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"comment": "The idea of loving one's neighbour implies a broad range of moral activity. “We have said that deification means ‘following the commandments’; and these commandments were briefly described by Christ as love of God and love of neighbour. The two forms of love are inseparable. A man can love his neighbour as himself only if he loves God above all; and a man cannot love God if he does not love his fellow men (1 John iv, 20).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4A4ZTEH\">[Ware 1963]</a>",
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"comment": "The idea of loving one's neighbour implies a broad range of moral activity. “We have said that deification means ‘following the commandments’; and these commandments were briefly described by Christ as love of God and love of neighbour. The two forms of love are inseparable. A man can love his neighbour as himself only if he loves God above all; and a man cannot love God if he does not love his fellow men (1 John iv, 20).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4A4ZTEH\">[Ware 1963]</a>",
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"comment": "The idea of loving one's neighbour implies a broad range of moral activity. “We have said that deification means ‘following the commandments’; and these commandments were briefly described by Christ as love of God and love of neighbour. The two forms of love are inseparable. A man can love his neighbour as himself only if he loves God above all; and a man cannot love God if he does not love his fellow men (1 John iv, 20).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4A4ZTEH\">[Ware 1963]</a>",
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"comment": "The idea of loving one's neighbour implies a broad range of moral activity. “We have said that deification means ‘following the commandments’; and these commandments were briefly described by Christ as love of God and love of neighbour. The two forms of love are inseparable. A man can love his neighbour as himself only if he loves God above all; and a man cannot love God if he does not love his fellow men (1 John iv, 20).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4A4ZTEH\">[Ware 1963]</a>",
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"comment": "The idea of loving one's neighbour implies a broad range of moral activity. “We have said that deification means ‘following the commandments’; and these commandments were briefly described by Christ as love of God and love of neighbour. The two forms of love are inseparable. A man can love his neighbour as himself only if he loves God above all; and a man cannot love God if he does not love his fellow men (1 John iv, 20).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4A4ZTEH\">[Ware 1963]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
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"comment": "“Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"comment": "The literature consulted does not provide enough of a sense of what may be considered \"evil\" within the context of Tengrism. \"Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
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"comment": "The literature consulted does not provide enough of a sense of what may be considered \"evil\" within the context of Tengrism. \"Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"comment": "\"Varṇāṣrama dharma puts Brahmins at the top of the ritual and social hierarchy. At the bottom are Ṣudras and those who are avarṇa (i.e., without a varṇa)—who are outside of the varṇa system and below the lowest rungs of it, excluded from a range of ritual, and hence social, functions and spaces. Interpersonal behavior is guided to a great degree by the logic of the varṇāṣrama system, which the DhS authors attribute to the earliest of the Vedas, the Ṛgveda. Transgressions of these prescribed rules require expiation in the form of prāyascit (repentance) to nullify the karmic demerit accrued through these transgressions. [...] There is also sādhāraṇa dharma, or a common dharma that is applicable to all— for example, respecting elders, protecting the innocent, and so on (Lingat and Derrett 1973).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EBDJ2WB5\">[Das_et_al 2024, p. 54]</a> “Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "\"Varṇāṣrama dharma puts Brahmins at the top of the ritual and social hierarchy. At the bottom are Ṣudras and those who are avarṇa (i.e., without a varṇa)—who are outside of the varṇa system and below the lowest rungs of it, excluded from a range of ritual, and hence social, functions and spaces. Interpersonal behavior is guided to a great degree by the logic of the varṇāṣrama system, which the DhS authors attribute to the earliest of the Vedas, the Ṛgveda. Transgressions of these prescribed rules require expiation in the form of prāyascit (repentance) to nullify the karmic demerit accrued through these transgressions. [...] There is also sādhāraṇa dharma, or a common dharma that is applicable to all— for example, respecting elders, protecting the innocent, and so on (Lingat and Derrett 1973).\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EBDJ2WB5\">[Das_et_al 2024, p. 52]</a> “Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
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"comment": "The literature consulted does not provide enough of a sense of what may be considered \"evil\" within the context of Tengrism. \"Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"comment": "\"Those persons who pray to Ahura Mazda daily and live a pious life; who are humble, patient, truth-speakers, and pure of heart; who possess virtues and good characteristics; and who avoid wrath, greediness, jealousy, enmity, lying, stealing, laziness, and asceticism, establish the proper relationship with the spiritual powers and maintain the purity and well-being of the created order of Ahura Mazda. Asceticism, renunciation, celibacy, and fasting have no place in Zoroastrian teaching.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TSXN78UE\">[Nigosian 1993, p. 91]</a>",
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"comment": "The literature consulted does not provide enough of a sense of what may be considered \"evil\" within the context of Tengrism. \"Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"comment": "The literature consulted does not provide enough of a sense of what may be considered \"evil\" within the context of Tengrism. \"Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4CBUW7I\">[Odigan_Stewart 1997]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"tag": "TRS",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
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"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Indeed, karma is the principle on which most moralizing supernatural punishment and reward (MSP) in Buddhism is based. According to doctrine, intentional actions plant a “seed” that bears their moral valence. At some future time, whether in this life or the following one or more reincarnations, this seed bears karmic “fruit,” bringing about outcomes that are good or bad to the extent the action was good or bad. The moral valence of actions may be judged by their conformity with Buddhist ethics, which includes the five precepts (prohibitions on killing, theft, “sexual misconduct,” lying, and intoxication); a set of special rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya); and injunctions such as making charitable donations (dana).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/76FKAHS3\">[Stanford_et_al 2024, p. 106]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 435,
"polity": {
"id": 261,
"name": "cn_tang_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Tang Dynasty I",
"start_year": 617,
"end_year": 763
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Not only religious and cosmic violations, but all manner of social harm disturbs the cosmos: being unfilial toward their father and mother; digging up tombs to steal the valuables of the dead; cheating the blind, the deaf, and the dumb; throwing impure substances into food and drink; killing other beings; accusing and slandering others or spying on their affairs; obstructing roads and letting drains be blocked; stealing and cheating, destroying nature’s riches, and in other ways harming society and the life around them. All these acts cause Heaven and Earth to be upset, leading to irregular weather patterns, eclipses, hurricanes, Earthquakes, floods, droughts, and the like.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 98]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 436,
"polity": {
"id": 264,
"name": "cn_tang_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Tang Dynasty II",
"start_year": 763,
"end_year": 907
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“Not only religious and cosmic violations, but all manner of social harm disturbs the cosmos: being unfilial toward their father and mother; digging up tombs to steal the valuables of the dead; cheating the blind, the deaf, and the dumb; throwing impure substances into food and drink; killing other beings; accusing and slandering others or spying on their affairs; obstructing roads and letting drains be blocked; stealing and cheating, destroying nature’s riches, and in other ways harming society and the life around them. All these acts cause Heaven and Earth to be upset, leading to irregular weather patterns, eclipses, hurricanes, Earthquakes, floods, droughts, and the like.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 98]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 437,
"polity": {
"id": 269,
"name": "cn_ming_dyn",
"long_name": "Great Ming",
"start_year": 1368,
"end_year": 1644
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“The conception of Heaven as the Supreme Being is closely related to the understanding of Heaven as a set of moral principles (yili zhi tian). As a matter of fact, these two aspects are the two closely related sides of Confucian doctrine: Heaven is supreme because it is the embodiment and source of moral virtues, and Heaven can generate and bring out illustrious virtues (in humans) because it is the ultimate principle of transcendence.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPNWGG55\">[Yao 2000, p. 147]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 438,
"polity": {
"id": 1,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_1",
"long_name": "Early Qing",
"start_year": 1644,
"end_year": 1796
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“The conception of Heaven as the Supreme Being is closely related to the understanding of Heaven as a set of moral principles (yili zhi tian). As a matter of fact, these two aspects are the two closely related sides of Confucian doctrine: Heaven is supreme because it is the embodiment and source of moral virtues, and Heaven can generate and bring out illustrious virtues (in humans) because it is the ultimate principle of transcendence.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPNWGG55\">[Yao 2000, p. 147]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 439,
"polity": {
"id": 2,
"name": "cn_qing_dyn_2",
"long_name": "Late Qing",
"start_year": 1796,
"end_year": 1912
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“The conception of Heaven as the Supreme Being is closely related to the understanding of Heaven as a set of moral principles (yili zhi tian). As a matter of fact, these two aspects are the two closely related sides of Confucian doctrine: Heaven is supreme because it is the embodiment and source of moral virtues, and Heaven can generate and bring out illustrious virtues (in humans) because it is the ultimate principle of transcendence.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPNWGG55\">[Yao 2000, p. 147]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 440,
"polity": {
"id": 251,
"name": "cn_western_han_dyn",
"long_name": "Western Han Empire",
"start_year": -202,
"end_year": 9
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“The conception of Heaven as the Supreme Being is closely related to the understanding of Heaven as a set of moral principles (yili zhi tian). As a matter of fact, these two aspects are the two closely related sides of Confucian doctrine: Heaven is supreme because it is the embodiment and source of moral virtues, and Heaven can generate and bring out illustrious virtues (in humans) because it is the ultimate principle of transcendence.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPNWGG55\">[Yao 2000, p. 147]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 441,
"polity": {
"id": 253,
"name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn",
"long_name": "Eastern Han Empire",
"start_year": 25,
"end_year": 220
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "“The conception of Heaven as the Supreme Being is closely related to the understanding of Heaven as a set of moral principles (yili zhi tian). As a matter of fact, these two aspects are the two closely related sides of Confucian doctrine: Heaven is supreme because it is the embodiment and source of moral virtues, and Heaven can generate and bring out illustrious virtues (in humans) because it is the ultimate principle of transcendence.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPNWGG55\">[Yao 2000, p. 147]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 443,
"polity": {
"id": 425,
"name": "cn_northern_song_dyn",
"long_name": "Northern Song",
"start_year": 960,
"end_year": 1127
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "present",
"comment": "In Daoism: “Not only religious and cosmic violations, but all manner of social harm disturbs the cosmos: being unfilial toward their father and mother; digging up tombs to steal the valuables of the dead; cheating the blind, the deaf, and the dumb; throwing impure substances into food and drink; killing other beings; accusing and slandering others or spying on their affairs; obstructing roads and letting drains be blocked; stealing and cheating, destroying nature’s riches, and in other ways harming society and the life around them. All these acts cause Heaven and Earth to be upset, leading to irregular weather patterns, eclipses, hurricanes, Earthquakes, floods, droughts, and the like.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG935ZIK\">[Kohn 2009, p. 98]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 444,
"polity": {
"id": 245,
"name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn",
"long_name": "Jin",
"start_year": -780,
"end_year": -404
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 445,
"polity": {
"id": 889,
"name": "cn_qi_spring_autumn",
"long_name": "Qi - Spring and Autumn",
"start_year": -770,
"end_year": -489
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 446,
"polity": {
"id": 890,
"name": "cn_qi_warring_states",
"long_name": "Qi - Warring States",
"start_year": -488,
"end_year": -222
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 447,
"polity": {
"id": 423,
"name": "cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states",
"long_name": "Eastern Zhou",
"start_year": -475,
"end_year": -256
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 448,
"polity": {
"id": 424,
"name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states",
"long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty",
"start_year": -445,
"end_year": -225
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 449,
"polity": {
"id": 250,
"name": "cn_qin_emp",
"long_name": "Qin Empire",
"start_year": -338,
"end_year": -207
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": true,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“Tian never evolved into a fully moralizing supernatural force/agent. According to conflicting interpretations, Tian could either punish transgressions directly or leave enforcement to human agents, and punishment could be either individual-focused or collective. Furthermore, all these [moralizing supernatural enforcement] aspects are most relevant at the level of the state and elites. Popular religion included its own versions of [moralizing supernatural enforcement], enforced by a variety of spirits. In common with many other religious traditions described in this volume, ritual transgressions were not clearly distinguished from antisocial behavior.\" <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/59DP8DST\">[Levine_et_al 2025, p. 261]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 450,
"polity": {
"id": 465,
"name": "uz_khwarasm_1",
"long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm",
"start_year": -1000,
"end_year": -521
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 451,
"polity": {
"id": 466,
"name": "uz_koktepe_2",
"long_name": "Koktepe II",
"start_year": -750,
"end_year": -550
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 452,
"polity": {
"id": 463,
"name": "kz_andronovo",
"long_name": "Andronovo",
"start_year": -1800,
"end_year": -1200
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 453,
"polity": {
"id": 464,
"name": "uz_koktepe_1",
"long_name": "Koktepe I",
"start_year": -1400,
"end_year": -1000
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Although there is no direct evidence of belief in [moralistic supernatural enforcement] being present or absent in Sogdiana until the emergence of Zoroastrianism, it is more likely that it was absent in all preceding polities because comparison between two well-documented religious traditions that likely derived from it (Vedic Hinduism and Zoroastrianism) allows for partial reconstruction of the Indo-Iranian religion, which was likely prevalent in this region at this time. This comparison suggests that the god Mithra (one of many in the pantheon) may have been believed to reward honesty and reciprocity and punish those who transgressed against either. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HR9GKMX\">[Thieme 1960, pp. 307-309]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T4GZD9KV\">[Gnoli_Yarshater 2004]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9AVQEENP\">[Gnoli_Lubin_Jones 2005]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 455,
"polity": {
"id": 129,
"name": "af_hephthalite_emp",
"long_name": "Hephthalite Empire",
"start_year": 408,
"end_year": 561
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "SSP",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "unknown",
"comment": "“We have no evidence of the specific content of these religious beliefs but it is quite possible that they belonged to the Iranian (or Indo-Iranian) group.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7MTFU42T\">[Litvinsky_et_al 1996, p. 147]</a> However, sources on Indo-Iranian beliefes tend to privilege much earlier time periods.",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 456,
"polity": {
"id": 354,
"name": "ye_himyar_2",
"long_name": "Himyar II",
"start_year": 378,
"end_year": 525
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "IFR",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "Only a single known inscription (MB 2002 I-28) describes an instance of divine punishment that may be interpreted as moralistic (the transgression had been selling food to neighbouring communities during bad harvest years, and selling enslaved people from one’s own community to other communities), suggesting that this was thought to be a rare event. In this instance, the people of Marib were believed to have been punished for enslaving their own kin and selling them to foreigners. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F54SC2DB\">[Multhoff_et_al 2008]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IR3ESBXZ\">[Maraqten 2006]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 458,
"polity": {
"id": 70,
"name": "it_roman_principate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate",
"start_year": -31,
"end_year": 284
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The afterlife punishments included in Vergil's Aeneid (6.724-51) suggest that a broader range of transgressions could be punished, especially those which threaten the social order, but Vergil still emphasizes offenses against kin and those who abuse formal relationships of reciprocity. A highly moralizing author of the early Imperial period mustered only a few examples of direct punishment, including one case of murdering guests (Valerius Maximus Mem. 9.2 ext. 3). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4I2NURPX\">[Valerius_Maximus 2000]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IW9KB4NM\">[Vergil_Fairclough 1916]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 459,
"polity": {
"id": 71,
"name": "tr_roman_dominate",
"long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate",
"start_year": 285,
"end_year": 394
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "The afterlife punishments included in Vergil's Aeneid (6.724-51) suggest that a broader range of transgressions could be punished, especially those which threaten the social order, but Vergil still emphasizes offenses against kin and those who abuse formal relationships of reciprocity. A highly moralizing author of the early Imperial period mustered only a few examples of direct punishment, including one case of murdering guests (Valerius Maximus Mem. 9.2 ext. 3). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IW9KB4NM\">[Vergil_Fairclough 1916]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4I2NURPX\">[Valerius_Maximus 2000]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 460,
"polity": {
"id": 183,
"name": "it_roman_rep_2",
"long_name": "Middle Roman Republic",
"start_year": -264,
"end_year": -133
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“According to J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz (1979: 39–54), the Roman list [of transgressions punished by the gods] included (1) direct affront to a deity, such as thieving from the sanctuary or omitting a required rite; (2) violations of fides, such as breaking oaths or a wide range of less formal agreements; (3) incest; (4) kin murder, at least from 200 BCE on; and (5) unjust war. For the latter, Liebeschuetz cites Livy (5.21, 9.1) as cases in which military disaster came as the result of broken fides.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 46]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 461,
"polity": {
"id": 184,
"name": "it_roman_rep_3",
"long_name": "Late Roman Republic",
"start_year": -133,
"end_year": -31
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“According to J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz (1979: 39–54), the Roman list [of transgressions punished by the gods] included (1) direct affront to a deity, such as thieving from the sanctuary or omitting a required rite; (2) violations of fides, such as breaking oaths or a wide range of less formal agreements; (3) incest; (4) kin murder, at least from 200 BCE on; and (5) unjust war. For the latter, Liebeschuetz cites Livy (5.21, 9.1) as cases in which military disaster came as the result of broken fides.” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 46]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 462,
"polity": {
"id": 182,
"name": "it_roman_rep_1",
"long_name": "Early Roman Republic",
"start_year": -509,
"end_year": -264
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The gods were the guarantors of the welfare of the state and the continuance of the social order. Thus, crimes that threatened the social order, such as murder and incest, were especially offensive to the gods and liable to bring misfortune upon the group through violation of the pax deorum (Gaughan 2010: 9, 20). Such crimes required expiation through the ritual and purificatory punishment of the offenders. Those who killed their parents, for example, were traditionally sewn up in a sack and cast into water, a procedure recognizable as a form of prodigy expiation (Cloud 1971: 1–18; Gaughan 2010: 85).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6N4XAUD7\">[Larson_et_al 2024, p. 46]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 463,
"polity": {
"id": 109,
"name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1",
"long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I",
"start_year": -305,
"end_year": -217
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had more limited domains of moral concern than some Egyptian deities; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
},
{
"id": 464,
"polity": {
"id": 207,
"name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
"long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
"start_year": -217,
"end_year": -30
},
"year_from": null,
"year_to": null,
"tag": "TRS",
"is_disputed": false,
"is_uncertain": false,
"name": "Moralizing_enforcement_is_broad",
"coded_value": "absent",
"comment": "“The Greek concept of dikē (δίκη, justice) overlaps with ma’at but differs from it in key ways. Both were concerned with ensuring proper conduct and maintaining social order, and applied equally to rulers and ruled. However, although Greek gods were sometimes depicted as caring about dikē, they had more limited domains of moral concern than some Egyptian deities; they generally had to be persuaded or “harnessed” through oaths and offerings to enforce human morality (Larson 2023).” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZQ2347BZ\">[Cioni_et_al 2025, p. 82]</a>",
"description": ""
}
]
}