of promotion of great Confucians in the Song and Yuan dynasties, Neo-Confucianism had been thoroughly developed, and increasingly became a doctrine concerned with value, such that exploring the ultimate reality of the myriad things had already become a question of empirical demonstration, and thus gradually fell into a place of secondary importance in the view of many people.” §REF§ (Zhang 2021, v) Zhang, Xuezhi. 2021. History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty. Singapore: Springer Singapore. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G3VVATGD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G3VVATGD </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "long_name": "Western Zhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 158, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chinese Popular Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Regarding this variable, expert Edward Shaughnessy has acknowledge that there is not a lot of information about religion in the Western Zhou period. \r\n\"Like the Shang, the Zhou Empire practiced ancestor worship, divination, and ritual offerings to nature spirits and celestial deities. One feature of Zhou religion, evidence for which is based upon archeology as well as poetry collected or reconstructed a few hundred years after the fall of the Zhou, was shamanism.\"§REF§(Nadeau 2012: 32) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5HX5CPPS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5HX5CPPS </b></a>§REF§\r\n“Based on mortuary evidence, Falkenhausen (2006:160) speculates that the paramount class difference in Western Zhou society may have been that between the elite and those commoners who belonged to the same lineages and that ‘if so, we would be dealing with a comparatively homogenous social fabric – one in which the ruling and the rule considered one another as kin.” […] “Although a chapter in the Remains of the Documents of the Zhou (Yi Zhoushu) purporting to record an early Western Zhou ritual practice related to the alters of soil and grain may be apocryphal, it sheds light on the kind of political relationship articulated through ritual activities a the first type of alter of soil and grain in my classification […] The cults at this type of alter of soil and grain essentially articulated the political relationships among the ruling elite and reinforced the same power structure sanctified by ancestor worship.” […] “[t]he patrilineage based organisations of the Western Zhou polity, where filial piety is as much a political imperative as it is a matter of individual and familial ethics. His authority being grounded in the construction of a patrilineal network within the aristocracy, the king had both the motivation and the obligation to seal the aristocracy’s loyalty to him by diligently promoting their piety to their ancestors. The numerous sacrificial banquets hosted by the king served precisely this purpose, and so did an occasion like the reception he held for his triumphant commanders.” <ref> (Zhou 2011: 117-118; 129) Zhou, Yiqun. 2011. Festivals, Feasts, and Gender Relations in Ancient China and Greece. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/52GDVHUV/items/8IF7NQCD/collection </ref>" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "long_name": "Late Qing", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As in previous periods of late imperial China, Confucianism (sometimes identified as Ruxue 儒學 or the Learning of the Scholars) was the dominant philosophy in Qing times. Although the boundaries of Qing Confucianism shifted significantly under Manchu rule, we can identify several basic patterns of affiliation within which these shifts took place. As had been the case during much of the Ming dynasty, the Qing emperors generally supported Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 (1130–1200 ce) School of Principle (lixue 理學)—also known as the Cheng-Zhu 程朱 School—as their official orthodoxy.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 319) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "long_name": "Early Qing", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As in previous periods of late imperial China, Confucianism (sometimes identified as Ruxue 儒學 or the Learning of the Scholars) was the dominant philosophy in Qing times. Although the boundaries of Qing Confucianism shifted significantly under Manchu rule, we can identify several basic patterns of affiliation within which these shifts took place. As had been the case during much of the Ming dynasty, the Qing emperors generally supported Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 (1130–1200 ce) School of Principle (lixue 理學)—also known as the Cheng-Zhu 程朱 School—as their official orthodoxy. Emphasizing loyalty to the sovereign, moral cultivation, and the power of positive example, Cheng-Zhu Learning was distilled in the highly influential examination syllabus known as the Xingli jingyi 性理精義 (essential ideas of nature and principle), commissioned by the Kangxi emperor in the early eighteenth century. The so-called Tongcheng 桐城 School, centered on a county by this name in Anhui province, embraced Zhu Xi’s moral idealism, but placed particular emphasis on ancient prose literature as a “vehicle of Confucian faith.” Proponents of this approach, like other less literarily inclined advocates of Cheng-Zhu Confucianism, were suspicious of, if not actively hostile toward, the School of Evidential Research (kaozheng xue 考證學), whose iconoclastic advocates emerged as a “national elite” from the prosperous Yangzi River delta during the latter half of the seventeenth century.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 319) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§ \"Qing administrative writing was grounded in the Confucian belief that virtually all people, Chinese and non-Chinese alike, possess both an innate goodness and a capacity for moral transformation through education. This belief, an object of faith for most (but clearly not all) Qing administrators, formed the ideological cornerstone of early Qing frontier policy. The benign tolerance that this doctrine of human educability suggested, however, was generally mitigated in practice by an equally powerful concern with compliance. The empire expanded rapidly in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, typically as a consequence of conquest and settlement. Maintaining social order and effective administration in these new regions required both nuanced social analyses capable of identifying deviance and a repertoire of strategies for controlling deviance. Not surprisingly, the ostentatious attentions paid to the moral character of subjects, a trademark of Qing reports, were generally accompanied by finely tuned distinctions that indicated the precise nature of the subjects’ ethical, legal, or ritual transgressions.\" §REF§ (McMahon 2015, 77) McMahon, Daniel. 2015. Rethinking the Decline of China’s Qing Dynasty: Imperial activism and borderland management at the turn of the nineteenth century. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MPX26NIN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MPX26NIN </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The conquest of the realm and establishment of the Han were legitimated by the ancient notion of the Mandate of Heaven (Tianming), which asserted that the ruling dynasty obtained its authority from heaven. The ruler was thus known as Child of Heaven (Tianzi) and was the only one allowed to offer sacrifice to Heaven. The sacrifice to Heaven was the peak of a ritual system that extended to encompass all ritual activities within a single ritual hierarchy. This idealized ritual order was advocated by the “ literati ” (Ru), who studied and transmitted the ancient classics associated with the Confucian tradition. This so-called Confucian literati tradition came to dominate the scholarly and administrative apparatus of the imperial state, from the Han to the early twentieth century.\" §REF§(Raz 2012: 53) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QMGMQBVN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QMGMQBVN </b></a>§REF§ “The Han period is important in religious history because during that time Confucianism became a state orthodoxy (some would say, the state religion), Taoism became an institutional religion, and Buddhism was introduced into the country. Han China represents an epoch when all under Heaven was unified under one emperor ruling by Heaven's mandate with the help of Confucian orthodoxy.” §REF§ (Ching, Julia 1993, 153-154) Ching, Julia. 1993. Chinese Religions. London: Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PPXC7H29\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PPXC7H29 </b></a> §REF§ “During this period, some scholars have argued (though more in the past than today) that there was a ‘victory of Confucianism’ as the Han state selected Confucianism as its official ideology. This ideology, they argue, was represented by Dong Zhongshu, and his Chunqiu Fanlu was a statement of this new official system. This picture has been challenged, however, by more recent scholars who have shown that this neat picture of ‘official Confucianism’ was likely never actually the case, and that texts such as the Chunqiu Fanlu represent not a unified official Confucianism (or the work of an individual Dong Zhongshu) but rather an aggregate of selected texts. There was diversity and disagreement within Confucianism and between it and other schools even during this period, and the so-called ‘victory of Confucianism’ was more of a later public relations move than a Han reality. The critical stance of many of the Eastern Han thinkers was due more to their reaction to particular government policy and the methods of scholars than to any so called ‘official Confucianism’. It was in response to these and a number of other features of Han thought that the Eastern Han critical stance was developed.” §REF§ (McLeod 2015, 357) McLeod, Alexus. 2015. Philosophy in Eastern Han Dynasty China (25–220 CE). Philosophy Compass. Vol 10 (6): 355-368. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PBHQQVAB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PBHQQVAB </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The unification of China under the Sui Dynasty saw Buddhism's fortunes there rise and stabilize in the north after centuries in which it had been repeatedly attacked by the various imperial dynasties of the early medieval period. Emperor Wen of the Sui, [...] in some of his first actions, taken well before he had fully established his rule, [...] strongly promoted Buddhism, forging connections between it and the ancient religious culture of the state by, as Ch'en notes, “ calling for the establishment of Buddhist monasteries at the foot of each of the five sacred mountains, and for the donation of landed estates for the support of each one.” The mountains, as we saw in the discussion of Daoism in the Tang, anchored the Chinese state at the center of the cosmos. Changes in the official landscape thus wrought profound changes in the religious character of the state. In a move that further wedded Buddhism to the Sui Empire, Emperor Wen had temples built at the sites of his and his father's victorious battles, and held Buddhist masses for the war dead within them. Ch'en notes that since at this time there were still battles to be fought as the Sui expanded its new empire into the south, these masses for fallen warriors sent a signal to the emperor's armies that should they fall in service of the empire their souls would be cared for in the afterlife and honored among the living. In 585, his armies at war for his empire, his craftsmen working to restore its Buddhist monasteries, and his scribes working to repair and re - copy its Buddhist scriptures, Emperor Wen took the vows of a Buddhist layman, as eventually did the empress and a number of the most powerful officials of his court. Aside from proclaiming a very public form of devotion, this act further transformed the character of the imperial throne — whose occupant had long been known as the “ Son of Heaven ” — for Emperor Wen was henceforth known as the “ Bodhisattva Son of Heaven. ” Though it was not to last, through these actions Buddhism had taken a place at the very heart of the Chinese cosmos. [...] Buddhism's central place in medieval China's official culture and religion ended with the Sui itself.\" §REF§(Copp 2012: 86) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SGG5RZ8N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SGG5RZ8N </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 264, "name": "cn_tang_dyn_2", "long_name": "Tang Dynasty II", "start_year": 763, "end_year": 907 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 159, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Daoism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The growth and transformations of Daoism in this period were no less dramatic. Most dramatic of all was the religion’s precipitous rise within the Tang imperial court, where in many instances it came to shape, or even to replace, the ancient rites central to the establishment and endurance of the state and the imperial clan. These developments were perhaps most complete in the mountain ranges that were sacred both to the court and to local religious groups, where Tang emperors proclaimed that the true spirits of the ranges were not the older deities that had been worshipped there for centuries but the newer gods of Daoism. In a very literal way, this transformed China into a Daoist realm. [...] Daoist priests and adepts, taking advantage of this new glamour, made the Tang the period of their religion’s greatest influence upon Chinese political and cultural life. Monks, priests, and other religious adepts had of course often had the ears of rulers in China (as elsewhere); Daoist priests, for example, had been influential presences at court during the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties. But not since Han times had the power associated with these relationships been as great as it was in the Sui and Tang.\" §REF§(Copp 2012: 76-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SGG5RZ8N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SGG5RZ8N </b></a>§REF§ “To accommodate the Daoist religion, the Tang and Song courts both constructed a genealogical connection between the royal family and a key Daoist deity: Laozi in the case of the Tang, and Zhao Xuanlang in the case of the Song. Under this policy, the Daoist religion was given a special place in imperial ideology. Daoist rituals were regularly performed to legitimize the dynasty and many Daoist priests enjoyed a remarkable place in society, to the extent that quite a few local officials governed with dual authorities: one from the imperial court, the other from the Daoist authority.” §REF§ (Liu 2012, 78-79) Liu, Yonghua. 2012. ‘Daoist Priests and Imperial Sacrifices in Late Imperial China: The Case of the Imperial Music Office (Shenye Guan), 1379–1743.’ Late Imperial China. Vol. 33 (1): 55–88. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZAQ7CDH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZAQ7CDH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 266, "name": "cn_later_great_jin", "long_name": "Jin Dynasty", "start_year": 1115, "end_year": 1234 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\" Already before the establishment of their own state the Jurchen had come into contact with Buddhism, in the Po-hai region. As early as the tenth century a leading Jurchen, A-ku-nai, the elder brother of Han-p'u, the \"first ancestor\" Shih-tsu, was a Buddhist. When the Jurchens invaded the Liao state, they encountered a flourishing Buddhism receiving considerable patronage from the Liao court. This greatly influenced the attitude of the Jurchen imperial clan toward the Buddhist religion and also the politics of the Chin government. In the imperial family, not a few of the empresses and consorts were pious Buddhists, and the mother of Shih-tsung even became a nun in her later years. In his younger years Shih-tsung himself was attracted by Buddhism but later became somewhat detached, although he continued to favor monasteries and monks. The same is true for Changtsung.\" §REF§(Franke 1994: 313) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2QG2628P\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2QG2628P </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 250, "name": "cn_qin_emp", "long_name": "Qin Empire", "start_year": -338, "end_year": -207 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 158, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Chinese Popular Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"During the Qin dynasty, the First Emperor granted priority to natural deities by continuing the established worship of the directional di—held on outdoor altars—and introducing the feng and shan sacrifices on the peaks of Mount Tai and a nearby hill. The idea of such sacrifices emerged in the late Warring States, when writers asserted that they had been performed by all rulers who had established “Great Peace” throughout the world. Feng meant “enfeoffment,” and Han sources show that this sacrifice marked the claim of sovereignty over a given area. In the case of the feng sacrifice initiated by the First Emperor, it marked the claim to world sovereignty. The feng and shan sacrifices were exceptional performances. The most important regular state cult in the Qin and Western Han was to the four (later five) di.”§REF§(Lewis 2007, 186) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2007. The Early Chinese Empires Qin and Han. Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B77BWQPC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B77BWQPC </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 7, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘’' “From the beginning of their conversion in 1615, the Oirats maintained unusually close relations with the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in central Tibet. After Güüshi Khan’s and Baatur Khung-Taiji’s pacification of Tibet, the Zünghars’ slogan was “We are the main almsgivers [i.e., lay patrons] of the Holy Tsong-kha-pa [founder of the Yellow Hats].” The Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag-dbang Blobzang rGya-mtsho (1617–82), encouraged this often bigoted devotion, advising Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching there.” §REF§ Atwood, C. (2004) Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, pp.622. Facts on File. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDMADGA6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDMADGA6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the official status of Mongolian shamanism and Buddhism in late Mongols. “Despite their conversion, Mongols did not forswear their traditional cult of heaven and went forward venerating the two very different religions (Mongolian shamanism and Buddhism) as nominally coequal until the coming of modernity.” §REF§ May, T., & Hope, M. (2022). The Mongol world (Routledge worlds). p. 681. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UJD4A7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UJD4A7C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the official status of Mongolian shamanism and Buddhism in late Mongols. “Despite their conversion, Mongols did not forswear their traditional cult of heaven and went forward venerating the two very different religions (Mongolian shamanism and Buddhism) as nominally coequal until the coming of modernity.” §REF§ May, T., & Hope, M. (2022). The Mongol world (Routledge worlds). p. 681. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UJD4A7C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UJD4A7C </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 111, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Manichaeism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Uighur culture changed dramatically with Bayan-Chor’s forced conversion of his people to Manicheism. Manichean doctrines required strict vegetarianism of the elect priests, including the renunciation of KOUMISS. Bogu exhorted his people to “let [the country] with barbarous customs and smoking blood change into one where people can eat vegetables; and let the state where men kill be transformed into a kingdom where good works are encouraged.” By 821 the Arab visitor Tamim bin Bahr at the capital, Ordu-Baligh, found the city’s population primarily Manichean. Manicheism also adapted to Uighur life; Manichean hymns, for example, incorporated the Turk-Uighur reverence for Ötüken.\" §REF§ (Atwood, 2004, 554) Atwood, Christopher, P. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDMADGA6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDMADGA6 </b></a> §REF§ \"However, there is no evidence or reason to believe that conversion ever advanced far beyond the Uygur ruler and segments of his family, clan, entourage, and administration during the steppe empire. On the contrary, opposition to the new religion could have been one of the factors in the palace coup that resulted in the execution of Bugu Khan and his Sogdian advisers in 779, since Manichaeans also suffered grievously in the purge. 29 Although Manichaeism was restored to an official status under the rulers Ay Tangrite ulug Bulmis Alp Kutlug Ulug Bilga Khagan/Huai-hsin (795- 808) and Ay Tangrite Kut Bulmis Alp Bilga Khagan/Pao-i (808- 821), it surely served as one of the ideologies of the leadership and not as a belief system that integrated secular and religious life for the peoples of the realm.\" §REF§ (Clark, 2009, 71) Clark, L. 2009. “Manichaeism Among the Uygurs: The Uygur Khan of the Bokug Clan” in BeDuhn, J. New Light on Manichaeism: Papers from the Sixth International Congress on Manichaeism pp. 61-71. Boston: BRILL. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87DD7HPT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 87DD7HPT </b></a> §REF§ “A unique chance was given to the Manichean church when in about 762 the ruler of the Uighur Steppe empire, Bögü (Bügü) Khan, adopted the Manichean religion (Clark, 2000, pp. 83-123; Sundermann 2001a, pp. 159-61). For at least 250 years Manicheism remained the creed of the Uighur kings, after the breakdown of the steppe empire in 840 it was taken by the fleeing Uighurs to the Turfan oasis and was made the religion of the kingdom of Qocho.” §REF§ (Sundermann, 2009) Werner Sundermann, 2009. \"MANICHEISM I GENERAL SURVEY,\" Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q9FG6AXS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q9FG6AXS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“A \"national\" religion, the exact tenets of which cannot be documented, centered on Tangri, the Sky (or Heaven), to which in the fifth month of the year the Turks were wont to offer sheep and horses in sacrifice. As we have seen, there was also at least one yearly sacrifice connected with metallurgy and performed in the \"ancestral cavern.\" At least some Turks - but certainly not all of them - had the wolf for totem, and no doubt some cult was attached also to the \"sacred\" forest Otiikan, the very name of which may be connected with words for \"request, prayer.\" Numerous spirits were honored and shamans were used to communicate with them. The cult of the female spirit of goddess Umay - continued in some areas to the present day - is certainly of Mongol origin and testifies to the presence of a Mongol component in the body of Turk religious beliefs.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314) Sinor, D. 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§ “The religious rites of a ruling dynasty would have been more elaborate but not different in kind. The identification of sovereignty with control of sacred sites—an enduring theme in Turkic political culture—elaborated on the symbolism of the hearth. For the Türk Empire, this meant particularly the Ötüken mountain, which had also been sacred for the Xiongnu and the Rouran. Chinese sources mention Ötüken as the kaghan’s constant place of residence, in contrast to his subjects’ migratory habits, adding that each year the kaghan would “lead the nobles to the ancestral cave to offer sacrifices.” If there was a difference in spiritual emphases between dynast and ordinary nomad, it took the form of the greater devotion to Tengri, the supreme deity, in the politicized state cult, with the kaghan as high priest. Tengri had two messenger gods (Yol tengri), of which one brought kut to the individual while the other restored the state, in which emperor and empress (kagan and khatun) ruled as earthly counterparts of Tengri and Umay, divinities of sky and earth. Rulers may also have had greater need than ordinary folk for the services of shamans, especially to divine the future (or at least the rulers’ preferences concerning future policy). For the non elite, other spirits, especially ancestral ones, may have been more meaningful.” §REF§ (Findley 2005: 47-48) Findley, Carter. V., 2005. The Turks in World History. (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZH4S7US4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZH4S7US4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“There seem to have been shamans among the Türks. Byzantine sources say that the Türks had priests who foretold the future, and these priests intervened when a Byzantine envoy and his attendants pass between two fires, in order to purify them. […] The Byzantine sources also tell us that the Türks had a holy mountain, noted for its abundance of fruits and pastures and immunity to epidemics and earthquakes. […] We are futher informed by the Byzantine historians that the Türks hold fire in the most extraordinary respect, and also venerate air, water and earth, but do not worship and call ‘god’ anyone except the creator of heaven and earth: to him they sacrifice horses, oxen and sheep.” §REF§ (Baldick 2012: 39) Baldick, Julian. Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia. (New York: NYU Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J53ZA45U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J53ZA45U </b></a> §REF§ “From the ancient TÜRK EMPIRES through the Mongol Empire, the peoples of Mongolia worshiped “Eternal Heaven” (möngke tenggeri) and “Mother Earth,” named in ancient Mongolian prayers Mother Etüken. In later centuries Eternal Heaven had a varying relation with the “99 gods/heavens” divided into two camps, white to the west and red to the east, sometimes being one of the 99, sometimes the head of all of them, and sometimes a sort of summation of them.” §REF§ (Atwood 2004: 173) Atwood Christopher (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire (New York: Facts on File, Inc.). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CRA5UBH9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CRA5UBH9 </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 170, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Xiongnu Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Like the Versailles of Louis XVI, this ceremonial centre helped forge a wider sense of unity from disparate ethnic and social elements. Motun summoned tribal leaders to his capital three times a year. At these gatherings there were games, like the modern Naadam festival, and the unity of the broader alliance system was reaffirmed. Such meetings also allowed for a rudimentary census of people and livestock, an administrative device introduced by Chung-hsing Shuo.\" §REF§ (Christian 1998, 194) Christian, David. 1988. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6KH4Q66T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6KH4Q66T </b></a> §REF§ \"We know little of Hsiung-nu religion, and what we know suggest that, like Scythian religion, it had strong political overtones, and was actively used to support the legitimacy of Hsiung-nu elites. It was probably an amalgam of many different influences, including forms of shamanism (there is what looks like a shamanic headdress in the Noin-Ula tombs), the practice of animal sacrifices, particularly horses, forms of ancestor worship, Zoroastrian influences from Central Asia and influences from China.\" §REF§ (Christian 1998, 195) Christian, David. 1988. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6KH4Q66T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6KH4Q66T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 170, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Xiongnu Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Like the Versailles of Louis XVI, this ceremonial centre helped forge a wider sense of unity from disparate ethnic and social elements. Motun summoned tribal leaders to his capital three times a year. At these gatherings there were games, like the modern Naadam festival, and the unity of the broader alliance system was reaffirmed. Such meetings also allowed for a rudimentary census of people and livestock, an administrative device introduced by Chung-hsing Shuo.\" §REF§ (Christian 1998, 194) Christian, David. 1988. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6KH4Q66T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6KH4Q66T </b></a> §REF§ \"We know little of Hsiung-nu religion, and what we know suggest that, like Scythian religion, it had strong political overtones, and was actively used to support the legitimacy of Hsiung-nu elites. It was probably an amalgam of many different influences, including forms of shamanism (there is what looks like a shamanic headdress in the Noin-Ula tombs), the practice of animal sacrifices, particularly horses, forms of ancestor worship, Zoroastrian influences from Central Asia and influences from China.\" §REF§ (Christian 1998, 195) Christian, David. 1988. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6KH4Q66T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6KH4Q66T </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Xianbei reportedly practiced shamanism.” §REF§ Rogers, J. D. (2012). Inner Asian states and empires: Theories and synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(3), 205-256. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XIGJN3NR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XIGJN3NR </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 172, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mongol Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Despite the fact that shamanism was a dominant religion at the court of the Mongol Empire, the Mongol rulers never imposed shamanism or any other unified religion on their empire. §REF§ (Wallace, 2011) Wallace, Vesna. 2011. Mongol Empire. SAGE: Encyclopedia of Global Religions, Vol. 2. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SA2N7VB5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SA2N7VB5 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 160, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Confucianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The attitude of the royal house toward Buddhism was, on the whole, favorable. Although the rulers paid nominal respect to Confucianism as the ruling ideology, they were cognizant of the inherent Confucian antagonism to alien peoples, and hence were emotionally more attached to Buddhism. Buddhist scriptures were used in educating the children in the imperial family and Buddhist names were adopted by some members.\" §REF§(Ch'en 1964: 409) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDPZ7RTB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SDPZ7RTB </b></a>§REF§ \"[A]lthough the Liao court tended to develop Confucianism in order to create a pool of literati as candidates for imperial bureaucrats (Zhang Reference Zhang, Zhang, Huang and Yu2006), the Khitan elites usually sided with Buddhism. A historical document records a story that when a Khitan elite gave a banquet in a Confucian temple on the day when sacrifices to Confucius were supposed to be offered, a group of Khitan ladies, showily dressed, entered the hall where the sculpture of the bearded Confucius was erected. One lady asked who the bearded man was, and another answered that he was just the one who cursed ‘us barbarians’. In laughter these ladies left (Tao Reference Tao1988, 173). The stateliness, loftiness and sanctity of this spiritual space essential to Confucianism was destroyed, or redefined, by the consumption of food and entertainment, the dressing of female bodies and the satire of Confucius. True or not, this story reveals the tension between orthodox Confucianism and the legitimacy of a nomadic empire. Because of this, the royal house made enormous and continuous investments in Buddhist buildings, which were commonly considered to be representative of Liao cities in the writings of Song ambassadors (Jia Reference Jia2004, 102).\"§REF§(Lin 2011: 238) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N778IHRD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N778IHRD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 176, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hindu-Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Given the lack of personal information inscribed on the stones, it is impossible to prove that the people buried under them were indigenous, but it seems likely that by the end of the reign of Majapahit’s most glorious ruler, King Hayam Wuruk, in 1389, some Javanese of rather high social standing had converted to Islam. Majapahit’s official religion, however, remained a Javanese blend of indigenous and Indian symbols and concepts until the kingdom’s end. Islam remained a minority faith restricted to the north coast ports until the sixteenth century, during which it spread into the interior of Java and was at least nominally adopted by most of the agrarian population.” §REF§ (Miksic and Goh 2017, 451) John N. Miksic and Geok Yian Goh, 2017. Ancient Southeast Asia. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CT7WZZNV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CT7WZZNV </b></a> §REF§ “Thus he dismissed Islam briefly by saying that although Muslim traders had established themselves in the northern ports and introduced Islam to Java no mention of Islam could be expected in the Majapahit texts because they “were written in the interior of the country by men belonging to the Shiwaite-Buddhist Court or closely connected with it”.” §REF§ (Colless 1975,140) Colless, Brian. 1975. “Majapahit Revisited: External evidence on the geography and ethnology of East Java in the Majapahit Period”, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol, 48, No2 (228), pp.124-161. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NZFWJ7BW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NZFWJ7BW </b></a>§REF§ “Majapahit, the last major Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Java […] Majapahit's collapse marked a turning point in Javanese cultural history. The kingdom was the island's last influential Hindu-Buddhist state, and was thus the last in a long line of Indie principalities which, over a thousand-year period, had propagated peculiarly Southeast Asian variants of Sivaism and Buddhism on the island.” §REF§ (Hefner 1985, 6) Hefner, Robert W. 1985. Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6X4626J8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6X4626J8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Agung 's Islamizing of Javanese court culture and identity did not take place in a vacuum, for elsewhere in Java and more widely in the Indonesian archipelago, Islam was making forward strides at court level.” §REF§ (Ricklefs 2006: 50) Merle Calvin Ricklefs, 2006. Mystic Synthesis in Java: A History of Islamization from the Fourteenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries. Norwalk, CT: EastBridge Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JKGH84GW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JKGH84GW </b></a> §REF§ \"Southeast Asian Islam[...] took root in the region beginning around the thirteenth century, mostly as a mystically(Sufi) oriented variat of Sunni Islam.\"§REF§(Peletz 2011: 663) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XN54ZB33\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XN54ZB33 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Kediri kingdom was ruled by a series of monarchs who considered themselves the incarnation of Hindu gods.” §REF§ (Levenda 2011: 336) Levenda, Peter. 2011. Tantric Temples: Eros and Magic in Java. United States: Ibis Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G3DBGKF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G3DBGKF9 </b></a> §REF§ “It is the more remarkable that this kingdom, with a mixed religion, was conquered by that of Kediri, where the flower of the Sivaitic priests and learned men were to be found under Ayer Langgia and Jayabaya, although the latter (Jayabaya) especially also tolerated the Buddhists.” §REF§ (Friederich 1877: 84) Friederich, R., (1877), “An Account of the Island of Bali”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 30, pp. 59-120. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZTDP5R2Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZTDP5R2Q </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 7, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Rulers were devotees of both Hindu deities and Buddhism of the Mahayana variety.” §REF§ (Miksic 2004: 863) Miksic, J., 'Mataram', in Ooi, K.G., Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVEHV2M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WVEHV2M9 </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote refers to a disputed theory of a line of kings of Saivist tradition. Recently such theory has been challenged showing their support for Buddhist monasteries. “The merging of the two families through marriage, as proposed in the two-dynasty theory, has recently also been questioned, as has the idea that all the kings of the Sanjaya line were Saivites. Interestingly, the Wanua Tengah III inscription mentions a number of them explicitly as supporters of a Buddhist monastery.” §REF§ (Klokke 2016: online) Klokke, M. J. (2016). Central Javanese Empire (Early Mataram). In J. Mackenzie (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NVK2U3GA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NVK2U3GA </b></a> §REF§ “One could, in accordance with the two-dynasty theory, start from the idea that Balitung only mentions the indigenous Śaivite rulers who preceded him. The conclusion from the Wanua Tengah III inscription would be that some of these Śaivite rulers contributed to Buddhist monastery and supported Buddhism and others did not, and that those who did were probably pressured to do so by the Śailendra kings who were their overlords. One could also, in accordance with the single-line theory, start from the idea that Balitung tries to link himself with the kings of Central Java, whether Hindu or Buddhist, and whether belonging to the Śailendra dynasty or other families. And would not King Balitung, by restoring a grant to a Buddhist monastery to protect himself and his position, associate himself also with the important Śailendra kings, builders of many Buddhist temples? Although this is not the only possible interpretation, one could start from the hypothesis that the kings who established, maintained and restored the sīma to the benefit of the monastery were Buddhist kings and those who dissolved it or kept it dissolved were Hindu kings.\" §REF§ (Klokke 2008: 156) Klokke, Marijke I. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, vol. 63, 2008, pp. 154–67. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9KJK895\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N9KJK895 </b></a> §REF§ “The ancient Mataram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). […] The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mataram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the principles of the Buddha Mahayana. Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana.” §REF§ (Munandar 2017: 661-662) Munandar, A.A. (2017), “Ancient religious artworks in Central Java (8th–10th century AD)”, in Budianta, Melani, Budiman, Manneke, Kusno, Abidin, Moriyama, Mikihiro. Culutral Dynamics in a Globalized World (London and New York: Routledge), pp.661-668. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSERXVCV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSERXVCV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Rulers were devotees of both Hindu deities and Buddhism of the Mahayana variety.” §REF§ (Miksic 2004: 863) Miksic, J., 'Mataram', in Ooi, K.G., Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVEHV2M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WVEHV2M9 </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote refers to a disputed theory of a line of kings of Saivist tradition. Recently such theory has been challenged showing their support for Buddhist monasteries. “The merging of the two families through marriage, as proposed in the two-dynasty theory, has recently also been questioned, as has the idea that all the kings of the Sanjaya line were Saivites. Interestingly, the Wanua Tengah III inscription mentions a number of them explicitly as supporters of a Buddhist monastery.” §REF§ (Klokke 2016: online) Klokke, M. J. (2016). Central Javanese Empire (Early Mataram). In J. Mackenzie (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NVK2U3GA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NVK2U3GA </b></a> §REF§ “One could, in accordance with the two-dynasty theory, start from the idea that Balitung only mentions the indigenous Śaivite rulers who preceded him. The conclusion from the Wanua Tengah III inscription would be that some of these Śaivite rulers contributed to Buddhist monastery and supported Buddhism and others did not, and that those who did were probably pressured to do so by the Śailendra kings who were their overlords. One could also, in accordance with the single-line theory, start from the idea that Balitung tries to link himself with the kings of Central Java, whether Hindu or Buddhist, and whether belonging to the Śailendra dynasty or other families. And would not King Balitung, by restoring a grant to a Buddhist monastery to protect himself and his position, associate himself also with the important Śailendra kings, builders of many Buddhist temples? Although this is not the only possible interpretation, one could start from the hypothesis that the kings who established, maintained and restored the sīma to the benefit of the monastery were Buddhist kings and those who dissolved it or kept it dissolved were Hindu kings.\" §REF§ (Klokke 2008: 156) Klokke, Marijke I. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, vol. 63, 2008, pp. 154–67. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9KJK895\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N9KJK895 </b></a> §REF§ “The ancient Mataram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). […] The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mataram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the principles of the Buddha Mahayana. Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana.” §REF§ (Munandar 2017: 661-662) Munandar, A.A. (2017), “Ancient religious artworks in Central Java (8th–10th century AD)”, in Budianta, Melani, Budiman, Manneke, Kusno, Abidin, Moriyama, Mikihiro. Culutral Dynamics in a Globalized World (London and New York: Routledge), pp.661-668. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSERXVCV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSERXVCV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 234, "name": "et_ethiopian_k", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1620 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Official_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 177, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopo-Sabaean Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The word \"prevailed\" in the following quote may be interpreted as suggesting that the Ethiopo-Sabaean cult was the official religion, as well as the one followed by the elites. \"For hundreds of years prior to the local advent of Christianity, it seems that a form or forms of polytheistic belief-system analogous – but by no means identical – to that known to have been established in southern Arabia prevailed also in the northern Horn. Although the deities’ names indicated by the known inscriptions are – with one exception – different, use of the crescent-and-disc symbol – known in earlier times on altars and incense-burners in both southern Arabia and the northern Horn (cf. Chapter 3) – was continued in pre-Christian Aksumite times on coins and on the Anza and Matara stelae (Chapter 6 and 7 respectively), which have been dated to the third century on palaeographic grounds.\"§REF§(Phillipson 2012: 91) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CGX9GMX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3CGX9GMX </b></a>§REF§" } ] }